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Index
Preface
Purpose Organization
Exceptions and Conflicts
1. What Does a Sensor Really Sense? 2. How Many Sensors Are in a Sensor? 3. How Many Stimuli Can One Sensor Sense? 4. Too Many Sensors!
Volume Contents
Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3
Method
Reference Versus Tutorial Theory and Practice Sensor Output Glossary Typographical Conventions Mathematical Syntax Visual Conventions Units and Backgrounds Component Availability
Issues and Errata
Us Informing You You Informing Us You Asking Us Going Public
Safari® Books Online Acknowledgments
1. GPS
What It Does
Schematic Symbol GPS Segments
How It Works Variants Values How to Use It
Pulse per Second Output
What Can Go Wrong
Electrostatic Discharge Failure to Ground Properly Cold Joints Restricted Availability Inability to Detect Satellites Exceeding Maximum Velocity or Altitude
2. magnetometer
What It Does
Schematic Symbol IMU Applications
How It Works
Magnetic Fields Earth’s Axes Coil Magnetometer Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance
Variants How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
Bias Mounting Errors
3. object presence sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
Variants Optical Detection
Transmissive Optical Sensors Retroreflective Optical Sensors
Magnetic Sensors Reed Switch
Reed Switch Variants Reed Switch Values How to Use a Reed Switch
Hall-Effect Sensor
How a Hall-Effect Sensor Works Hall-Effect Sensor Variants
Unipolar Hall Sensor Bipolar Hall Sensor Omnipolar Hall Sensor Linear Hall Sensor
Other Applications
Values How to Use a Hall-Effect Sensor Configuration of Object Presence Sensors
Linear Motion Sensing by Interruption Angular Motion
Sensor Comparisons
Advantages of Optical Presence Sensors Disadvantages of Optical Presence Sensors Advantages of a Reed Switch Disadvantages of a Reed Switch Advantages of a Hall Effect Sensor
Disadvantages of a Hall Effect Sensor
What Can Go Wrong
Optical Sensor Issues
Deterioration of LEDs Object Too Close
Reed Switch Issues
Mechanical Damage Contact Bounce Arcing
4. passive infrared sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
How It Works
Pyroelectric Detector Elements Lenses
Variants What Can Go Wrong
Temperature Sensitivity Detector Window Vulnerability Moisture Vulnerability
5. proximity sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
Variants
Ultrasound Infrared Relative Advantages
Ultrasound Devices Infrared Devices
Ultrasonic Examples
Imports Individual Elements
Infrared Examples
Trends in Infrared Proximity Sensing
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
Applications
How It Works
Sources of Error Values
What Can Go Wrong with Optical and Ultrasound Proximity Sensors
Object Too Close Multiple Signals Inappropriate Surfaces Environmental Factors Deterioration of LEDs
6. linear position sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Linear Potentiometer Magnetic Linear Encoders Optical Linear Encoders Linear Encoder Applications Linear Variable Differential Transformers
What Can Go Wrong
Mechanical Issues LED Longevity
7. rotary position sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbol
Potentiometers
Arc-Segment Rotary Potentiometer End Stops Multiturn Rotary Potentiometer Magnetic Rotary Position Sensor Rotary Position Sensing Chips Rotary Encoders Optical Rotary Encoders Optical Products Computer Mouse Principles Rotational Speed Absolute Position The Gray Code Magnetic Rotary Encoders
How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
Wiring Errors Coding Errors Ambiguous Terminology
8. tilt sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Simplified Version Applications
Variants
Mercury Switches Pendulum Switch Magnetization
Tilt Sensors
Two-Axis Tilt Sensors
Values How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
Contact Erosion Random Signals Environmental Hazard Requirement for Gravity Requirement for Stability
9. gyroscope
What It Does
Schematic Symbol IMU Applications
How It Works
Vibrating Gyroscope
Variants
IMUs
Values How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
Temperature Drift Mechanical Stress Vibration Placement
10. accelerometer
What It Does
IMU Schematic Symbols Applications
How It Works
Gravity and Free Fall Rotation Calculation
Variants Values What Can Go Wrong
Mechanical Stress Other Problems
11. vibration sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols
Variants
Pin-and-Spring Piezoelectric Strip Chip-Based Piezoelectric “Mousetrap” Type Magnetic Mercury
Values
Primary Variables Dynamic Attributes
How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
Long Cable Runs Interference Correct Grounding Fatigue Failure
12. force sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Strain Gauge Wheatstone Bridge Circuits Wheatstone Bridge Errors Strain-Gauge Amplification Other Strain-Gauge Modules Plastic-Film Force Sensors
Deformative Force Sensors Improvised Resistive Sensors
How to Use It
Plastic-Film Resistive Force Sensors
Values
Film-Based Force Sensors for User Input Specifications for Film-Based Force Sensors Strain Gauges
What Can Go Wrong
Soldering Damage Bad Load Distribution Water Damage Temperature Sensitivity Leads Too Long
13. single touch sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbols
How It Works How to Use It
Obtaining Touch Pads Individual Touch Pad Wheels and Strips Design Considerations
What Can Go Wrong
Insensitive to Gloves Stylus Issues Conductive Ink
14. touch screen
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
Variants
Resistive Sensing Capacitive Sensing
Screens Available as Components
15. liquid level sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
How It Works
Binary-Output Float Sensor Analog-Output Float Sensor Incremental-Output Float Sensor Displacement Level Sensors Ultrasonic Level Sensors Reservoir Weight Pressure Sensing
What Can Go Wrong
Turbulence Tilting
16. liquid flow rate sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols
Paddlewheel Liquid Flow Rate Sensors Turbine Flow Rate Sensors
Limitations of Paddlewheels and Turbines
Thermal Mass Liquid Flow Rate Sensor Sliding Sleeve Liquid Flow Switch Sliding Plunger Liquid Flow Switch Ultrasonic Liquid Flow Rate Sensor Magnetic Liquid Flow Sensor Differential Pressure Liquid Flow Meter What Can Go Wrong
Vulnerability to Dirt and Corrosive Materials
17. gas/liquid pressure sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications Design Considerations Units
How It Works
Basic Sensing Elements Relative Measurement
Variants
Ambient Air Pressure Altitude Gas Pressure
What Can Go Wrong
Vulnerability to Dirt, Moisture, and Corrosive Materials Light Sensitivity
18. gas concentration sensor
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
Semiconductor Gas Sensors Oxygen Sensors Humidity Sensors
Dew-Point Sensor Absolute Humidity Sensors Relative Humidity Sensors Humidity Sensor Output Analog Humidity Sensor Design Considerations Digital Humidity Sensor
What Can Go Wrong
Contamination Recalibration Soldering
19. gas flow rate sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Anemometer
Handheld Anemometer Ultrasound Anemometer Hot Wire Anemometer
Mass Flow Rate Sensing Applications Units Measuring Higher Volumes Output
What Can Go Wrong
20. photoresistor
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Construction
Variants
Photoresistors in Optical Isolators
Values
Comparisons with a Phototransistor
How to Use It
Choosing a Series Resistor
What Can Go Wrong
Overload Excessive Voltage Confusion Among Components
21. photodiode
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
How It Works Variants
PIN Photodiodes Avalanche Diodes Packages Wavelength Range Photodiode Arrays Output Options Specific Variants
Values How to Use It What Can Go Wrong
22. phototransistor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
How It Works Variants
Optional Base Connection Photodarlington PhotoFET
Values
Behavior Compared to Other Light Sensors Binning
How to Use It
Output Calculation
What Can Go Wrong
Visual Classification Errors Output Out of Range
23. NTC thermistor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols Applications
How an NTC Thermistor Works
Output Conversion for Temperature Sensing Choosing a Series Resistor Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Deriving the Temperature Value
Inrush Current Limiter
Restart
Thermistor Values
Time and Temperature Resistance and Response Kilohms and Kelvin Reference Temperature Reference Resistance Dissipation Constant Temperature Coefficient Thermal Time Constant Tolerance Temperature Range Switching Current Power Limitations Interchangeability
What Can Go Wrong
Self-Heating Heat Dissipation Lack of Heat
Addendum: Comparison of Temperature Sensors
NTC Thermistor PTC Thermistor Thermocouple Resistance Temperature Detector Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
24. PTC thermistor
What It Does
Schematic Symbols
PTC Overview Silistor for Temperature Measurement
RTDs
Nonlinear PTC Thermistors
Over-Temperature Protection Over-Current Protection PTC Inrush Current Limiting
PTC Thermistor for Starting Current
PTC Thermistor for Lighting Ballast PTC Thermistor as a Heating Element
What Can Go Wrong
Self-Heating Heating Other Components
25. thermocouple
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
Thermocouple Applications How a Thermocouple Works
Thermocouple Details
How to Use It
Types of Thermocouples Seebeck Coefficients Chips for Output Conversion
Thermopile What Can Go Wrong
Polarity Electrical Interference Metal Fatigue and Oxidation Using the Wrong Type Heat Damage from Creating a Thermocouple
26. RTD (resistance temperature detector)
What It Does RTD Attributes
Schematic Symbol Applications
How It Works Variants
Wiring RTD Probe Signal Conditioning
What Can Go Wrong
Self-Heating Insulation Affected by Heat Incompatible Sensing Element
27. semiconductor temperature sensor
What It Does
Semiconductor Temperature Sensor Applications Schematic Symbol Attributes
How It Works
CMOS Sensors Multiple Transistors PTAT and the Brokaw Cell
Variants
Analog Voltage Output
LM35 Series LM135 Series
Analog Current Output
LM234-3 Series AD590 Series
Digital Output
TMP102 Series MCP9808 Series LM73 Series DS18B20 Series
CMOS Semiconductor Temperature Sensors What Can Go Wrong
Different Temperature Scales Interference in Cable Runs Latency Processing Time
28. infrared temperature sensor
What It Does
Applications Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Thermopile Temperature Measurement
Variants
Surface-Mount Specifications Sensor Arrays
Values
Temperature Range Field of View
What Can Go Wrong
Inappropriate Field of View Reflective Objects Glass Obstruction Multiple Heat Sources Thermal Gradients
29. microphone
What It Does
Schematic Symbol
How It Works
Carbon Microphone Moving-Coil Microphone Condenser Microphone Electret Microphone MEMS Microphone Piezoelectric Microphone
Values
Sensitivity Directionality Frequency Response Impedance Total Harmonic Distortion Signal-to-Noise Ratio
What Can Go Wrong
Cable Sensitivity Noisy Power Supply
30. current sensor
What It Does
Applications
Ammeter
Schematic Symbol Ammeter Wiring
Series Resistor
Current-Sense Resistors Voltage Measurement
Hall-Effect Current Sensing What Can Go Wrong
Confusing AC with DC Magnetic Interference Incorrect Meter Wiring Current Out of Range
31. voltage sensor
What It Does
Applications
Volt Meter
Schematic Symbol Volt Meter Wiring
How It Works
Load-Related Inaccuracy Bar Graph
What Can Go Wrong
Confusing AC with DC High Circuit Impedance Voltage Out of Range Voltage Relative to Ground
A. Sensor Output
Analog Outputs
1. Analog: Voltage
Direct Connection: Analog-to-Analog Analog-to-Binary Conversion Analog-to-Digital Conversion
2. Analog: Resistance
Resistance-to-Voltage Conversion
3. Analog: Open Collector 4. Analog: Current 5. Binary: High/Low 6. Binary: PWM 7. Binary: Frequency 8. Digital: I2C 9. Digital: SPI
Glossary Index
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