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Index
Title page
Copyright
Contents
Acknowledgments
1 Futuristic Visions
2 Medievel Mind
The Mind’s Virtual-Reality Show
Aristotle’s Legacy
SCHOLASTICISM AND THE DIRECT APPREHENSION OF KNOWLEDGE
The Scientific Revolution
KNOWLEDGE AS SOMETHING TO BE DISCOVERED
DESCARTES’S MECHANICAL UNIVERSE
REFLEXIVE MIND?
MIND-BODY DUALISM
3 Mechanical Mind
The Rise of Mathematics
EARLY NUMEROPHOBIA
STAKING OUT EMPIRES - THE DEMANDS OF NAVIGATION
From Clocks to Calculators
THE MATHEMATICS OF CHANGE: LEIBNIZ, NEWTON, AND THE CALCULUS
LEIBNIZ’S VISION OF MECHANIZING THOUGHT
Number Factories
HOSTS DE TABLES
CHARLES BABBAGE - THE VON NEUMANN OF THE MECHANICAL AGE
A MATHEMATICAL WORKHORSE: THE DIFFERENCE ENGINE
LEIBNIZ RESURRECTED: THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE
End of a Lineage: The Giant Calculators
4 Logical Mind
Searching for Truth
REASONING
IT STARTED WITH THE GREEKS: CLASSICAL LOGIC
AN AID TO CLARIFICATION: JOHN VENN’S DIAGRAMS
Symbolizing Logic
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA: GEORGE BOOLE’S LAWS OF THOUGHT
Mechanizing Logic
BABBAGE’S VISION: THE ANALYTICAL ENGINE
BEYOND PROPOSITIONS: GOTTLOB FREGE AND THE PREDICATE CALCULUS
FORMALIZING MATHEMATICS: RUSSELL’S PARADOX
KURT GÖDEL: SOME QUESTIONS WILL ALWAYS BE UNDECIDABLE
5 Cybernetic Mind
A Control-Theory View of Mind
FEEDBACK
BIOLOGICAL FEEDBACK
The Brain as an Information Processor
NORBERT WIENER AND “CYBERNETICS”
THE BRAIN AS A SWITCHING NETWORK
6 Calculator to Computer
Special Purpose and General Purpose
FINITE-STATE AUTOMATA
HILBERT’S CHALLENGE AND TURING’S MACHINES
THE UNIVERSAL TURING MACHINE
The Modern Computer Emerges
ONE SIZE FITS ALL: PROGRAMMABILITY
MACHINES WITH THE SPEED OF LIGHT: ELECTRONIC SWITCHING
ENIAC - ELECTRONIC LEIBNIZ WHEELS
JOHN VON NEUMANN AND THE FINAL COMPONENT: INTERNAL STORED PROGRAM
7 Computational Mind
The First-Ever Versatile Machine
Turing’s 1950 Paper
THINKING MACHINES?
THE TURING TEST
A Huge Finite-State Machine
THE BRAIN’S MECHANICAL BASEMENT
TRANSCENDING THE PARTS: EMERGENT PROPERTIES
PREDICTABILITY SUBMERGING: THE WHIMSICAL MACHINE
THE COMPUTER AS A HIERARCHY
Representations Beyond Numbers
THE COMPUTER AS A GENERAL SYMBOL-MANIPULATOR
NEWELL AND SIMON - OBSERVING THE WAY WE REALLY DO THINGS
THE RAND STUDY - THE BEGINNINGS OF A FORTY-YEAR PARTNERSHIP
8 Computer to Symbol Processor
Dealing with Everyday Life
THIS THING CALLED COMMON SENSE
ELIMINATING THE NONSENSICAL
The First AI Program
THE BIRTH OF “LOGIC THEORIST”
PROVING LOGIC
ALGORITHMS
Human Problem Solving
DECISIONS, DECISIONS... THE COMBINATORIAL EXPLOSION
HEURISTICS: COMPUTERS ARE QUICKER BUT PEOPLE ARE SLICKER
LT’S PERFORMANCE
Dartmouth 1956: The Founding Fathers
JOHN MCCARTHY NAMES THE NEW FIELD
MARVIN MINSKY AND THE TRAINING OF THE “SNARC”
THE DIGITAL COMPUTER PARADIGM: AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF THE MIND
9 Charting New Territory
IBM’s Geometry Theorem Prover
Taming Babel
THE STANDARDIZATION OF COMMON LANGUAGES
LIST PROCESSING, JOHN MCCARTHY, AND LISP
MIT’s AI Group and Project MAC
THE DEVELOPMENT OF TIME SHARING
“Intelligence” and Search Reduction
PROBLEM SPACES
GENERATING SEARCH TREES
HEURISTIC SEARCHING
The Very Model of a Problem-Solver General: GPS at Carnegie Tech
MEANS-ENDS ANALYSIS
DIFFERENCE TABLES AND OPERATORS
SUBGOALS AND PLANNING
An Example of Subgoals: The “15 Problem”
Successors to GPS
SWITCHING BETWEEN PROBLEM SPACES
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
THE INSTRUCTABLE PRODUCTION SYSTEM
KEEPING MOVING WHEN THERE’S NO OBVIOUS PLACE TO GO: “WEAK METHODS”
GPS+IPS: The “Soar” Lineage
10 Occam’s Chain Saw
Laboratories of Life
Early Game-Playing Programs
FIRST ATTEMPTS AND SPECULATIONS - TURING AND SHANNON
Checkers and Chess at IBM
ARTHUR SAMUEL’S FUND-RAISING TRIVIALITY
ALEX BERNSTEIN: GETTING THE FIRST TRUE MEASURE OF THE PROBLEM
Games in General7
Game Trees and Searching
STATE TRANSITIONS AGAIN
BACKING UP
NOT SO TRIVIAL: A CLOSER LOOK AT CHECKERS
MINIMAXING
THE ALPHA-BETA TECHNIQUE
Learning
ROTE LEARNING
LEARNING THROUGH GENERALIZATION
World-Champion Class
HANS BERLINER’S BACKGAMMON PROGRAM
Random Element
COMPUTERS DON’T HAVE MINDS BUT MAY SOMETIMES READ YOURS
11 Top Gun
The Early Program Duels
MACHACK FROM MAC
Automatic Weapons
NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY’S “CHESS” SERIES AND BELL LABS’ “BELLE”
THE CRAY BLITZ: SUPERCOMPUTERS ENTER THE ACT
LEAN, MEAN MACHINE: HANS BERLINER’S HITECH
The AI Effect
Tank Warfare
THE ARRIVAL OF THE CHESS ENGINES
HUMANS 4, MACHINES 2: KASPAROV AND DEEP BLUE, 1996
THE CITADEL FALLS: 1997
So Is This Intelligence?
INTELLIGENCE EVERYWHERE
WHY 747S DON’T HAVE FEATHERS
12 Adventures in Toyland
A World of Knowledge
GENERALIZING FROM EXPERIENCE
RECOGNIZING BY STEREOTYPE: TEMPLATE MATCHING
NOT SO ELEMENTARY, WATSON: THE LIMITATIONS OF DEDUCTION
College Course or Trade Apprenticeship?
TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP
NURSERY SCHOOLS FOR COMPUTERS: MINSKY AND PAPERT
Playpens for Programs: The Blocks Micro Worlds Project
THE BEGINNINGS OF ARTIFICIAL VISION
FINDING SHAPES
SEEING STRUCTURES
Toddler Talk: Communicating with the Micro Worlds
TERRY WINOGRAD’S “BLOCKS WORLD”
13 “Bottom-Up” AI
Neural Nets and Perceptrons
Vision Basics
A PERSPECTIVE ON THE PROBLEM
A COMPUTER’S-EYE VIEW OF THE WORLD
David Marr’s Theory of Vision4
FIRST, FIND THE LANDMARKS
CONSTRUCTION OF FORM
PARALLEL MECHANISMS AND ROBUSTNESS
WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS AN ELEPHANT?
“Object-Centered” Vision at Stanford
TOM BINFORD’S GENERALIZED CYLINDERS
BUILDING CYLINDERS INTO OBJECTS
If Seeing Is Believing, Doing Is Proving: Mobility and Robotics
EARLY DAYS OF ROBOTICS
HANS MORAVEC’S STANFORD CART12
PLUTO, NEPTUNE, AND URANUS AT CARNEGIE MELLON
EVIDENCE GRIDS
Robot Road Vehicles
Doing Away with Representation
THE WORLD AS ITS OWN BEST MODEL
INCREMENTAL INTELLIGENCE
ROBOTS IN ALL SHAPES AND SIZES
So What Happened to Intelligence?
14 Seeing What You Mean
Language as the Reservoir of Knowledge
The Indispensability of “Understanding”
AN EARLY FAILURE: AUTOMATIC TRANSLATION
Noam Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar
Understanding versus Recognition
RECOGNITION OF SPEECH
Illusions and Delusions
JOSEPH WEIZENBAUM AND ELIZA
At Last - Getting Down to Meaning
SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS
Language on the Dissecting Table
SENTENCE PARSING10
TYING OFF ENDS
DINERS CLUB PARTY. AMBIGUITY TESTS MATTER.
Exploring Semantics
ASSOCIATIVE NETS
“DEEP CASES” AND ATNS
ROGER SCHANK AND “CONCEPTUAL DEPENDENCY”
SETTING EXPECTATIONS: “SCRIPTS”
GETTING A PERSPECTIVE: CARICATURES OF ATTITUDES
HAVING GOALS AND MOTIVATIONS
In Conclusion
15 Learning: The Indispensable Prerequisite
What Teachers Don’t Have to Teach
THE BOOTSTRAP PROBLEM: HOW CAN SOMETHING LEARN HOW TO LEARN?
Creating Links
ED FEIGENBAUM AND EPAM
Learning by Discovering
DOUG LENAT’S “AUTOMATED MATHEMATICIAN”
LEARNING TO PLAY WITH THE RULES: EURISKO
A SPECULATION FOR NONRANDOM BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION 9
“Chunking” with Soar
Education by Brain Surgery: Expert Systems
DENDRAL: ORGANIC CHEMIST
MYCIN: CONSULTANT PHYSICIAN
THE EIGHTIES BANDWAGON
FRAGMENTS OF THE WORLD
MCC and the CYC Project
16 In Pursuit of Common Sense
“Everybody Knows”: The Unsaid Obvious
BACKGROUNDS WE ALL SHARE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES APPLY - EXCEPT WHEN THEY DON’T
MARVIN MINSKY’S FRAMES OF MIND
Induction and Inference
GENERALIZING
WHAT’S INDUCTION? LET ME GIVE YOU A FEW EXAMPLES
EXAGGERATION AND UNDERSTATEMENT - WE DO IT ALL THE TIME
An Analogy Is Like a Lens: Focusing Attention in the Right Place
FINDING “LIKENESS”
TWO PARTS TO AN ANALOGY: REPRESENTATION AND MAPPING
DOUGLAS HOFSTADTER’S NUMBER SEQUENCES
Metaphor: Recycled Experience
Rediscovering “Mind”
A SCIENCE OF GENERAL COGNITION
Mind as a Consensus
PROGRAM POLITICS
MARVIN MINSKY’S HIGH SOCIETY
17 Critics and Skeptics
Aliens Approaching
OUR UNIQUENESS UNDER SIEGE
SKIRMISHING AROUND GODEL: THE MATHEMATICAL OBJECTIONS
Enter the Philosophers: Hubert Dreyfus
“ALCHEMY AND AI”
A CRITIQUE OF IMPURE REASON
FOUR PILLARS OF WISDOM
GOING BY THE BOOK - UNTIL YOU KNOW BETTER
John Searle’s Chinese Turing Test
18 Getting Better Connected
Parkinson’s Law of Computing
MORE ON EXPONENTIAL EXPLOSIONS
RUNNING A ONE-DESK COMPANY: SERIAL ARCHITECTURE
REGIONAL OFFICES OR A BRANCH ON EVERY MAIN STREET? DEGREES OF PARALLELISM
The New Connectionism
DISTRIBUTED MIND: THE ARCHITECTURE OF BRAINS
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETS
Parallel Distributed Processing
A NEW MODEL FOR COGNITION
AN EXAMPLE OF A PDP MODEL
RUGGED TOO
REMEMBERING BY ASSOCIATION: CONTENT ADDRESSABILITY
REPRESENTATION AND LEARNING
DISTRIBUTED KNOWLEDGE AND PATTERN ASSOCIATION
GENERALIZING AND LEARNING
PDP CRITICISMS AND LIMITATIONS
Emergence of the Dual-Mode Mind
19 Molecules of Mind
The Halfway Level: “Copycat” at Indiana University
DOUG HOFSTADTER’S ANALOGIES - AGAIN
GENERALIZED ANALOGY-MAKING
SOFTWARE ENZYMES: COPYCAT’S ARCHITECTURE
Thermodynamics of Thinking: Boltzmann Machines
Grubbing About in Statistics: Data Mining
DATA OVERLOAD: A SAHARA OF NUMBERS
CATALOGING THE SKY3
DETECTING CELLULAR PHONE FRAUD4
DIGGING AL FOUNDATIONS
Holographic Mind
Emulating Genetics: Toward Programs That Write Themselves
Quantum Mind - the Root of Originality?
The Price of Versatility
20 So Where Does It All Leave Us?
Bibliography
FICTION
NONFICTION
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