Supernatural as Natural · A Biocultural Approach to Religion by Winkelman, Michael -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Special Features Preface Introduction: Biocultural Frameworks for the Study of Religiosity

Religion’s Family Resemblances Religion, Spirituality, and Religiosity Overview of Book

1 Anthropology and the Study of Religion

Introduction: The Anthropological Study of Religion

Anthropology and the Biocultural Approach Anthropological Approaches and Perspectives: Becoming Aware of Our Biases

Western Perspectives on Religion

Early Christian Thinking: “There Is But One Path to God” Rationalist Thinking: “There Are Many Paths to God” Comparative Thinking: “Religions Are Objects for Study”

The Development of Anthropological Approaches to Religion

Historical Particularism and Cultural Relativism: The Foundations of American Anthropology Cultural Relativism

The Four-Field Approach of Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology

The Components of Culture Methods of Cultural Anthropology: Ethnography and Ethnology The Emic and Etic Distinction Universal Expressions of Religiosity

Archaeology

Ethnographic and Ethnological Analogy

Linguistic Anthropology

Unique Features of Human Language Language and Experience: The Sapir—Whorf Hypothesis Historical Linguistics

Biological Anthropology

How Humans Differ Genes and Religiosity Key Evolutionary Concepts Side-Effects of Evolution Evaluating Adaptations, Exaptations, and Spandrels The Importance of Evolutionary Side-Effects for Understanding Religiosity

Conclusions: The Biocultural Approach to the Study of Religion

2 Our World and How We Know It

Introduction: Science and Religion as Ways of Knowing

A Very Short History of the Universe The Mind: How We Know the World Sensation and Perception: Our Windows on the World Cognition: Making Sense of the View The Limitations of Our View of the World Five Kinds of Human Reality

The Universe The Species World The Perceptual World The Cultural World The Personal World

Summary: Our Knowledge of the Universe

Science, Religion, and the Universe

Analogies and Metaphors as Models for Thought Is Science Rational and Religion Irrational? The Nature of Scientific and Religious Assumptions Analyzing Scientific and Religious Models of Reality Science and Religion as Open and Closed Systems of Thought Science and the Experimental Method

Mysticism as Science

Neurophenomenological Perspectives on Transpersonal Development Neurotheology: Looking for God in the Brain

Conclusions: Comparing Science and Religion

3 Consciousness and Spiritual Experiences

Introduction: The Experience of Religion

Understanding Religion as Experiences: The Universality of Mysticism

What Is Consciousness?

The Four Basic Modes of Human Consciousness The Waking Mode as “Baseline” Consciousness The Autonomic Nervous System and the Continuum of Cosciousness

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Altered States of Consciousness as Extreme Variation in the Autonomic Nervous System

The Biological Bases of Spiritual Consciousness: The Integrative Mode of Consciousness

Religious States in the Integrative Mode of Consciousness

The Shamanic State The Meditative State The Possession State

Is Possession Pathological? Spirituality and DSM-IV “Spiritual Emergencies” Temporal Lobe Syndromes: A Religious Personality? Origins of Religious Experiences: Natural Induction of the Integrative Mode of Consciousness

Trauma and Near-Death Experiences Fasting as a Natural Inducer of Altered States of Consciousness The Roles of Dreams in Religious Experiences

The Psychobiology of Dreaming Lucid Dreaming

The Handsome Lake Revitalization Movement Psychoactive Substances and Spiritual Experiences

Neurotransmitter Bases of Psychedelic Effects

Hypnosis and Mystical Experience

Adaptive Aspects of the Integrative Mode of Consciousness Conclusions: Religious Experience as Personal Experience of Biology

4 Ritualized Animal Behaviors and the Roots of Religiosity

Introduction: Ritualized Behavior in the Animal World

Why Study Ritualized Animal Behaviors? The Animal Roots of Human Religiosity: Ritualized Behaviors

What Are Rituals?

Basic Elements of Ritualized Animal Behaviors

Sequences of Ritualized Behavior

The Triune Brain and Ritualized Behavior

Animal Brains and Ritualized Animal Behaviors

Ritualized Animal Behaviors

Reptiles Mammals

Wolves

Chimpanzees

Grooming Mating Behavior Dominance and Aggression Communication Mechanisms: Vocalizations and Drumming Threat Displays as Graded and Maximal Chimpanzee Ritualized Behaviors Reassurance Behaviors: Grooming and Reconciliation

The Evolution of Ritual Behaviors

Group and Intergroup Ritualized Behaviors in the Great Apes

Emotional Vocalizations Alpha Male Displays

Primate Preadaptations for Human Religiosity

Adaptive Features of Chimpanzee Threat Displays

Identifying the Roots of Human Religiosity in Ritualized Behaviors

Comparing the Minimal Elements of Chimpanzee Ritualized Behaviors and Human Rituals Is There a “Family of Resemblances” Link with Chimpanzee Ritualized Behaviors?

Conclusions: The Animal Roots of Human Ritual Activity

5 The Origins of Shamanism and the Flowering of Religiosity

Introduction: Evidence for the Emergence of New Forms of Ritual

Interpretation in Archaeology: Ethnographic and Ethnological Analogy

What Are Shamans?

Shamanic Universals in Biological Perspective Shamanic Continuities with and Differences from Chimpanzee Ritualized Behaviors

The Evolutionary Origins of Spiritual Experiences

Bipedalism and Mystical Experience: The Runner’s High Opioids in Human Evolution Opioid Evolution in Humans

Adaptive Advantages of Opioid Systems

Psilocybin-Containing Mushrooms as Sources of Spiritual Experiences

Features of Mushroom Uses and Effects Human-Chimpanzee Divergences in Serotonergic Binding

Toolmaking and the Emergence of Hominan Culture

The Implications of Mimesis for Religion

Dance

The Domestication of Fire Cannibalism Early Hominan Ritual and Spirituality The Expansion of Religiosity Among the Later Hominans

Burial and Death Rituals Art and Adornment Cave Rituals

Summary: Religiosity Among the Late Hominans

Shamanism and Human Cultural Evolution

Cave Art as Evidence of Shamanism

The Cave as the Shamanic Lower WorldAnimal Representations Human Representations

Cave Art and Shamanic Consciousness Human Cognitive Evolution: The Emergence of Specialized Intelligences The Emergence of Cognitive Fluidity Cognitive Fluidity and Shamanism

Ritual Displays and the Dream World: Accessing Presentational Symbolism Shamanic Flight as Neurognostic and Symbolic Reference Animal Powers as Personal and Social Identities Human Identity in Nature The Networks of Perception and Consciousness

Summary: Cognitive Adaptation in Shamanism

“Complex Hunter–Gatherer Religions”: The Rise of Ancestor Cults and Priests

Fertility Cults Animal Cults and Ancestor Worship Commodity Items Public Feasting Megalithic Architecture Elite Initiation Summary of “Feasting Religions” The Socioeconomic Transformation of Shamans and Shamanistic Healers

Priests Witches and Sorcerers Shaman/Healers Mediums Healers Shamanistic Healers

Conclusions: The Evolutionary Origins of Religion

6 The Origins and Functions of Religious Healing

Introduction: Religious Healing as a Cultural Universal

Universals of Religious Healing: Shamanistic Healers Scientific Evidence of the Effects of Religion on Health

Religion as a Natural Healing Mechanism

The Co-evolution of Community Healing and Religiosity

Evolution of the “Sickness and Healing” Response Healing Through Community Ritual Bonding and Opioid Release

The Health Effects of Social Support

Spirit Beings as a Mechanism for Coping with Stress Symbolic Effects on the Autonomic Nervous System and Stress Responses The Roles of Meaning in Coping and Stress Management Religious Production of Healing Emotions: “Psychophysiological Symbolim”

Music and Healing

Music and the Brain Healing Processes in Music

Hypnosis and Placebo Effects as a Foundation for Religious Healing

Religious Healing as the Placebo Effect

Placebo Mechanisms Information and Meaning as Placebo Mechanisms

Adaptive Mechanisms in Pre-shamanic Healing Systems Shamanic Expansion of Religious Healing Adaptations

Meaning and Metaphoric Processes in Religious Healing

Shamanistic Religious Rituals as Self- and Emotional Healing

Soul Loss and Recovery Possession Meditative Detachment

Healing Through Ritual Transformation of the Self

Healing Through Spirit Attachment

Conclusions: Shamanic Healing Process

7 Religion and Cognition: How Religion Shapes the Way We Think

Introduction: Religious Ideas and the Structure of the Universe

Cosmology: Religious Models of the Universe

Pantheon Myths Substantive Beliefs

Animism: The Belief in Spirit Beings

What Are Spirits? Why Do Humans Believe in Spirits?

Animacy Detection Spirits as Models of “Self” and “Mind” Concepts of “Others”

Are Spirits Just Exaptations?

Spirits as Counterintuitive Principles

Summary: The Adaptive Advantages of Spirits

Myths and the Universe

Early Ideas About Myths

Functional Perspectives on Myths Symbolist Perspectives on Myth

Myth and Ecological Relations

Food Taboos and Religion

Mircea Eliade and the Language of Myth Myths and Archetypes Archetypes as Neurognostic Structures

Summary of Archetypes

Myth-Telling as an Adaptive Feature of Human Nature

Substantive Beliefs

Sympathetic Magic as Substantive Belief

Sympathetic Magic as Adaptive Cognition with Survival Value

Empirical Approaches to Substantive Religious Beliefs and Experiences Psychical Research: The Science of Spiritual Experiences

Anomalous Experiences as Substantive Religious Beliefs

Conclusions: Spirit Concepts as Indigenous Psychology

8 Religion and Emotions: How Religion Shapes How We Feel

Introduction: Religion and Socialization

Religion as an Emotional Response

Sacred Emotions

The Emotional Adaptiveness of Magic and Religion

The Domains of Magic The Origins of Magic The Emotional Adaptiveness of Magic in Human Life

Management of Death Anxiety

Sigmund Freud and the Roles of the Unconscious in Religion

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Model: The Unconscious and Dreams

Dreams: The Royal Road to the Unconscious Misattributing Individual Dynamics to Society

The Oedipal Complex: The Patricidal Origins of Religion and Society?

Religion, Sex, and Gender

The Religious Regulation of Sexual Behavior

Marriage Rituals: Controlling Sexuality and Reducing Aggression

How Religion Shapes Our Development

The Human Life Cycle in Biological Perspective The Cultural Entrainment of Biology

How Religious Rituals “Work” The Roles of Myth in Socialization

Religion in Emotional Socialization

Emotional Coherence

Rites of Passage Welcoming a New Person into Society

Rituals of Social Identity

Rituals of Adult Transition: Becoming a Man or Woman

Adolescence as an “Experience Expectant” Period for Religious Transmission Gender-Specific Adolescent Socialization

Religion as an Evolutionary By-Product? Attachment Theory and Religion

God as an Attachment Figure Summary: The Adaptive Emotional and Socialization Practices of Religion

Conclusions: The Religious Shaping of Our Emotions

9 Religion and Society: How Religion Shapes Our Relations with Others

Introduction: The Social Bases of Religion

Religion, Power, and Society A Sociobiology of Religion?

The Evolutionary Origins of Human Social Organization and Religion

The Emergence of Human Political Organization Our Egalitarian Heritage

Shamanistic Healers as Informal Political Leaders

The Rise of Inequality: Transegalitarian Political-Religious Evolution

Durkeim and the Social Symbolic Approaches to Religion

Totemism as the Origin of Religion Animal Species in Human Thought and Social Classification Functionalism: What Has Religion Done for You Lately?

Structural Functionalism in the Anthropology of Religion

Religion as a Cultural System

Symbol System Moods and Motivations Worldview: A General Conception of Existence Socialization: Giving Conceptions an Aura of Factuality Conviction: Making Religious Motivations Realistic

Summary

Religion and Social Control

The Formal Leadership of Priests Conflict Perspectives: Religion as Social Control and the “Opiate of the Masses”

The Social Origins of God-Concepts and Sacred Morality

Totemism as a Source of Deity Concepts The “Birth of the Gods” in Sovereign Groups

Ancestor Worship: Kin as Gods

Gods and Morality Morality as an Evolved Capacity Religion as Extensions of Ritualized Functions of Enhancing Cooperation Religion as “Family Values”

Religion as an Adaptive Social Mechanism

Religion as a Group Selection Mechanism

Judaic Adaptations: Group Exclusion Mechanisms Christian Adaptations: Group Inclusion Mechanisms

Religion’s Effects on Survival Summary: The Adaptive Social Features of Religion

Conclusions: Durkheim’s Legacy in Understanding Religion as a Social and Symbolic Phenomenon

10 Supernatural Evil

Introduction: Supernatural Evil as a Religious Universal Anthropological Views of Sorcery and Witchcraft

Witchcraft and Sorcery Among the Zande Witchcraft and Sorcery Among the Dobu Can a Hex Kill? The Biological Bases of “Voodoo Death” Symbolic Effects on the Nervous System: Stress and Nocebo Phenomena

The Physiological Response to Stress: The General Adaptation Syndrome Nocebo Effects

Supernatural Human Evils and Social Conditions Functional and Evolutionary Assessments of Beliefs in Supernatural Evil

The Sorcerer/Witch as a Social Universal of Religion

The Shamanic Roots of Sorcery and Witchcraft

The Dark Side of Shamanism

Linguistic Roots for the Shamanic Origins of Witchcraft

Witchcraft and Heresy in Europe

The Inquisition Begins The Spanish Inquisition The Salem Witchcraft Trials

The Ergot Hypothesis

Summary: Supernatural Evil and Outside Groups: The Limits of Religious Adaptation?

Human Sacrifice

Cross-Cultural Assessments of Human Sacrifice Aztec Human Sacrifice in Cross-Cultural Perspective Asante and Modern Perspectives: Sacrament or Capital Punishment? Summary: Biological and Social-Ecological Determinants of Human Sacrifice

Conclusions: The Limits of Religious Adaptations?

11 Conclusions: Religion in Evolutionary Perspective

Introduction: Does Religion Have a Future? The Conceptual Frameworks of Evolution

The Emergent Nature of the Universe

Religiosity as an Emergent Phenomena Symbolism and Spirituality

Multilevel Selection Processes in Evolution Evaluating Adaptations, Exaptations, and Spandrels

Proximate and Ultimate Mechanisms

Assessing the Evolutionary Status of Religious Features

Ritualized Animal Behaviors: The Preadaptations and Origins of Religiosity Mystical Experiences and Altered States of Consciousness

Managing Consciousness Spirits as Spandrels of ASC

Shamanism

Healing Functions

Religion as a n Emotional Adaptation The Supernatural as a Cognitive Adaptation

Supernatural Agent Concepts Supernatural Concepts as Social Mechanisms The Explanatory Functions of Religiosity: Myth and the Structure of the Universe Socialization

Social Politics and Religion Witchcraft, Voodoo Death, and Human Sacrifice: Adaptation or Maladaptation?

Why Must We Learn to Disagree?

The Five Warning Signs of a “Bad Religion” Moving Beyond Exclusivism

Joseph Smith and the Birth of Mormonism Bahá’u’lláh and the Rise of the Bahá’í Faith

Finding a Way to Disagree: Pluralism

Conclusions: A Universalist Perspective

Appendix References Photo Credits Author Index Subject Index

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