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Index
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 The rule of law
1.1 What is law?
1.1.1 Different types of law
1.1.2 Differences between criminal cases and civil cases
1.1.3 Definition of ‘law’
1.2 Law and morality
1.3 Law and justice
1.4 Rights and duties
1.5 The rule of law
1.5.1 Dicey
1.5.2 von Hayek
1.5.3 Joseph Raz
1.6 Human rights and the english legal system
Chapter 2 The development of law
2.1 Customs
2.1.1 General customs
2.1.2 Local customs
2.2 Common law
2.2.1 Development of common law
2.2.2 Definitions of common law
2.3 Equity
2.3.1 The development of equity
2.3.2 The operation of equity
2.3.3 Equitable remedies
2.3.4 The relevance of equity today
Chapter 3 Judicial precedent
3.1 The doctrine of precedent
3.1.1 Ratio decidendi
3.1.2 Obiter dicta
3.1.3 Judgments
3.1.4 Original precedent
3.1.5 Binding precedent
3.1.6 Persuasive precedent
3.2 The hierarchy of the courts
3.2.1 Appellate courts
3.2.2 Courts of first instance
3.3 The Supreme Court
3.3.1 The Practice Statement
3.3.2 Use of the Practice Statement
3.3.3 The Practice Statement in criminal law
3.3.4 The Supreme Court
3.4 The Court of Appeal
3.4.1 Decisions of courts above it
3.4.2 Human rights cases
3.4.3 The Court of Appeal and its own decisions
3.4.4 The Court of Appeal (Criminal Division)
3.5 The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
3.5.1 Judges
3.5.2 The Privy Council and precedent
3.6 Distinguishing, overruling and reversing
3.6.1 Distinguishing
3.6.2 Overruling
3.6.3 Reversing
3.7 Judicial law-making
3.8 The effect of an Act of Parliament
3.9 Comparison with other legal systems
3.9.1 Codes of law
3.9.2 Less rigid precedent
3.9.3 Prospective overruling
3.10 Advantages and disadvantages of precedent
3.10.1 Advantages
3.10.2 Disadvantages
3.11 Law reporting
3.11.1 Internet law reports
Chapter 4 Acts of Parliament
4.1 Parliament
4.1.1 The House of Commons
4.1.2 The House of Lords
4.1.3 Reform of the House of Lords
4.2 Influences on parliamentary law-making
4.2.1 The government programme
4.2.2 European Union law
4.2.3 Other influences
4.3 The pre-legislative process
4.4 Introducing an Act of Parliament
4.4.1 Bills
4.4.2 Private Members’ Bills
4.4.3 Public and private Bills
4.5 The process in Parliament
4.5.1 The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949
4.5.2 Commencement of an Act
4.5.3 Example of an Act
4.6 Criticisms of the legislative process
4.6.1 Lack of accessibility
4.6.2 Other problems
4.7 Parliamentary sovereignty
4.7.1 Definition of parliamentary supremacy
4.7.2 Limitations on parliamentary sovereignty
Chapter 5 Delegated legislation
5.1 Types of delegated legislation
5.1.1 Orders in Council
5.1.2 Statutory instruments
5.1.3 Bylaws
5.2 The need for delegated legislation
5.3 Control of delegated legislation
5.3.1 Control by Parliament
5.3.2 The Legislative and Regulatory Reform Act 2006
5.3.3 Control by the courts
5.4 Criticisms of the use of delegated legislation
Chapter 6 European law
6.1 The institutions of the European Union
6.1.1 The Council of Ministers
6.1.2 The Commission
6.1.3 The Assembly
6.1.4 Economic and Social Committee
6.2 The European Court of Justice
6.2.1 Key functions
6.2.2 Preliminary rulings
6.2.3 Discretionary referrals
6.2.4 Court of First Instance
6.2.5 The operation of the European Court of Justice
6.3 European sources of law
6.3.1 Treaties
6.3.2 Regulations
6.3.3 Directives
6.3.4 Decisions
6.4 Conflict between European law and national law
6.4.1 The effect of European law on the sovereignty of Parliament
Chapter 7 Statutory interpretation
7.1 The need for statutory interpretation
7.2 Literal approach versus purposive approach
7.3 The literal rule
7.4 The golden rule
7.5 The mischief rule
7.5.1 Cases using the mischief rule
7.6 Rules of language
7.6.1 The ejusdem generis rule
7.6.2 Expressio unius exclusio alterius (the mention of one thing excludes others)
7.6.3 Noscitur a sociis (a word is known by the company it keeps)
7.7 Presumptions
7.8 Unified approach
7.9 The purposive approach
7.9.1 The European approach
7.9.2 Interpreting European Union law
7.10 Finding Parliament’s intention
7.10.1 Intrinsic aids
7.10.2 Extrinsic aids
7.11 The Human Rights Act 1998
7.12 Conclusion
Chapter 8 Law reform
8.1 The need for an independent law reform body
8.1.1 History of law reform bodies
8.2 Law Reform Committee
8.3 Criminal Law Revision Committee
8.4 The Law Commission
8.4.1 The way in which the Law Commission works
8.4.2 Repeal and consolidation
8.4.3 Codification
8.4.4 Success of the Law Commission
8.5 Royal Commissions
8.5.1 Reviews by judges
Chapter 9 Civil cases
9.1 Negotiation
9.2 Starting a court case
9.2.1 Which court to use?
9.2.2 Issuing a claim
9.2.3 Defending a claim
9.2.4 Allocation of cases
9.3 Small claims
9.3.1 Small claims procedure
9.3.2 Advantages of small claims
9.3.3 Disadvantages of small claims
9.4 County Court
9.4.1 Fast-track cases
9.4.2 Multi-track cases
9.5 High Court
9.5.1 Queen’s Bench Division
9.5.2 Chancery Division
9.5.3 Family Division
9.6 The Woolf reforms
9.6.1 The Civil Procedure Rules
9.6.2 Applying the rules in court
9.6.3 Effect of the Woolf reforms
9.7 Appellate courts
9.7.1 Divisional Courts
9.7.2 Court of Appeal (Civil Division)
9.7.3 Supreme Court
9.8 Appeal routes in civil cases
9.8.1 Appeals from the County Court
9.8.2 Appeals from the High Court
9.8.3 Further appeals
9.9 Remedies in civil cases
9.9.1 Damages
9.9.2 Equitable remedies
Chapter 10 Alternative methods of dispute resolution
10.1 Negotiation
10.2 Mediation
10.2.1 Formalised settlement conference
10.2.2 Mediation services
10.3 Conciliation
10.4 Advantage of using ADR
10.5 Arbitration
10.5.1 The agreement to arbitrate
10.5.2 The arbitrator
10.5.3 The arbitration hearing
10.5.4 The award
10.5.5 Advantages of arbitration
10.5.6 Disadvantages of arbitration
10.6 Tribunals
10.6.1 Role of tribunals
10.6.2 Tribunals, Courts and Enforcement Act 2007
10.6.3 Composition
10.6.4 Procedure
10.6.5 The Administrative Justice and Tribunals Council
10.6.6 Advantages of tribunals
10.6.7 Disadvantages of tribunals
10.6.8 Domestic tribunals
Chapter 11 Crime and police investigations
11.1 Crime statistics
11.1.1 The British Crime Survey
11.1.2 Annual variations
11.1.3 Investigating crime
11.2 Legislative history
11.2.1 Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure
11.2.2 Miscarriages of justice
11.2.3 The Runciman Commission
11.2.4 The Labour government’s policies
11.2.5 The MacPherson Report
11.3 Police powers
11.3.1 Powers to stop and search
11.3.2 Road checks
11.3.3 The power to search premises
11.3.4 Powers of arrest
11.3.5 Powers of detention
11.3.6 Police interviews of suspects
11.3.7 Searches, fingerprints and body samples
11.4 Complaints against the police
11.4.1 The Independent Police Complaints Commission
11.4.2 Court actions
Chapter 12 Pre-trial procedure in criminal cases
12.1 Pre-trial hearings
12.1.1 Categories of offences
12.1.2 Pre-trial procedure for summary offences
12.1.3 Cases going for trial at the Crown Court
12.2 Bail
12.2.1 Police powers to grant bail
12.2.2 The Bail Act 1976
12.2.3 Restrictions on bail
12.2.4 Prosecution appeals
12.2.5 Balancing conflicting interests
12.3 Crown Prosecution Service (CPS)
12.3.1 Organisation of the CPS
12.3.2 The functions of the CPS
12.3.3 Discontinuation of cases
Chapter 13 Criminal courts
13.1 Magistrates’ Courts
13.1.1 Jurisdiction of the Magistrates’ Courts
13.1.2 Summary trials
13.1.3 Triable-either-way offences
13.1.4 Choosing trial by jury
13.1.5 Sending cases to the Crown Court
13.1.6 Committal for sentence
13.1.7 The role of the clerk
13.2 Youth Courts
13.3 Appeals from the Magistrates’ Court
13.3.1 Appeals to the Crown Court
13.3.2 Case-stated appeals
13.4 The Crown Court
13.4.1 Preliminary matters
13.4.2 The trial
13.5 Appeals from the Crown Court
13.5.1 Appeals by the defendant
13.5.2 Appeals by the prosecution
13.5.3 Appeals to the Supreme Court
13.6 The Criminal Cases Review Commission
Chapter 14 Sentencing
14.1 The role of the courts
14.1.1 Restrictions on the courts’ powers
14.1.2 Minimum sentences
14.2 Aims of sentencing
14.2.1 Retribution
14.2.2 Denunciation
14.2.3 Incapacitation or protection of the public
14.2.4 Deterrence
14.2.5 Rehabilitation
14.2.6 Reparation
14.3 Sentencing practice in the courts
14.3.1 Factors surrounding the offence
14.3.2 Reduction in sentence for a guilty plea
14.3.3 The offender’s background
14.3.4 Sentencing guidelines
14.4 Powers of the courts
14.4.1 Custodial sentences
14.4.2 Community orders
14.4.3 Fines
14.4.4 Discharges
14.4.5 Disqualification from driving
14.4.6 Other powers available to the courts
14.5 Young offenders
14.5.1 Available sentences
14.5.2 Parental responsibility
14.5.3 Youth Offending Teams
14.6 Mentally ill offenders
14.7 Penal policies and their effects
14.7.1 Prison population
14.7.2 Women and sentencing
Chapter 15 The legal profession
15.1 Solicitors
15.1.1 Training
15.1.2 Solicitors’ work
15.1.3 Complaints against solicitors
15.2 Barristers
15.2.1 Training
15.2.2 Barristers’ work
15.2.3 Complaints against barristers
15.3 Queen’s Counsel
15.3.1 History
15.3.2 Current appointment system
15.4 Legal Services Act 2007
15.4.1 Background
15.4.2 The Legal Services Act
15.5 Fusion
15.6 Future reforms
15.7 Women and ethnic minorities in the legal profession
15.8 Legal executives
Chapter 16 The judiciary
16.1 Types of judges
16.1.1 Superior judges
16.1.2 Inferior judges
16.2 Qualifications
16.2.1 The Justices of the Supreme Court
16.2.2 Lords Justices of Appeal
16.2.3 High Court Judges
16.2.4 Circuit Judges
16.2.5 Recorders
16.2.6 District Judges
16.2.7 Tribunal Judges
16.3 Selection
16.3.1 History
16.3.2 Justices of the new Supreme Court
16.3.3 The Judicial Appointments Commission
16.4 Appointment
16.5 Judicial roles
16.5.1 Justices of the Supreme Court
16.5.2 Lords Justices of Appeal
16.5.3 High Court Judges
16.5.4 Inferior Judges
16.6 Composition of the Bench
16.6.1 Women in the judiciary
16.6.2 Ethnic minorities
16.6.3 Educational and social background
16.7 Training
16.7.1 Should there be a ‘career’ judiciary?
16.8 Judges must be impartial
16.8.1 Bias and the Pinochet case
16.8.2 Bias and human rights
16.9 Retirement and dismissal
16.9.1 Security of tenure of superior judges
16.9.2 Tenure of inferior judges
16.9.3 Retirement
16.10 Doctrine of the separation of powers
16.11 Independence of the judiciary
16.11.1 Independence from the legislature
16.11.2 Independence from the executive
16.11.3 Freedom from pressure
16.11.4 Independence from political bias
16.12 The Lord Chancellor
16.13 Law Officers
16.13.1 The Attorney-General
16.13.2 The Solicitor-General
16.13.3 The Director of Public Prosecutions
Chapter 17 Magistrates
17.1 Lay magistrates
17.2 History of the magistracy
17.3 Qualifications
17.3.1 Lay magistrates
17.3.2 Area
17.3.3 Commitment
17.3.4 Restrictions on appointment
17.3.5 District Judges
17.4 Appointment
17.4.1 Local Advisory Committees
17.4.2 Interview process
17.5 Composition of the Bench today
17.6 Magistrates’ duties
17.7 Training of lay magistrates
17.7.1 Training of new magistrates
17.7.2 Mentors
17.7.3 Training sessions
17.7.4 Appraisal
17.8 Retirement and removal
17.8.1 Removal
17.9 The magistrates’ clerk
17.10 Advantages of lay magistrates
17.10.1 Cross-section of society
17.10.2 Local knowledge
17.10.3 Cost
17.10.4 Legal adviser
17.10.5 Few appeals
17.11 Disadvantages of lay magistrates
17.11.1 Middle-aged, middle class
17.11.2 Prosecution bias
17.11.3 Inconsistency in sentencing
17.11.4 Reliance on the clerk
Chapter 18 Juries
18.1 History of the jury system
18.1.1 Independence of the jury
18.2 Modern-day use of the jury
18.2.1 Juries in criminal cases
18.2.2 Juries in civil cases
18.2.3 Coroners’ Courts
18.3 Jury qualifications
18.3.1 Basic qualifications
18.3.2 Disqualification
18.3.3 Mentally disordered persons
18.3.4 Lack of capacity
18.3.5 The right to be excused from jury service
18.3.6 Discretionary excusals
18.3.7 Lawyers and police on juries
18.4 Selecting a jury
18.4.1 Vetting
18.4.2 Selection at court
18.4.3 Challenging
18.4.4 Criticisms of the selection of juries
18.5 The jury’s role in criminal cases
18.5.1 Split function
18.5.2 Majority verdicts
18.5.3 Secrecy
18.6 Advantages of jury trial
18.6.1 Public confidence
18.6.2 Jury equity
18.6.3 Open system of justice
18.6.4 Secrecy of the jury room
18.6.5 Impartiality
18.7 Disadvantages of jury trial
18.7.1 Perverse decisions
18.7.2 Secrecy
18.7.3 Racial bias
18.7.4 Media influence
18.7.5 Lack of understanding
18.7.6 Fraud trials
18.7.7 Jury tampering
18.7.8 High acquittal rates
18.7.9 Other disadvantages
18.8 Special problems of using juries in civil cases
18.8.1 Amount of damages
18.8.2 Unreasoned decision
18.8.3 Bias
18.8.4 Cost
18.9 Alternatives to jury trial
18.9.1 Trial by a single judge
18.9.2 A panel of judges
18.9.3 A judge plus lay assessors
18.9.4 A mini-jury
Chapter 19 Legal aid and advice
19.1 Access to justice
19.2 History of legal aid and advice schemes
19.3 The Access to Justice Act 1999
19.3.1 The Legal Services Commission
19.4 The Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012
19.4.1 Service providers
19.4.2 Criteria for funding civil cases
19.4.3 Availability of legal aid
19.5 Government funding in civil cases
19.5.1 Means testing
19.6 Providers of legal services
19.6.1 Contracts
19.7 Problems with funding of civil cases
19.7.1 Advice deserts
19.7.2 Eligibility levels
19.8 Conditional fees
19.8.1 How conditional fees work
19.8.2 Insurance premiums
19.8.3 Are conditional fees working?
19.9 Advice agencies
19.9.1 Citizens Advice Bureaux
19.9.2 Law centres
19.9.3 Schemes run by lawyers
19.10 Legal aid in criminal cases
19.10.1 Advice and assistance for individuals in custody
19.10.2 Representation
19.10.3 Interests of justice
19.10.4 Magistrates’ Court means testing
19.10.5 Crown Court means testing
19.11 Problems with funding of criminal cases
19.11.1 ‘Interests of justice’ test
19.11.2 Means test
19.11.3 Lack of lawyers
19.11.4 Budget
Chapter 20 Human rights
20.1 The European Convention on Human Rights
20.2 The Human Rights Act 1998
20.2.1 Effect of the Act on interpretation of the law
20.3 Declarations of incompatibility
20.3.1 Government’s response to declarations of incompatibility
20.4 Bringing a case
20.5 Convention rights
20.5.1 The right to life and liberty
20.5.2 The right to a fair trial
20.5.3 The right to privacy
20.5.4 Other freedoms
20.6 European Court of Human Rights
20.6.1 Procedure
20.6.2 Case load
Appendix 1 Hints on some of the activities
Appendix 2 Glossary of Latin terms
Appendix 3 Tips on exam success
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