Research Methods in Psychology · Investigating Human Behavior by Nestor, Paul G. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Halftitle Title Copyright Contents Contents 1 Preface Acknowledgments 1. Uncommon Sense and the Scientific Method

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Biases in Thinking

The Scientific Method

What Is a Scientific Question? From Theory to Testable Hypothesis Variables as the Language of Research Sampling and Populations Evaluating Evidence and Theory Reliability and Validity Statistical Thinking Law of Large Numbers Ruling Out Randomness

Science Versus Pseudoscience

Recognizing Pseudoscience Why Pseudoscience?

Stat Corner

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions

2. The Practice of Psychological Research

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Are you a Maximizer or a Satisficer?

The Research Objective Thinking Research

Description Explanation Practical Knowledge

Research Strategies

Inductive Research Deductive Research

The Research Circle

Getting Started Staking Out the Research Literature The Power of Observation Searching the Literature Let the Searcher Beware! Reading the Research Literature

Communication of Research Products

Writing a Literature Review Writing an Empirical Paper

Stat Corner

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions

3. Ethics in Behavioral Research

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Obedience to Authority

Historical Background Ethical Principles

Achieving Valid Results (Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility) Maintaining Professional Integrity (Principle C: Integrity) Protecting Research Participants (Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence) Encouraging Appropriate Application (Principle D: Justice; Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights)

Stat Corner

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

4. Conceptualization and Measurement

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning What is Happiness?

Theoretical Constructs

Methods of Measurement Operationalizing and Measuring Constructs Advantages of Multiple Methods

Levels of Measurement

Nominal Level of Measurement The Special Case of Dichotomies Ordinal Level of Measurement Interval Level of Measurement Ratio Level of Measurement Comparison of Levels of Measurement Why Measurement Level Matters

The Special Case of Psychometrics Evaluating Measures

Measurement Reliability Stability Over Time Internal Consistency Increasing Reliability

Stat Corner

The Logic of Measurement Validity Face Validity Content Validity Criterion Validity Construct Validity Latent Variable Models Culture and Measurement Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

5. Sampling and Survey Research

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning How Happy are You?

Selecting Research Participants Sample Planning

Define the Population Define Sample Components

Sampling Methods

Nonprobability Sampling Methods Quota Sampling

Probability Sampling Methods

Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Sampling Error

Writing Survey Questions

Avoid Confusing Phrasing Minimize the Risk of Bias Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement Disagreeable Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating

Combining Questions in Indexes and Scales Organizing Surveys

Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys Group-Administered Surveys Telephone Surveys In-Person Interviews Electronic Surveys A Comparison of Survey Designs

Analyzing Surveys

Stat Corner

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

6. Causation and Experimentation: Single-Factorial Designs

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning The Stroop Test: Calisthenics for the Brain?

Basics of Experimentation

Selecting Research Participants Randomly Assigning Research Participants Theater of Independent Variables Simple and Direct Manipulations Covert and Indirect Manipulations Treatment Manipulations Staged Manipulations Measuring Dependent Variables Controlling Confounds

Basic Experimental Designs

Posttest-Only Design Pretest–Posttest Design Multiple Pretests and Posttests

Two Options in Assigning Participants

Independent-Groups Design Matched-Pairs Design Repeated-Measures Design Carryover Effects Randomizing Counterbalancing Selecting Between- or Within-Subjects Allocation

Validity and Experimentation

Internal Validity Causality and Chance Type I and Type II Errors External Validity Sample Generalizability Ecological Validity Replication Validity

Stat Corner

Can Causality Be Established?

Mistakes in Reasoning About Causality

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

7. Complex Research Designs: Multifactorial Experiments

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Facial Expressions of Emotions

Multifactorial Designs

Notations and Terms Theory and Experimentation Design Questions Adding an Independent Variable

Within-Subjects Experiment

A 2 × 2 Within-Subjects Design Operationalizing Independent Variables The 2 × 2 Design Main Effects Interactions Interpreting Results

The 2 × 2 Logic Between-Subjects Experiment A 2 × 3 Between-Subjects Design Operationalizing Independent Variables Manipulation Check Main Effects and Interactions Interpreting Results

Stat Corner

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

8. Quasi-Experimental and Nonexperimental Designs

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Flashbulb Memories of 9/11

Quasi-Experimental Designs

Nonequivalent Control Group Designs Before-and-After Designs Time-Series Designs Before-and-After Design With Multiple Groups

A Quasi-Experiment of Memories of 9/11

Ex Post Facto Variables and Comparison Groups Correlational Relationships

Stat Corner

Quasi-Experimental Design Features Quasi-Experimental Research of Culture and Cognition

Constructivist Theories of Culture Experimental Tasks and Stimuli

Developmental Studies

Cross-Sectional Design Longitudinal Design Design Challenges A Developmental Study of Brain Maturation

Nonexperimental Research

Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs

Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

9. Small-N and Single-Subject Designs

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Modifying Behavior

Foundations of Small-N Designs

Repeated Measurement Baseline Phase Treatment Phase Graphing

Measuring Targets of Intervention Types of Small-N and Single-Subject Designs

Basic Design (A–B) Withdrawal Designs Multiple-Baseline Designs Multiple-Treatment Designs

Analyzing Small-N and Single-Subject Designs

Visual Analysis Variability Interpreting Visual Patterns Problems of Interpretation

Stat Corner

Internal Validity Generalizability Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

10. Quantitative Data Analysis

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning Does Spending Money on others Promote Happiness?

Statistical Approach

The Level of Measurement Matters

Univariate Distributions

Frequency Distributions Graphing Beware of Deceptive Graphs

Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency Mode Median Mean Median Versus Mean Measures of Variation

Inferential Statistics

Hypothesis Testing The Dilemma of Type 1 and Type 11 Errors t Test Analysis of Variance Chi-Square Correlation

The Ethics of Statistics Conclusions

Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

11. Qualitative Methods

Learning Objectives: Fast Facts Testing Before Learning When School and Family Commitments Conflict

Fundamentals of Qualitative Research Methods for Collecting Qualitative Data Qualitative Interviewing

Selecting Interviewees Asking Questions and Recording Answers Developing Rapport

Participant Observation

Entering the Field Managing Relationships Taking Notes Managing the Personal Dimensions

Systematic Observation Focus Groups Mixed Methods Qualitative Data Analysis

Documentation Conceptualizing, Coding, and Categorizing Examining Relationships and Displaying Data Authenticating Conclusions

Stat Corner

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research Conclusions

Chapter Highlights Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

12. Essentials of APA Report Writing

The APA Format Report Organization in the APA Format

Title Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References

Literature Review Poster Presentation Sample Paper Conclusions

Chapter Highlights Key Terms Research in the News Activity Questions Review Questions Ethics in Action

Appendix A: Summaries of Frequently Cited Research Articles Appendix B: Questions to Ask About a Research Article Appendix C: How to Read a Research Article Appendix D: Proportions of Area Under Standard Normal Curve Appendix E: Critical Values for t Distribution Appendix F: Critical Values of F Appendix G: Critical Values of Chi-Square Appendix H: Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient Appendix I: Table of Random Numbers Glossary References Exhibit Credits Index About the Authors Advertisement

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