1 The Rejection of Continental Drift · Theory and Method in American Earth Science by Oreskes, Naomi -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover The Rejection of CONTINENTAL DRIFT

The Problem of Continental Drift

I - NOT THE MECHANISM

1- Two Visions of the Earth

Tectonics in the Nineteenth Century

Suess's Collapsing Earth

The European Tradition of Secular Cooling

Dana's Stable Continents and Permanent Oceans Permanent Oceans and the Geosyndinal Theory

Two Continents, Two (or More) Theories

2- The Collapse of Thermal Contraction

Horizontal—Not Vertical—Displacement in the Swiss Alps The Idea of Isostasy

Isostasy as a Theory of the Earth: Osmond Fisher Isostasy as a Theory of the Earth: Clarence Dutton Isostasy in America: C. K. Gilbert A Fact or a Theory?

Elevating Theory into Fact

Isostasy from the Figure of the Earth From Triangulation to Gravity

Isostasy Refutes Collapsing Continents The Discovery of Radiogenic Heat Epistemological Affinities

3- To Reconcile Historical Geology with Isostasy: The Theory of Continental Drift

The Evidence of Drift The Consequences of Drift The Rejection of Drift: Lack of a Causal Mechanism?

Dynamics versus Kinematics

Fathoming the Interior of the Earth

Isostatic Undertow in a Plastic Substrate A Consensus Emerges: A Mobile Substrate How Wide a Consensus? Empirical Proof: The Fennoscandian Uplift

If Isostasy, Then Why Not Drift? A Plausible Kinematic Account

4- Drift Mechanisms in the 1920s

How Large a Force Is Needed to Move Continents? Gravity Sliding: The Work of Reginald Daly Speculating on Causes

An American among Drifters A Mechanism for Drift Answering the Objections to Drift

Periodic Fusion: The Work of John Joly

Radioactivity as a Vera Causa of Tectonics From Cyclicity to Continental Drift Reaction and Retreat

Sub-Crustal Convection Currents: The Work of Arthur Holmes

From the Age of the Earth to Continental Drift A Plausible Mechanism

Not for Lack of a Mechanism

II - THEORY AND METHOD

5- From Fact to Theory

The British Response to Drift: Cautious Entertainment The American Response to Drift: Rejection Were American Earth Scientists Opposed to Theory? Theory and Practice in American Earth Science Patrons and Practice An Antiauthoritarian Logic of Discovery Theoretical Pluralism: The Ideal of Multiple Working Hypotheses Training the Next Generation A Methodological Ideal and a Rhetorical Reality An Inductive Logic of justification . . . . . . and a Form of Scientific Practice Good Science Is Hard Work A Violation of Standards Defending American Pluralism

6- The "Short Step Backward"

A Test of Continental Drift A Geological Comparison of South America and South Africa Another Step Backward: William Bowie Adheres to Isostasy From Calculational Strategy to a Theory of the Earth Representation as Reified Belief

7- Uniformitarianism and Unity

Grappling with Gondwana Isostasy Reexamined: The Work of Joseph Barrell Fragmenting the Continents "Gondwana Is a Fact, but I Still Have Finally to Get Rid of It" "I Want to Give Up the Theory" Preserving the Practice of Uniformitarianism

Laws and Rules

A Uniformitarian Solution Gondwana Dwindles Away

III - A REVOLUTION IN ACCEPTANCE

8- Direct and Indirect Evidence

Looking for Proof The Worldwide Longitude Operation: Direct Evidence of Drift USS S-21 Expedition: Gravity as a Surrogate for Crustal Motions Results of the S-21 Expedition: Airy Isostasy After All?

Rethinking Isostasy

From Gravity Anomalies to Tectogenes

Experimental Support

A New Global Synthesis?

9- An Evidentiary and Epistemic Shift

From Gravity to Magnetism Convection Revisited: Seafloor Spreading

The Confirmation of Seafloor Spreading

Two Types of Evidence

Evidential Asymmetries and Underdetermination

Evidentiary and Epistemic Traditions

Searching for Certainty Through Measurement From Theory to Fact?

10- The Depersonalization of Geology

From the Field to the Laboratory The Discountenance of du Toit

Quantifying Quality

Objectivity and Distance

A Culture of Distance?

Induction and Deduction The Self-Validating Power of Success To What End?

Novel Data for Novel Theories?

Epilogue - Utility and Truth

The Unmaking of Scientific Knowledge Historicity and Self-Ratification

NOTES

Introduction Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Epilogue

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archival Sources List of Abbreviations Published Sources

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