Explorations · Introduction to Astronomy by Arny, Thomas -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Half Title Page Looking Up Illustrations

#1: Northern Circumpolar Constellations #2: Ursa Major #3: M31 & Perseus #4: Summer Triangle #5: Taurus #6: Orion #7: Sagittarius #8: Centaurus and Crux, The Southern Cross #9: Southern Circumpolar Constellations

Title Copyright Brief Contents Contents Preface Successful Semesters Include Connect PREVIEW

The Cosmic Landscape P.1 Earth, Our Home P.2 The Moon P.3 The Planets P.4 The Sun P.5 The Solar System P.6 Astronomical Sizes Astronomy by the Numbers: The Size of a Light-Year P.7 The Milky Way P.8 Galaxy Clusters and the Universe P.9 Forces and Matter P.10 The Still-Unknown Universe P.11 The Scientific Method

CHAPTER 1

The Cycles of the Sky 1.1 The Celestial Sphere

Constellations Daily Motions of the Sun and Stars Annual Motion of the Sun The Ecliptic and the Zodiac Extending Our Reach: Are You an Ophiuchan?

1.2 The Seasons

Solstices, Equinoxes, and the Ecliptic’s Tilt Tracking the Sun’s Changing Position Astronomy by the Numbers: The Angle of the Sun at Noon

1.3 The Moon

Astronomy by the Numbers: Estimating When the Moon Will Rise Extending Our Reach: Observing the Moon

1.4 Eclipses

Appearance of Eclipses Rarity of Eclipses Precession of the Moon’s Orbit

CHAPTER 2

The Rise of Astronomy 2.1 Early Ideas of the Heavens: Classical Astronomy

Earth’s Shape Distances and Sizes of the Sun and Moon Extending Our Reach: The Moon Illusion Arguments for an Earth-Centered Universe Earth’s Size Astronomy by the Numbers: The Diameter–Distance Relation of Astronomical Objects

2.2 The Planets

Explaining the Motion of the Planets Ptolemy Islamic Astronomy Asian Astronomy

2.3 Astronomy in the Renaissance

Nicolaus Copernicus Astronomy by the Numbers: How Copernicus Calculated the Distances to the Planets Tycho Brahe Johannes Kepler Astronomy by the Numbers: Using Kepler’s Third Law for Orbit Calculations

2.4 The Birth of Astrophysics

Galileo Galilei Isaac Newton Extending Our Reach: Astronomy and Astrology New Discoveries New Technologies

ESSAY 1

Backyard Astronomy Learning the Constellations Celestial Mapping Planetary Configurations Your Eyes at Night Imaging the Sky Small Telescopes

CHAPTER 3

Gravity and Motion 3.1 Inertia 3.2 Orbital Motion and Gravity 3.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Acceleration Mass

3.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 3.5 The Law of Gravity 3.6 Measuring an Object’s Mass Using Orbital Motion

Astronomy by the Numbers: Weighing the Sun

3.7 Surface Gravity

Astronomy by the Numbers: The Surface Gravity of Earth and the Moon

3.8 Escape Velocity

Astronomy by the Numbers: The Escape Velocity from the Moon

CHAPTER 4

Light and Atoms 4.1 Properties of Light

The Nature of Light—Waves or Particles? Light and Color Characterizing Electromagnetic Waves by Their Frequency Astronomy by the Numbers: Wavelength and Frequency White Light

4.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Beyond Visible Light

Infrared Radiation Ultraviolet Light Radio Waves and Microwaves X Rays and Gamma Rays Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Radiation

4.3 The Nature of Matter and Heat

The Kelvin Temperature Scale Temperature and Radiation Astronomy by the Numbers: Taking the Temperature of the Sun

4.4 Radiation from Individual Atoms

The Chemical Elements Electron Orbitals The Generation of Light by Atoms

4.5 Formation of a Spectrum

How a Spectrum Is Formed Identifying Atoms by Their Light Types of Spectra Astronomical Spectra Absorption in the Atmosphere Extending Our Reach: Observing the Crab Nebula at Many Wavelengths

4.6 The Doppler Shift: Detecting Motion

ESSAY 2

Special and General Relativity Rest Frames The Speed of Light From Moving Objects The Michelson-Morley Experiment Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity Special Relativity and Space Travel The Twin Paradox Rethinking Gravity General Relativity Gravitational Waves Astronomy by the Numbers: A Lorentz Factor of a Million

CHAPTER 5

Telescopes 5.1 Telescope Fundamentals

Light-Gathering Power Astronomy by the Numbers: Light-Gathering Power of a Telescope Focusing the Light Extending Our Reach: Refraction

5.2 Resolving Power

Astronomy by the Numbers: Resolving Power of a Telescope Interferometers

5.3 Detecting Light

Visible Light Detecting Other Wavelengths

5.4 Observatories on the Ground and in Space

Extending Our Reach: Exploring New Wavelengths: Gamma Rays Going Observing

5.5 Challenges and New Directions in Ground-Based Observing

Atmospheric Blurring Extending Our Reach: Distortion of the Sun’s Shape Light Pollution

CHAPTER 6

Earth 6.1 Earth as a Planet

Shape and Size of Earth Composition of Earth Density of Earth Astronomy by the Numbers: Determining the Internal Composition of Earth

6.2 Earth’s Interior

Probing the Interior with Earthquake Waves Heating and Differentiation of Earth’s Core

6.3 The Age of Earth 6.4 Motions in Earth’s Interior

Convection in Earth’s Interior Plate Tectonics

6.5 Earth’s Magnetic Field

Extending Our Reach: Measuring Reversals of Earth’s Magnetic Field Origin of Earth’s Magnetic Field Magnetic Effects on Cosmic Particles

6.6 Earth’s Atmosphere

Structure of the Atmosphere Composition of the Atmosphere The Greenhouse Effect The Ozone Layer Origin of the Atmosphere

6.7 The Spin of Earth

Air and Ocean Circulation: The Coriolis Effect Precession

ESSAY 3

Keeping Time The Day Hours of Daylight Time Zones Universal Time Daylight Saving Time The Week The Month and Lunar Calendars The Mayan Calendar The Common Calendar Leap Year Moon Lore The Abbreviations a.m., p.m., b.c., a.d., b.c.e., AND c.e.

CHAPTER 7

The Moon 7.1 The Surface of the Moon

Surface Features Origin of Lunar Surface Features Astronomy by the Numbers: The Limits of Telescopic Observations of the Moon

7.2 Structure of the Moon

Crust and Interior The Absence of a Lunar Atmosphere Extending Our Reach: Is the Moon Completely Dead?

7.3 Orbit and Motions of the Moon

The Moon’s Rotation Oddities of the Moon’s Orbit

7.4 Origin and History of the Moon

Extending Our Reach: The Moon Landing “Hoax”

7.5 Tides

Cause of Tides Solar Tides Tidal Braking Astronomy by the Numbers: The Distance of the Moon in the Past

CHAPTER 8

Survey of Solar Systems 8.1 Components of the Solar System

The Sun The Planets Asteroids and Comets The Orbits and Spins of the Planets Astronomy by the Numbers: Bode’s Rule: the Search for Order Composition Differences Between the Inner and Outer Planets Age of the Solar System

8.2 Other Planetary Systems

The Discovery of Planets Beyond the Solar System Transiting Exoplanets Composition of Exoplanets

8.3 Formation of Planetary Systems

Interstellar Clouds Condensation in the Solar Nebula Accretion and Planetesimals Formation of the Planets Extending Our Reach: Direct Formation of Gas Giants Final Stages of Planet Formation Formation of Atmospheres Formation of Satellite Systems Cleaning Up the Solar System Migrating Planets and the Late Heavy Bombardment

CHAPTER 9

The Terrestrial Planets 9.1 Mercury

The Surface of Mercury Mercury’s Temperature and Atmosphere Mercury’s Interior Mercury’s Rotation

9.2 Venus

The Venusian Atmosphere The Runaway Greenhouse Effect The Surface of Venus The Interior of Venus Rotation of Venus

9.3 Mars

The Surface of Mars Water on Mars Extending Our Reach: Analyzing Martian Geology The Martian Atmosphere The Martian Interior The Martian Moons Life on Mars?

9.4 Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different?

Role of Mass and Radius Role of Internal Activity Role of Sunlight Role of Water Content Role of Biological Processes

CHAPTER 10

The Outer Planets 10.1 Jupiter

Jupiter’s Outer Atmosphere Jupiter’s Interior Circulation of Jupiter’s Atmosphere Jupiter’s Rings Jupiter’s Moons

10.2 Saturn

Saturn’s Appearance and Structure Saturn’s Rings Origin of Planetary Rings The Roche Limit Saturn’s Moons

10.3 Uranus

Uranus’s Structure Uranus’s Odd Tilt Uranus’s Rings and Moons

10.4 Neptune

Neptune’s Structure and Atmosphere Neptune’s Rings and Moons

CHAPTER 11

Small Bodies Orbiting the Sun 11.1 Meteors, Meteoroids, and Meteorites

Heating of Meteoroids Types of Meteorites

11.2 Asteroids

Size and Shape Composition Origin of Asteroids Asteroid Orbits Extending Our Reach: Oumuamua: An Interstellar Asteroid

11.3 Pluto, Plutoids, and Beyond

Pluto The Plutoids Astronomy by the Numbers: Pluto’s Escape Velocity

11.4 Comets

The Appearance and Structure of Comets Formation of the Comet’s Tails Composition of Comets Astronomy by the Numbers: Calculating Comet Halley’s Orbit Origin of Comets Short-Period Comets and the Kuiper Belt Fate of Short-Period Comets Meteor Showers

11.5 Giant Impacts

Meteor Impacts on Earth Astronomy by the Numbers: The Energy of Impacts Science at Work: Ghost Craters, or No Telltale Fragments Mass Extinction and Asteroid/Comet Impacts

CHAPTER 12

The Sun, Our Star 12.1 Size and Structure

Measuring the Sun’s Properties The Solar Interior Energy Flow in the Sun The Solar Atmosphere

12.2 How the Sun Works

Internal Balance (Hydrostatic Equilibrium) Powering the Sun Nuclear Fusion The Proton–Proton Chain Astronomy by the Numbers: The Mass Lost in Hydrogen-to-Helium Fusion

12.3 Probing the Sun’s Core

Solar Neutrinos Solar Seismology Science at Work: Solving the Solar Neutrino Puzzle

12.4 Solar Magnetic Activity

Solar Magnetic Fields Sunspots, Prominences, and Flares Extending Our Reach: Detecting Magnetic Fields: The Zeeman Effect Heating of the Chromosphere and Corona The Solar Wind

12.5 The Solar Cycle

Cause of the Solar Cycle Reversals of the Sun’s Magnetic Field Links Between the Solar Cycle and Terrestrial Climate

CHAPTER 13

Measuring the Properties of Stars 13.1 Measuring a Star’s Distance

Measuring Distance by Triangulation and Parallax Astronomy by the Numbers: Deriving the Parallax Formula

13.2 The Luminosities of Stars

Luminosity The Inverse-Square Law and Measuring a Star’s Luminosity Finding a Star’s Distance by the Method of Standard Candles Astronomy by the Numbers: Finding the Distance of a Distant Star from a Nearby Star The Magnitude System

13.3 Determining the Temperatures and Radii of Stars

Temperature Radius The Stefan-Boltzmann Law Astronomy by the Numbers: The Surface Temperatures of Rigel and Betelgeuse Direct Measurements of Radius Astronomy by the Numbers: Finding the Radius of the Star Sirius

13.4 Spectra of Stars

Measuring a Star’s Composition Classification of Stellar Spectra Science at Work: New Spectral Types How Temperature Affects a Star’s Spectrum Definition of the Spectral Types Measuring a Star’s Motion Astronomy by the Numbers: Calculating a Star’s Radial Velocity

13.5 Binary Stars

Visual and Spectroscopic Binaries Measuring Stellar Masses with Binary Stars Astronomy by the Numbers: The Combined Mass of Alpha Centauri Eclipsing Binary Stars

13.6 The H-R Diagram

Constructing the H-R Diagram Interpreting the H-R Diagram Giants and Dwarfs Luminosity Classes The Mass–Luminosity Relation Astronomy by the Numbers: Calculating Stellar Properties

CHAPTER 14

Stellar Evolution 14.1 Overview of Stellar Evolution

The Importance of Gravity The Life Story of the Sun—A Low-Mass Star The Life Story of a High-Mass Star Stellar Recycling

14.2 Star Formation

Interstellar Gas Clouds Protostars Bipolar Flows from Young Stars Stellar Mass Limits

14.3 Main-Sequence Stars

Structure of High-Mass and Low-Mass Stars Main-Sequence Lifetime of a Star Astronomy by the Numbers: The Lifetime of the Sun

14.4 Giant Stars

Leaving the Main Sequence Nuclear Fuels Heavier than Hydrogen Degeneracy in Low-Mass Stars

14.5 Yellow Giants and Pulsating Variables

Variable Stars The Period–Luminosity Relation

14.6 Death of Stars Like the Sun

Ejection of a Low-Mass Star’s Outer Layers The Planetary Nebula Stage The Fates of Other Low-Mass Stars

14.7 Old Age of Massive Stars

Formation of Heavy Elements: Nucleosynthesis Core Collapse of Massive Stars Supernova Explosions Supernova Remnants

14.8 History of Stellar Evolution Theories

The Development of Astrophysical Models of Stars Testing Stellar Evolution Theory Extending Our Reach: Measuring the Age of a Star Cluster

CHAPTER 15

Stellar Remnants: White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes 15.1 White Dwarfs

General Properties, Origin, and Fate Structure of White Dwarfs Degeneracy and the Chandrasekhar Limit White Dwarfs in Binary Systems: Novas and Type Ia Supernovas

15.2 Neutron Stars

General Properties and Origin Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars Astronomy by the Numbers: Rotation Rate of a Shrunken Star Emission from Neutron Stars Structure of Neutron Stars Neutron Stars in Binary Systems X Ray Binary Stars Gravitational Waves from Binary Neutron Stars Science at Work: Merging Neutron Stars

15.3 Black Holes

The Nature of Space Around Black Holes Astronomy by the Numbers: The Schwarzschild Radius of a 1-Solar-Mass Black Hole The Formation and Observation of Black Holes Hawking Radiation

CHAPTER 16

The Milky Way Galaxy 16.1 Overview of the Milky Way

Shape of the Milky Way Size of the Milky Way Structure of the Milky Way Composition and Mass of the Milky Way Age of the Milky Way

16.2 Stars of the Milky Way

Stellar Censuses Two Stellar Populations: Population I and Population II Star Clusters

16.3 Gas and Dust in the Milky Way

Distribution and Composition of Interstellar Matter Interstellar Dust: Dimming and Reddening Interstellar Gas Cold Interstellar Gas Astronomy by the Numbers: Mapping the Milky Way with Radio Waves

16.4 Motion of Stars and Gas in the Milky Way 16.5 Measuring the Milky Way

Diameter of the Milky Way Mass of the Milky Way Astronomy by the Numbers: Measuring the Mass of the Milky Way

16.6 The Galactic Center

Astronomy by the Numbers: The Mass of the Milky Way’s Central Black Hole

16.7 Evolution of the Milky Way

Birth of Population I and II Stars Evolution by Mergers Population III The Future of the Milky Way

CHAPTER 17

Galaxies 17.1 Discovering Galaxies

Early Observations of Galaxies Types of Galaxies

17.2 The Distances of Galaxies and Hubble’s Law

Galaxy Distances Astronomy by the Numbers: Measuring the Distance of a Galaxy Using Cepheid Variables Astronomy by the Numbers: Measuring the Diameter of a Galaxy The Redshift and Hubble’s Law Limitations of Hubble’s Law Astronomy by the Numbers: Finding a Galaxy’s Distance from Its Redshift

17.3 Galaxy Interactions and Evolution

Differences in the Stellar and Gas Content of Galaxies The Evolution of Galaxies: Collisions and Mergers

17.4 Active Galaxies

The Discovery of Nuclear Activity Quasars Extending Our Reach: Estimating the Diameter of Astronomical Objects by Using Their Light Variability A Unified Model of Active Galaxies Science at Work: Superluminal Jets Probing Intergalactic Space with Quasar Absorption Lines

17.5 Galaxy Clusters

The Local Group The Relationship of Cluster Size and Galaxy Type Superclusters

17.6 Dark Matter

Measuring the Mass of a Galaxy Dark Matter in Galaxy Haloes The MACHO Hypothesis Dark Matter in Galaxy Clusters: The Case for WIMPs Science at Work: An Alternative to Dark Matter?

CHAPTER 18

Cosmology 18.1 Observations of the Universe

Distribution of Galaxies Are We at the Center of the Universe? Expansion of the Universe Age of the Universe Astronomy by the Numbers: Estimating the Age of the Universe

18.2 Looking Back Toward the Beginning of Time

Olbers’ Paradox The Cosmic Horizon The Cosmic Microwave Background The Formation of Galaxies

18.3 The Origin of the Universe

The Origins of the Elements The Early Universe: Radiation, Matter, and Antimatter

18.4 The Curvature of the Universe 18.5 The Inflationary Universe

Inflation Extending Our Reach: Other Universes? The Flatness Problem The Horizon Problem

18.6 Dark Energy and the Fate of the Universe

The Future Expansion of the Universe The Density of the Universe The Acceleration of the Universe The Future of the Universe

ESSAY 4

Life in the Universe Life on Earth The Unity of Living Beings Deductions From the Unity of Life and the Time Line The Origin of Life Origin of Complex Organisms Life Elsewhere in the Universe Searching for Life Elsewhere Panspermia Are We Alone? Arguments for Many Worlds Arguments That We Are Alone Radio Searches Life and the Transformation of Planets The Anthropic Principle

Answers to Test Yourself Appendix

Scientific Notation Metric Prefixes Solving Distance, Velocity, Time (d, V, t ) Problems Some Useful Formulas Table A.1 Physical and Astronomical Constants Table A.2 Conversion Between American and Metric Units Table A.3 Physical Properties of the Planets Table A.4 Orbital Properties of the Planets Table A.5 Larger Satellites of the Planets and Dwarf Planets Table A.6 Meteor Showers Table A.7 The Brightest Stars Table A.8 The Nearest Stars Table A.9 Properties of Main-Sequence Stars Table A.10 Known and Suspected Members of the Local Group of Galaxies Table A.11 The Brightest Galaxies Beyond the Local Group

Glossary Index Night Sky Charts Foldout Star Chart

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