Psychology · An Introduction by Swartz, L. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Title Page Copyright Table of Contents List of contributors Acknowledgements How to use this book PART 1: Introduction to psychology

CHAPTER 1: Finding out about people

Introduction Finding out about psychology Psychological terminology

Subjects, respondents, participants or informants? Patients, clients or consumers?

Ethics in psychology Contemporary perspectives in psychology

The psychoanalytic perspective The behavioural perspective The humanist perspective Positive psychology The biopsychological perspective The cognitive perspective The sociocultural perspective The community psychology perspective

Psychology for Africa The approach of this book The organisation of this book What is different about this book?

CHAPTER 2: Research methods in psychology

Introduction Step 1: Planning

Selecting a research topic Reviewing existing literature Formulating the research problem and posing the research questions

Step 2: Research methods

Types of research studies Types of research design Using variables in the design of a quantitative research study Units of analysis Hypotheses Questioning the relevance of variables, definitions and formal hypotheses Time frame Sampling

Representative samples The sampling frame Probability sampling Non-probability sampling How many is enough?

Step 3: Data collection

Levels of measurement

Nominal scales Ordinal scales Interval scales Ratio scales

Methods for gathering data

Observation Interviews Questionnaires Focus group interviews Other methods of gathering data

Step 4: Analysis of data

Analysis of quantitative data

Entering data into a database Descriptive data analysis Measures of central tendency Measures of variability

Analysis of qualitative data

Transcription of data Thematic analysis, narrative analysis and discourse analysis Verification of qualitative data

Step 5: Reporting findings

Finding errors Finding bias

Interviewer bias Participant bias Analyst bias Researcher bias

The issue of objectivity and reflexivity Research reports

The organisation of a research report The introduction The methodology section The results section The discussion section The references The abstract, executive summary and appendices

Step 6: Theory building Conclusion

References for Part 1

PART 2: Developmental psychology

CHAPTER 3: Early and middle childhood

Introduction Physical Development

Prenatal period

Stages of development Factors influencing prenatal development

Neonatal period

Perceptual development

Preschool period Middle childhood

Cognitive development

Neonatal and preschool periods

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Language development

Middle childhood

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development in middle childhood Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development Moral development

Social and emotional development

Neonatal period

Temperament Bonding between infants and caregivers

Preschool period

Separation anxiety and attachment Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development in the neonatal and preschool periods Development of the gender concept Parenting styles Play in the preschool years Early childhood development (ECD) programmes Promoting resilience in children

Middle childhood

Erikson’s psychosocial stage of development in middle childhood Play in middle childhood The development of self-concept and self-esteem Environmental influences on the social development of girls The importance of schools in social development

Conclusion

CHAPTER 4: Adolescence, adulthood and aging

Introduction Physical development

Adolescence Early adulthood

Health risks

Middle adulthood

Health risks

Late adulthood/old age

Health risks

Cognitive development

Adolescence

Piaget’s stage of cognitive development in adolescence

Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood

Social and emotional development

Adolescence

Erikson’s psychosocial stage of development in adolescence Patterns of identity formation Adolescents’ relationships with their community, family and peers Gender and sexual identity Risk-taking behaviours

Early adulthood

Marriage and partnerships Parenthood Work

Middle adulthood

The life cycle squeeze

Late adulthood

Retirement and economic adjustments Family and social roles Death and dying

Conclusion

References for Part 2

PART 3: Personality

CHAPTER 5: Theories of personality

Introduction The psychoanalytic approach

Freud’s view on personality development

Life instinct and death instinct The conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious levels The structure of personality: the id, the ego and the superego The psychosexual stages of personality development Evaluating Freud’s theory

The neopsychoanalytic approach

Jung’s view on personality development

The libido The structure of the psyche: the ego, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious Archetypes Psychological types Evaluating Jung’s theory

The life span approach

Erikson’s view on personality development

The psychosocial stages of development Evaluating Erikson’s theory

The behaviourist approach

Skinner’s view on personality development

Respondent behaviour Operant behaviour Evaluating Skinner’s theory

The trait approach

Cattell’s view on personality development

The five-factor model of personality Evaluating trait theory

The humanistic approach

Maslow’s view on personality development

Hierarchy of needs Evaluating Maslow’s theory

The cognitive approach

Kelly’s view on personality development

Personal constructs Kelly’s fundamental postulate Kelly’s corollaries Evaluating Kelly’s theory

The social learning approach

Bandura’s view on personality development

Modelling and observational learning Reinforcement in observational learning Self-evaluation Evaluating Bandura’s theory

Personality psychology and its relevance in South Africa Personality and culture

How does culture influence personality? Culture and locus of control African understandings of personality Synoptic theory of the modern African self

Evaluating Nwoye’s theory

Culture and personality – a reflection

Conclusion

CHAPTER 6: Personality assessment

Introduction Ways to assess personality

The clinical interview

Unstructured interviews Semi-structured interviews Structured interviews

Objective personality assessment Projective personality assessment

Criticisms of personality assessment

Tests are dehumanising Tests invade privacy Tests can be biased Tests may be culturally inappropriate

The reliability and validity of psychological measurement instruments

Reliability

Test-retest reliability Parallel forms reliability Split-half reliability Internal consistency reliability

Validity

Content validity Convergent and divergent validity Criterion-related validity Construct validity

Conclusion

References for Part 3

PART 4: Brain and behaviour

CHAPTER 7: Biological and neuropsychology

Introduction The nervous system

The central nervous system

The hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain The left hemisphere and the right hemisphere of the brain

The peripheral nervous system

The somatic nervous system The autonomic nervous system

Neurons and neural transmission

The structure of neurons

The transmission of nerve impulses Synaptic transmission Types of neurotransmitters

The endocrine system Neuropsychology

The early history of neuropsychology The influence of cognitive psychology on neuropsychology Research methods in neuropsychology The qualitative and quantitative approaches to clinical neuropsychology Neuropsychology in South Africa

Conclusion

CHAPTER 8: Sensation and perception

Introduction Sensation and perception Psychophysics

Thresholds Signal detection theory Discriminating between stimuli Adaptation to stimuli

The sensory systems

Vision

Light The structure of the eye The pathway to the brain Visual acuity Colour vision Visual perception

Processing of visual signals in the brain

Primary visual areas Secondary and tertiary visual areas

Hearing

Sound The structure of the ear The pathway to the brain Theories of hearing Locating sounds

Taste Smell Touch The kinaesthetic sense The vestibular sense

Conclusion

References for Part 4

PART 5: Cognitive psychology

CHAPTER 9: Learning and conditioning

Introduction What is learning? Classical conditioning

Factors affecting conditioning

Contiguity Extinction and spontaneous recovery Generalisation Discrimination

Higher-order conditioning Classical conditioning in everyday life

Phobias Food aversions Advertising Vicarious conditioning

Operant conditioning

Learning an operant response Shaping Principles of reinforcement Reinforcement schedules Punishment

Social (observational) learning theory Alternatives to traditional learning theory Conclusion

CHAPTER 10: Motivation and emotion 226

Introduction Motivation

Homeostasis and brain mechanisms – hunger Types of motive Motivational conflicts – approach or avoid? Motivation based on human needs: a humanist approach Game theory

The prisoner’s dilemma

Emotion: the other side of motivation

Types of emotions The cognitive aspect of emotion Theories of emotion

James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory Schachter-Singer’s cognitive theory Theories of emotion – summary

Conclusion

CHAPTER 11: Thinking

Introduction Representation and thinking

Categories Concepts Prototypes Imagery Schemas, scripts and models

Schemas Scripts Models

The constructivist approach to thinking

Piaget’s perspective on the development of thinking in childhood and adolescence Schaie’s perspective on the development of thinking in adulthood Challenges to the constructivist perspective

The information-processing approach

Comparing the thinking of experts and novices Challenges for the information processing approach

The socio-historical approach

Everyday thinking Challenges to the socio-historical approach

Conclusion

CHAPTER 12: Attention

Introduction Mechanisms underlying selective attention

Broadbent’s filter theory of attention

The dichotic listening task Shadowing The sensory memory store How many channels can penetrate the selective filter? Gray and Wedderburn’s revised dichotic listening task

Treisman’s attenuation theory of attention Treisman’s feature-integration theory Duncan’s theory of selective visual attention

Issues of general importance to attention

Early-selection versus late-selection models of attention Top–down versus bottom–up control of attention One attention system versus multiple attention systems

Conclusion

CHAPTER 13: Memory

Introduction The information-processing approach to understanding memory

Input, storage and output Short-term and long-term memory Working memory Long-term memory The primacy and recency effects Forgetting

The expansion of understandings of memory

Meaning and memory The accuracy of memory The context of remembering Society and culture as context Living in a world of action: a critical approach to memory research

Conclusion

CHAPTER 14: Language

Introduction What is language? Language and thought

Child development studies Cross-cultural studies

The components of language

Sounds Words Sentences Pragmatic context

The process of language acquisition

Language acquisition between birth and the age of one year Language acquisition between the ages of one year and three years Language acquisition from the age of three onwards

Approaches to explaining language acquisition

Learning theory accounts of language acquisition Nativist accounts of language acquisition Current accounts of language acquisition

Language in South African society Conclusion

CHAPTER 15: Intelligence

Introduction A brief history of intelligence testing in Europe, the US and South Africa The measurement of intelligence Uses of intelligence tests Theories of intelligence

Psychometric theories of intelligence Cognitive theories of intelligence Eclectic theories of intelligence The learning potential theories of intelligence Theories of emotional intelligence

The issues of race and culture in intelligence testing Conclusion

References for Part 5

PART 6: Social psychology

CHAPTER 16: Interpersonal attraction

Introduction Internal determinants of attraction

The role of basic needs in interpersonal attraction Can our emotions and moods influence our attractions?

External determinants of attraction

Proximity Similarity Physical attractiveness Reciprocity effect

Theories of interpersonal attraction

Social exchange theory Equity theory Evolutionary theory Sociocultural theory

Romantic love

Types of romantic love

Attachment style combinations Loneliness

Can technological advancement curb the spread of loneliness?

Conclusion

CHAPTER 17: Group concepts

Introduction Reasons for group belonging Group definitions Types of social groups

In-groups and out-groups Primary groups, secondary groups and reference groups

Characteristics of a small group

Purpose Norms Roles Communication Status Cohesiveness

Stages of group formation Dynamics within a small group Social influence

Types of social influence

Conformity Minority influence Compliance Obedience

Levels at which social influence can be analysed Explaining intergroup relations by focusing on different levels of analysis

Individual-level explanations of intergroup relations Situational-level explanations of intergroup relations Positional-level explanations of intergroup relations Ideological-level explanations of intergroup relations

Conclusion

CHAPTER 18: Poverty and ethnicity

Introduction The negative effects of poverty The psychological experience of poverty

Hopelessness Uncertainty about the future Alienation from mainstream society

The other side of the coin The future of poverty Poverty and ethnicity Ethnicity Definitions of related psychological concepts

Ethnocentrism Attitudes Stereotypes Prejudice Discrimination

Ethnicity is both social and psychological Ethnicity is contested Ethnicity relies on sociocultural symbols Ethnicity sustains social inequality in times of conflict The relationship between the social and the psychological

Ideology and its functions Ideology, ethnicity and psychology

The racialisation of ethnicity

Defining racism The relationship between racism and ethnicity

The politicisation of ethnicity

Anti-Islamism and ethnicity Anti-Semitism and ethnicity Nationalism and ethnicity

Conclusion

CHAPTER 19: Sex, gender and sexuality

Introduction Psychology and gender Theories that account for gender/sex differences

Biological accounts Psychoanalytic theory Social learning theory Cognitive developmental approaches Gender schema theory Social constructionism

Gender in society

Violence against women

Feminism

A crisis in feminism

A new masculinity Conclusion

CHAPTER 20: Violence, traumatic stress, peacemaking and peacebuilding

Introduction What precisely is violence? Types of violence

Domestic violence Violence for material gain Sexual violence State and collective violence Self-directed violence

Theories of violence

Socio-biological explanations Social learning explanations Group explanations

The effects of violence at multiple levels

Fragmentation Disempowerment

Traumatic stress as an effect of violence at an individual level

Re-experiencing symptoms Avoidance symptoms Arousal symptoms Alterations in cognition and mood

Violence prevention and recovery

Individual-level interventions Small-group-level interventions Community-level interventions Societal-level interventions

Peace psychology Peacemaking

Conflict resolution The cultural context of peacemaking Reconciliation within the peace framework

Peacebuilding

Dominant themes in peacebuilding

Challenges to dominant cultural discourses The honouring of multiple voices and the co-construction of social change The adoption of an activist agenda The sustainable satisfaction of basic human needs

Actions that psychologists can employ to promote peace Conclusion

References for Part 6

PART 7: Psychology and health

CHAPTER 21: Risk behaviour and stress

Introduction An ecological-systems approach to understanding risk behaviour

The individual level

The health belief model The stages of change (transtheoretical) model The theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behaviour

The interpersonal level

Social-cognitive model

The community level

Social capital

The societal level

Cultural perspectives Structuralist perspectives

Stress

Defining stress

Defining stress in terms of physiological reactions and cognitive processes Defining stress in terms of the interaction between the individual and the environment Defining stress in terms of a bio-psychosocial model of stress Positive stress

The psychophysiology of stress

The autonomic nervous system The endocrine system The general adaptation syndrome

Types of stress Stressors

Life changes or events Daily hassles and uplifts Three sources of internal and external stressors

Stress and illness Coping and stress reduction Social and cultural influences on an individual’s experience of stress Conclusion

CHAPTER 22: Substance abuse and psychopharmacology

Introduction Conceptual understandings of substance dependence Drug dependence and tolerance Understanding the causes of substance use disorders

The risk and resilience approach to substance use disorders among adolescents Individual, interpersonal and environmental aetiological factors

Factors located at the level of the individual Factors located at the level of interpersonal functioning Factors located at the level of the environment

Implications of the risk factor approach for the prevention of substance use disorders

Psychopharmacology The mechanisms of action of psychoactive drugs Drug potency, efficacy and dose Classes, uses and effects of psychoactive drugs

Central nervous system depressants Psychostimulants Anti-depressants and mood stabilisers Anti-psychotics

Conclusion

CHAPTER 23: Nutrition, HIV/AIDS, TB and parasites

Introduction Under- and over-nutrition Nutrition across developmental stages

Nutrition during prenatal development Nutrition during infancy and early childhood Nutrition during the pubertal growth spurt and adolescence Nutrition at older ages

HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB) and parasites The HIV/AIDS pandemic

The extent of the problem The transmission and course of HIV/AIDS Bio-psychosocial influences that increase vulnerability to HIV/AIDS Strategies for the prevention and management of HIV

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) Treatment as prevention (TasP) Voluntary male medical circumcision (VMMC) Needle and syringe programmes (NSPs)

The role of psychology in the prevention and control of HIV/AIDS Voluntary counselling and testing The impact of HIV/AIDS on mental health Nutrition for people living with HIV/AIDS

The TB epidemic

The extent of the problem The transmission and course of TB Bio-psychosocial influences that increase vulnerability to TB Contributions of psychology to the prevention and control of TB The impact of TB on mental health

Parasites

The extent of the problem The transmission and course of parasitic infections

Malaria Bilharzia Other common parasites

Bio-psychosocial influences that increase vulnerability to parasitic infections The role of psychology in the prevention and control of parasitic infections The impact of parasites on mental health

Conclusion

References for Part 7

PART 8: Mental health

CHAPTER 24: Psychopathology

Introduction Defining psychopathology

Statistical deviance Maladaptiveness Personal distress

A brief history of mental illness

The early era The ancient era The Renaissance era The asylum era The scientific era

Alternate understandings of psychopathology Classification of mental illness Current perspectives in psychopathology

The biomedical perspective

Genetic predisposition Abnormal functioning of neurotransmitters Structural abnormalities in the brain

Psychodynamic perspective The cognitive-behaviour perspective The community psychology perspective

The importance of the political context The importance of the social context The importance of the cultural context

Integrated approaches to psychopathology

Common disorders in South Africa

Post-traumatic stress disorder

The aetiology of post-traumatic stress disorder

Schizophrenia

The aetiology of schizophrenia

Conclusion

CHAPTER 25: Psychotherapies

Introduction Psychoanalytic psychotherapy

Key ideas Therapeutic techniques and procedures

Free association Interpretation Dream analysis

Resistance Transference

Cognitive-behavioural therapy

Key ideas Cognitive distortions and the roots of psychological distress Therapeutic techniques and procedures

Experiential and relationship-oriented therapies

Existential therapy Relationship-oriented therapy Key ideas Therapeutic techniques and procedures

Systems and postmodern approaches

Social constructionist narrative therapy Solution-focused brief therapy Feminist therapies Systemic therapeutic approaches

The effectiveness of psychotherapy The role of indigenous therapies in an African context

Cross-cultural issues in therapy Indigenous therapies

Conclusion

CHAPTER 26: Community mental health

Introduction The biomedical approach The bio-psychosocial approach Defining mental health Dimensions of mental health

The interdependence of the dimensions of mental health Personal well-being Relational well-being Collective well-being

Protective factors and risk factors

Protective factors Risk factors

Mental health services in South Africa

The primary health care approach Mental health structures within the public health service

Community mental health

A model of community intervention

Conclusion

References for Part 8

PART 9: Organisational psychology

CHAPTER 27: Organisational psychology

Introduction A history of work

The roots of industrialisation The industrial revolution: transforming work and society A modern industrial world An emerging post-industrial world

A history of organisational psychology

The early years: scientific management The professionalisation of organisational psychology The emergence of alternatives to scientific management The effect of World War II

Contemporary organisational psychology

The changing nature of the workforce The changing nature of work The evolving roles of organisational psychologists

Psychological assessment Counselling Organisational transformation and corporate culture Occupational health and ergonomics Labour relations

Conclusion

References for Part 9

PART 10: African and Eastern psychologies

CHAPTER 28: African and Eastern psychologies

Introduction Introduction to African psychology

The Afrocentric worldview

The interconnectedness and interdependence of all beings The spiritual nature of human beings The communal self The validity of affective knowledge The oneness of mind, body and spirit The value of interpersonal relationships

A critical look at ubuntu African psychology – reflection

Introduction to Eastern psychologies

The Hindu worldview

Atman Reincarnation Karma Maya Yoga Dharma Moksha

The buddhist worldview

The human condition involves suffering Suffering is caused by our desire and attachments End all desires and attachments to stop suffering Dependent origination

Eastern psychologies – reflection

Future directions

Indigenising psychology Embracing psycho-spiritual approaches Growing Afro-Eastern connections

Conclusion

References for Part 10

Answers Index

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