Field Methods in Archaeology by Hester, Thomas R. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Title Page Copyright Page CONTENTS Preface 1 Introduction

Contemporary Issues The Burgeoning Literature Archaeology and Archaeologists Guide to Further Reading

2 Goals of Archaeological Investigation

Kinds of Archaeology

Archaeology of the Classical World Prehistoric Archaeology Historical Archaeology

Industrial Archaeology Nautical or Underwater Archaeology

Anthropological Archaeology: A Chronology of Change

Cultural-historical Era New or Processual Archaeology Era Postprocessual Era Cultural Resource Management and Salvage Archaeology Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990

Goals of Archaeology Today

Form Function Process Meaning

Guide to Further Reading

3 Research Design and Sampling Techniques

Research Design

Formulation Implementation Data Acquisition Data Processing Data Analysis Interpretation of Data Dissemination of the Results

Sampling Methods

Nonprobabilistic Sampling Probabilistic Sampling

Cluster Sampling Nested Sampling Selecting a Random Sampling Method Simple Random Sampling Systematic Random Sampling Systematic Unaligned Sampling Stratified Random Sampling

Sample Fraction and Sample Size Sample Units Surface Collecting Excavation Sampling

Sampling Realities Guide to Further Reading

4 Site Survey

Goals of Site Survey Survey Phases Basic Considerations in Site Survey

Artifacts Features or Facilities Anthropic Soil Horizons Chemical Anomalies Instrument Anomalies

Factors in Survey Design

Visibility Obtrusiveness Accessibility

Background Research

Literature Review Local Informants History and Ethnohistory Environmental Variables

Field Methods in Site Survey

Pedestrian Survey Subsurface Survey

Comparison of Methods Test-pitting Effectiveness

Chemical Survey Remote Sensing: Instrument Anomaly Survey

Passive Procedures Active Procedures

Remote Sensing: Aerial Survey

Practical Considerations Guide to Further Reading

5 Methods of Excavation

Tools and Equipment for Field Archaeology

Large Tools Hand Tools Other Handy Implements

Approaches to Excavation Site Excavation Techniques

Trenching Strip and Quartering Architectural-unit Excavation Area Excavation Stripping

Excavation Methods

Vertical-face Methods Unit-level Method Natural-stratigraphic-level Method

Screening Excavated Deposits Excavating a “Typical” Unit

Important Considerations The Excavation Itself

Excavating Special Site Types

Water-saturated Sites Caves and Rockshelters Structural Remains

Backdirt and Backfilling Some Hazards in Fieldwork Guide to Further Reading

6 Data Preservation: Recording and Collecting

Preserving Context Through Record Keeping

Measuring Provenience

Horizontal Location Vertical Location and Extent

Recording Stratigraphy

Associating Records with Objects Computerized Record Keeping Collection and Protection of Certain Artifacts

Lithics Ceramics

Collection and Analysis of Soil Samples Rock Art Recording Guide to Further Reading

7 The Handling and Conservation of Artifacts in the Field

General Field Procedures Materials to Use and to Avoid Field Techniques for Specific Artifact Types

Bone Antler Shell Stone Textiles Metal Wood Ceramics Special Cases

Curation Facilities

Field Record Considerations Laboratory Curation Considerations

Guide to Further Reading

8 Archaeological Field Photography

Objectives of Field Photography

Photo Documentation Photo Illustration General Purposes

Some Basic Elements of Photography

Film Speed Diaphragm Opening Exposure Time Relationship Between Diaphragm Opening and Exposure Time Light Intensity

Camera Equipment Accessory Equipment Some Suggestions for Field Photography Field Care of Equipment Subject Matter

General Site Views Features and Burials Excavation Methods and Techniques Soil Profiles Petroglyphs and Pictographs Artifacts

Negative Storage Field Photography: A Recap Guide to Further Reading

9 Archaeological Mapping, Site Grids, and Surveying

Imaging Techniques

Remote Sensing Imagery Aerial Photographs Terrestrial Photographs and Photogrammetry

General Map Types USGS Topographic Quadrangles

1:250,000-scale Maps (1-×-2-degree Series) 1:100,000-scale Maps (30-×-60-minute Series) 1:63,500-scale Maps (15-minute Series) 1:24,000-scale Maps (7.5-minute Series) Other USGS Map Products Information Given on Topographic Quadrangles Symbols Used on Topographic Quadrangles Contour Lines on Topographic Quadrangles Elevations on Topographic Quadrangles Direction on Topographic Quadrangles Distances on Topographic Quadrangles Locational Reference Systems on Topographic Quadrangles

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) (“Latitude and Longitude”) Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Grid System

Box 9.1: Determining the UTM Grid Location of Archaeological Sites

United States Public Land Survey System (USPLSS) (System of Rectangular Surveys)

Box 9.2: Gunter’s Chain

State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS)

Box 9.3: Determining Site Location Using the USPLSS (“Legal Location”)

Metes-and-Bounds (MB)

Land Information Systems (LIS) Archaeological Site Record Maps

Information and Equipment Needs

Determining Direction

Box 9.4: Using an Orienteering Compass

Determining Distance

Identifying the Site Reference Point

Box 9.5: Measuring Slope Distance by Breaking Tape Box 9.6: Obtaining Slope Reduction and Difference in Elevation by Clinometer or Abney Level

Drafting a Site Record Map

Box 9.7: Using Horizontal Angles to Obtain the Position of Features at Unknown Distances

Site Datum Point and Site Grid

Establishing the Datum Point Grid Theory

Box 9.8: Laying Out Expedient Grids and Picket Lines

Constructing a Small Grid

Box 9.9: Laying Out a Grid Using the 3-4-5 Tape Method

Plane Table Method

Constructing Very Large Grids

Electronic Stake-out

The Global Positioning System (GPS) and Mapping Archaeological Site Plan Maps

Instruments Used in Site Plan Mapping

Plane Table and Alidade Transit, Theodolite, and Engineer’s Level Comparative Merits of Plane Table and Alidade Versus Transits

Instruments for Distance Measurement

By Stadia (Tacheometry) Advantages and Disadvantages of the Stadia Method Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMI)

Box 9.10: Survey Targets, Prism Rods, and Rodpersons

Radio

Helpful Hints

Establishing the Site Bench Mark and Datum Plane

Instrument Height Site Bench Mark and Datum Plane

Plotting Contour Lines Computer-assisted Site Mapping

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Elements of a GIS Archaeological Applications of GIS

Computers and Electronics in Surveying and Mapping

Cartographic Software Computer-assisted Drafting (CAD) Computer Modeling: Thematic Depictions and Virtual Reconstruction

Map Production

Questions to Consider Map Drafting Materials Data Compilation Cartographic Symbols Lettering

Typing Transfer Letters Leroy Lettering Kroytype Lettering Computer Fonts

Shading and Pattern Transfers Production Considerations Color Reproduction Oversize Maps

Parting Thoughts Guide to Further Reading

10 Stratigraphy

Definition Principles Goals Techniques of Excavation, Labeling, and Recording Special Situations The Problem of Sampling Special Aids Guide to Further Reading

11 Excavation and Analysis of Human Remains

Why Excavate Human Remains? Research with Skeletal Populations

Paleodemography Paleopathology Paleodietary analysis

Skeletal Biology

Biological Affinity Cultural Behavior Taphonomy

Types of Interments

Primary Interments Secondary Interments Multiple Interments Cremations Adventitious Remains

Excavating Burials

Exposing the Burial Burial Records Removing the Burial Cleaning and Packing

Osteological Analysis

Determination of Sex Determination of Age Metric Data Collection Paleopathology Biological Affinity

Legal and Ethical Considerations Guide to Further Reading

12 Excavation and Recovery of Botanical Materials from Archaeological Sites

Material Types

Pollen

Sampling the Overall Pollen Rain Sampling Archaeological Sediments Sampling Artifactual Material

Phytoliths Wood and Charcoal Seeds Coprolites Matrix and Fiber Analysis

Processing Methods Guide to Further Reading

13 Basic Approaches in Archaeological Faunal Analysis

Faunal Assemblage Composition Common Research Topics Data Collection

Sampling Strategies

Box 13.1: Faunal Assemblage Background Information

Field and Laboratory Treatment of Specimens Animal Identification Data Recording Quantification

Taphonomy and Factors Affecting Faunal Assemblage Composition

Nonhuman Factors Affecting an Assemblage Human Factors Affecting an Assemblage

Reconstructing Human Diet and Subsistence Estimating Seasonality Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction Ethical Considerations Guide to Further Reading

14 Chronological Methods

Methods for Absolute (Chronometric) Chronology

Dendrochronology Radiocarbon Analysis

Collecting Samples in the Field Evaluating a Radiocarbon Date Calibration of Radiocarbon Dates Publishing Radiocarbon Dates Other Problems in Radiocarbon Dating

Electron Spin Resonance Thermoluminescence Potassium-argon Dating Uranium-series Dating Fission Track Dating Obsidian-hydration Dating Archaeomagnetic Dating Amino Acid Dating Varve Analysis Other Physical and Chemical Dating Methods Association of Dated Historic Materials or Identifiable Sites Methods for Relative Chronology

Stratigraphy Chemical Analysis of Bone Patination and Desert Varnish Analysis Seriation Rate of Refuse Accumulation Cross-dating

Geological Methods

Concluding Observations Guide to Further Reading

Appendix A—Tables of Equivalents and Conversion Factors Appendix B—Sources of Supplies and Services References Cited List of Contributors Credits Index

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