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Index
Cover
Title Page
About the Author
Preface to the 2003 Reprint
Preface
Introduction by Bernard Crick
So Many Machiavellis
The Prince and The Discourses
Republics as Mixed Government
The Mixture as Adaptability
The Value of Conflict
Factors of Social Class
The Conditions for Republican Rule
Theory and Method
Politics and Morality
The Letter to Vettori
The Discourses of Niccolò Machiavelli
The Text
The Dedication
The Discourses
Book One: [THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROME’S CONSTITUTION]
The Preface
[The Best Form of Government]
1. Concerning the Origin of Cities in General and of Rome in Particular
2. How many Kinds of State there are and of what Kind was that of Rome
3. What Kind of Events gave rise in Rome to the Creation of Tribunes of the Plebs, whereby that Republic was made more Perfect
4. That Discord between the Plebs and the Senate of Rome made this Republic both Free and Powerful
5. Whether the Safeguarding of Liberty can be more safely entrusted to the Populace or to the Upper Class; and which has the Stronger Reason for creating Disturbances, the ‘Have-nots’ or the ‘Haves’
6. Whether in Rome such a Form of Government could have been set up as would have removed the Hostility between the Populace and the Senate
7. How necessary Public Indictments are for the Maintenance of Liberty in a Republic
8. Calumnies are as Injurious to Republics as Public Indictments are Useful
9. That it is necessary to be the Sole Authority if one would constitute a Republic afresh or would reform it thoroughly regardless of its Ancient Institutions
10. Those who set up a Tyranny are no less Blameworthy than are the Founders of a Republic or a Kingdom Praiseworthy
[Religion]
11. Concerning the Religion of the Romans
12. How Important it is to take Account of Religion, and how Italy has been ruined for lack of it, thanks to the Roman Church
13. What Use the Romans made of Religion in reorganizing the City, in prosecuting their Enterprises, and in composing Tumults
14. The Romans interpreted their Auspices in accordance with their Needs, were wise enough ostensibly to observe Religion when forced to ignore it, and punished those who were so rash as to disparage it
15. The Samnites had recourse to Religion as a last Resort when their Affairs were going badly
[The Transition from Servitude to Freedom]
16. A People accustomed to live under a Prince, should they by some Eventuality become free, will with Difficulty maintain their Freedom
17. A Corrupted People, having acquired Liberty, can maintain it only with the Greatest Difficulty
18. How in Corrupt Cities a Free Government can be maintained where it exists, or be established where it does not exist
[Sundry Reflections on the Kings of Rome]
19. A Weak Prince who succeeds an Outstanding Prince can hold his own, but a Weak Prince who succeeds another Weak Prince cannot hold any Kingdom
20. Two Virtuous Princes, of whom one immediately succeeds the other, do Great Things: and, as in Well-ordered Republics there is of necessity such a Virtuous Succession, their Acquisitions and their Increase also is great
21. Princes and Republics which have not their own Armed Forces are highly reprehensible
22. What is worthy of Note in the Case of the Three Roman Horatii and of the Three Alban Curiatii
23. That One should not stake the Whole of One’s Fortune except on the Whole of One’s Forces; and that, consequently, it is frequently Harmful to defend Passes
24. Well-ordered Republics, in assigning Rewards and Punishments, never balance one against the Other
[The Introduction of New Forms of Government]
25. He who proposes to change an Old-established Form of Government in a Free City should retain at least the Shadow of its Ancient Customs
26. In a City or Province which he has seized, a New Prince should make Everything New
27. Very rarely do Men know how to be either Wholly Good or Wholly Bad
[Ingratitude]
28. What made the Romans less ungrateful to their Citizens than were the Athenians?
29. Which is the more ungrateful, a People or a Prince?
30. What Steps should be taken by a Prince or by a Republic to avoid this Vice of Ingratitude, and what should be done by a General or by a Citizen who does not want to suffer from it
31. Roman Generals were never punished with Extreme Severity for their Mistakes; nor yet were they ever punished for Ignorance or Bad Judgement even though it caused Harm to the Republic
32. Neither a Republic nor a Prince should put off conferring Benefits on People until danger is at hand
[The Use and Abuse of Dictatorship]
33. When either within a State or against a State an Inconvenience has made Headway, the Safer Course is to temporize, not to suppress it
34. Dictatorial Authority did Good, not Harm, to the Republic of Rome: it is the Authority which Citizens arrogate to Themselves, not that granted by Free Suffrage, that is harmful to Civic Life
35. How it came about that the Appointment of the Decemviri in Rome was harmful to that Republic in spite of their having been appointed by Free and Public Suffrage
36. Citizens who have held Higher Posts should not disdain to accept Lower
[The Road to Ruin]
37. On the Troubles to which the Agrarian Laws gave rise in Rome; and how great is the Trouble given in a Republic by passing a Law that is too Retrospective and Contravenes an Ancient Custom of the City
38. Weak Republics suffer from Irresolution and cannot reach Decisions; and, when they do arrive at one, it is due rather to Necessity than to Choice
39. To Different Peoples the same sort of Thing is often found to happen
[Sundry Reflections Based on the Decemvirate]
40. The Appointment of the Decemvirate in Rome and what is Noteworthy about it; in which will be considered, among other Things, how such an Incident may lead either to a Republic’s Salvation or to its Subjection
41. A Sudden Transition from Humility to Pride or from Kindness to Cruelty without Appropriate Steps in between is both Imprudent and Futile
42. How easily Men may be Corrupted
43. Those who fight for Glory’s Sake make Good and Faithful Soldiers
44. A Crowd is useless without a Head; nor should it first use Threats and then appeal for the Requisite Authority
45. It is a Bad Precedent to break a New Law, especially if the Legislator himself does it; and daily to inflict Fresh Injuries on a City is most Harmful to him that governs it
[The Popular Demand for a Share in Government]
46. Men pass from one Ambition to Another, and, having first striven against Ill-treatment, inflict it next upon Others
47. Though Men make Mistakes about Things in General, they do not make Mistakes about Particulars
48. To prevent an Official Appointment being given to a Base and Wicked Fellow, either an Exceedingly Base and Wicked Man should be put forward as a Candidate or an Exceedingly Noble and Good Man
49. If those City-States which from the Outset have been free, as Rome was, find it difficult to formulate Laws whereby to maintain Liberty, those which have just been servile are faced with a Quasi-impossibility
[The Management of the Populace]
50. No One Department and no One Official in a State should be able to hold up proceedings
51. A Republic or a Prince should ostensibly do out of Generosity what Necessity constrains them to do
52. The Safer and Less Scandalous Way to repress the Arrogance of One who has risen to Power in a Republic is to forestall him in the Methods he uses to come by this Power
53. The Populace, misled by the False Appearance of Advantage, often seeks its own Ruin, and is easily moved by Splendid Hopes and Rash Promises
54. How Great an Influence a Grave Man may have in restraining an Excited Crowd
55. That it is very easy to manage Things in a State in which the Masses are not Corrupt; and that, where Equality exists, it is impossible to set up a Principality, and, where it does not exist, impossible to set up a Republic
[The Advantages of Popular Government]
56. Before Great Misfortunes befall a City or a Province they are preceded by Portents or foretold by Men
57. The Plebs United is Strong, but in Itself it is Weak
58. The Masses are more Knowing and more Constant than is a Prince
59. What Confederations or Leagues can be trusted most; those made with a Republic or those made with a Prince
60. That the Consulate and all Other Offices in Rome were conferred without Respect to Age
Book Two: [THE GROWTH OF ROME’S EMPIRE]
The Preface.
[Methods of Expansion]
1. Whether Virtue or Fortune was the Principal Cause of the Empire which Rome acquired
2. Concerning the Kind of People the Romans had to fight, and how obstinately they defended their Freedom
3. Rome became a Great City by ruining the Cities round about her, and by granting Foreigners Easy Access to her Honours
4. Republics have adopted Three Methods of Expansion
5. Changes of Religion and of Language, together with such Misfortunes as Floods or Pestilences, obliterate the Records of the Past
[Colonization and War: Its Causes and Cost]
6. How the Romans proceeded in the waging of War
7. How much Land the Romans gave to their Colonists
8. The Causes which lead Peoples to quit their own Country and to inundate the Lands of Others
9. What Causes commonly give rise to Wars between Different Powers
10. Money is not the Sinews of War, as it is commonly supposed to be
[Diplomacy and War]
11. It is not a Wise Course to make an Alliance with a Ruler whose Reputation is greater than his Strength
12. Whether it is better, when threatened with Attack, to assume the Offensive or to await the Outbreak of War
13. Men rise from a Low to a Great Position by Means rather of Fraud than of Force
14. Men often make the Mistake of supposing that Pride is overcome by Humility
15. The Decisions of Weak States are always fraught with Ambiguity, and the Slowness with which they arrive at them is Harmful
[The Army, Its Discipline and Component Parts]
16. How far the Discipline of Troops in our Day falls short of that maintained in Days gone by
17. In what Esteem Artillery should be held by Armies at the Present Time, and whether the Opinion universally held in its Regard is Sound
18. That Infantry should be more highly esteemed than Cavalry is shown by the Authority of the Romans and by the Example of Ancient Military Practice
[The Administration of Conquered Territory and Other Problems Which Admit of No Middle Course]
19. Acquisitions made by Republics, when not well governed nor handled with the Virtue the Romans displayed, contribute to the Downfall, not to the Advancement, of such Republics
20. On the Dangers which accrue to the Prince or the Republic that employs Auxiliary or Mercenary Troops
21. The First Praetor the Romans sent out was to Capua, Four Hundred Years after they had first begun to make War
22. How frequently Erroneous are the Views Men adopt in regard to Matters of Moment
23. When Events required that the Romans should pass Judgement on Subject Peoples they avoided a Middle Course
[Mistakes Often Made in Connection with War]
24. Fortresses in General are much more Harmful than Useful
25. To attack a Divided City in the Hope that its Divisions will facilitate the Conquest of it is Bad Policy
26. Scorn and Abuse arouse Hatred against those who indulge in them without bringing them any Advantage
27. Prudent Princes and Republics should be content with Victory, for, when they are not content with it, they usually lose
[Rome’s Dealings with Neighbouring States and Cities in Peace and War]
28. How Dangerous it is for a Republic or a Prince not to avenge an Injury done either to the Public or to a Private Person
29. Fortune blinds Men’s Minds when she does not wish them to obstruct her Designs
30. Really Powerful Republics and Princes do not purchase Alliances with Money, but obtain them by means of the Virtue and the Reputation of their Forces
31. How Dangerous it is to put Confidence in Refugees
32. On the Various Methods used by the Romans in taking Towns
33. The Romans gave to Army Commanders Discretionary Powers
Book Three: [THE EXAMPLE OF ROME’S GREAT MEN]
[Reform, Security, and the Elimination of Rivals]
1. In Order that a Religious Institution or a State should long survive it is essential that it should frequently be Restored to its original principles
2. That it is a Very Good Notion at Times to pretend to be a Fool
3. When Liberty has been newly acquired it is Necessary in Order to maintain it to ‘Kill the Sons of Brutus’
4. A Prince cannot Live Securely in a Principality while those are Alive who have been despoiled of it
5. What it is that causes a Hereditary Prince to lose his Kingdom
[On Conspiracies]
6. On Conspiracies
[The Need of Adaptation to Environment]
7. How it comes about that Changes from Liberty to Servitude and from Servitude to Liberty sometimes occur without Bloodshed and sometimes abound in it
8. He who would transform a Republic should take Due Note of the Governed
9. That it behoves one to adapt Oneself to the Times if one wants to enjoy Continued Good Fortune
[Sundry Remarks on Strategy, Tactics, New Devices and Discipline]
10. That a General cannot avoid an Engagement if the Enemy is determined to force him to it at All Costs
11. That he who has to deal with several Foes, even though he be Weaker than they are, can actually Win, provided he can sustain their First Attack
12. That a Prudent General should make it absolutely necessary for his own Troops to Fight, but should avoid forcing the Enemy to do so
13. Which is it best to trust, a Good General with a Weak Army or a Good Army with a Weak General?
14. What Effects are produced by the Appearance of New Inventions in the course of a Battle and by the hearing of Unfamiliar Cries
15. That at the Head of an Army there should be One, not Several, Commanders, and that to have a Plurality is a Nuisance
[Administrative Posts]
16. Genuine Virtue counts in Difficult Times, but, when Things are going well, it is rather to those whose Popularity is due to Wealth or Parentage that Men look
17. That to a Person to whom Offence has been given, no Administrative Post of Importance should subsequently be assigned
18. Nothing becomes a General more than to anticipate the Enemy’s Plans
[Administrative Methods: The Rival Claims of Severity and Good Fellowship]
19. Whether in controlling the Masses Considerateness is more Necessary than Punishment
20. A Single Act of Common Humanity made a Greater Impression on the Falisci than did all the Forces of Rome
21. How it comes about that Hannibal, whose Procedure differed radically from Scipio’s, yet produced the same Effect in Italy as Scipio did in Spain
22. How the Severity of Manlius Torquatus and the Sociability of Valerius Corvinus won for Each the same Degree of Fame
23. Upon what Account Camillus was banished from Rome
[Internal Security]
24. The Prolongation of Military Commands made Rome a Servile State
25. Concerning the Poverty of Cincinnatus and of many other Roman Citizens
26. How Women have brought about the Downfall of States
27. How Unity may be restored to a Divided City, and how mistaken are those who hold that to retain Possession of Cities one must needs keep them divided
28. That a Strict Watch should be kept on the Doings of Citizens since under cover of Good Works there often arises the Beginning of Tyranny
29. That the Faults of Peoples are due to Princes
30. (i) It is necessary for a Citizen who proposes to use his Authority to do any Good Work in a Republic first to extinguish all Envy; and (ii) what Provisions are to be made for the Defence of a City which the Enemy is about to attack
[Equanimity, Insurrection, Confidence, Electioneering, and the Tendering of Advice]
31. Strong Republics and Outstanding Men retain their Equanimity and their Dignity under all Circumstances
32. What Means some have adopted to prevent a Peace
33. To win a Battle it is essential to inspire the Army with Confidence both in Itself and in its General
34. What Kind of Reputation or Gossip or Opinion causes the Populace to begin to favour a Particular Citizen; and whether the Populace appoints to Offices with Greater Prudence than does a Prince
35. What Dangers are run by one who takes the Lead in advising some Course of Action; and how much greater are the Dangers incurred when the Course of Action is Unusual
[Advice to Generals in the Field]
36. Reasons why the French have been, and still are, looked upon in the Beginning of a Battle as more than Men, and afterwards as less than Women
37. Whether Skirmishes are Necessary before a Battle, and how, if one decides to do without them, the Presence of Fresh Enemy Troops is to be discovered
38. What ought to be done by a General so that his Army may have Confidence in him
39. That a General ought to be acquainted with the Lie of the Land
[Salus Populi, Suprema Lex]
40. That it is a Glorious Thing to use Fraud in the Conduct of a War
41. That one’s Country should be defended whether it entail Ignominy or Glory, and that it is Good to defend it in any way whatsoever
42. That Promises extracted by Force ought not to be kept
[Further Reflections Based on the Samnite Wars]
43. That Men who are born in the same Country display throughout the Ages much the same Characteristics
44. Results are often obtained by Impetuosity and Daring which could never have been obtained by Ordinary Methods
45. Whether it is the Better Course in Battle to await the Enemy’s Attack and, having held it, to take the Offensive, or to make on the Enemy a Furious Onslaught at the Start
46. How it comes about that in a City a Family retains for a Long Time the same Customs
47. That a Good Citizen out of Love for his Country ought to ignore Personal Affronts
48. When an Enemy is seen to be making a Big Mistake, it should be assumed that it is but an Artifice.
[The Preservation of Freedom in a Republic]
49. A Republic that would preserve its Freedom, ought daily to make Fresh Provisions to this End, and what Quintus Fabius did to earn for himself the title Maximus
Notes
Chronology
Further Reading
Follow Penguin
Copyright Page
Footnotes
Preface to the 2003 Reprint
[The Best Form of Government]
[Religion]
[The Transition from Servitude to Freedom]
[The Introduction of New Forms of Government]
[Ingratitude]
[The Use and Abuse of Dictatorship]
[The Road to Ruin]
[Sundry Reflections Based on the Decemvirate]
[The Popular Demand for a Share in Government]
[The Management of the Populace]
[The Advantages of Popular Government]
[Methods of Expansion]
[Diplomacy and War]
[The Army, Its Discipline and Component Parts]
[The Administration of Conquered Territory and Other Problems Which Admit of No Middle Course]
[Mistakes Often Made in Connection with War]
[Rome’s Dealings with Neighbouring States and Cities in Peace and War]
[Reform, Security, and the Elimination of Rivals]
[On Conspiracies]
[The Need of Adaptation to Environment]
[Sundry Remarks on Strategy, Tactics, New Devices and Discipline]
[Administrative Posts]
[Administrative Methods: The Rival Claims of Severity and Good Fellowship]
[Internal Security]
[Advice to Generals in the Field]
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