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Index
1 Introduction
1-1 Definition of Photogrammetry
1-2 History of Photogrammetry
1-3 Types of Photographs
1-4 Taking Vertical Aerial Photographs
1-5 Existing Aerial Photography
1-6 Uses of Photogrammetry
1-7 Photogrammetry and Geographic Information Systems
1-8 Professional Photogrammetry Organizations
References
Problems
2 Principles of Photography and Imaging
2-1 Introduction
2-2 Fundamental Optics
2-3 Lenses
2-4 Single-Lens Camera
2-5 Illuminance
2-6 Relationship of Aperture and Shutter Speed
2-7 Characteristics of Photographic Emulsions
2-8 Processing and Printing Black-and-White Photographs
2-9 Spectral Sensitivity of Emulsions
2-10 Filters
2-11 Color Film
2-12 Digital Images
2-13 Color Image Representation
2-14 Digital Image Display
References
Problems
3 Cameras and Other Imaging Devices
3-1 Introduction
3-2 Metric Cameras for Aerial Mapping
3-3 Main Parts of Frame Aerial Cameras
3-4 Focal Plane and Fiducial Marks
3-5 Shutters
3-6 Camera Mounts
3-7 Camera Controls
3-8 Automatic Data Recording
3-9 Digital Mapping Cameras
3-10 Camera Calibration
3-11 Laboratory Methods of Camera Calibration
3-12 Stellar and Field Methods of Camera Calibration
3-13 Calibration of Nonmetric Cameras
3-14 Calibrating the Resolution of a Camera
References
Problems
4 Image Measurements and Refinements
4-1 Introduction
4-2 Coordinate Systems for Image Measurements
4-3 Simple Scales for Photographic Measurements
4-4 Measuring Photo Coordinates with Simple Scales
4-5 Comparator Measurement of Photo Coordinates
4-6 Photogrammetric Scanners
4-7 Refinement of Measured Image Coordinates
4-8 Distortions of Photographic Films and Papers
4-9 Image Plane Distortion
4-10 Reduction of Coordinates to an Origin at the Principal Point
4-11 Correction for Lens Distortions
4-12 Correction for Atmospheric Refraction
4-13 Correction for Earth Curvature
4-14 Measurement of Feature Positions and Edges
References
Problems
5 Object Space Coordinate Systems
5-1 Introduction
5-2 Concepts of Geodesy
5-3 Geodetic Coordinate System
5-4 Geocentric Coordinates
5-5 Local Vertical Coordinates
5-6 Map Projections
5-7 Horizontal and Vertical Datums
References
Problems
6 Vertical Photographs
6-1 Geometry of Vertical Photographs
6-2 Scale
6-3 Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Flat Terrain
6-4 Scale of a Vertical Photograph Over Variable Terrain
6-5 Average Photo Scale
6-6 Other Methods of Determining Scale of Vertical Photographs
6-7 Ground Coordinates from a Vertical Photograph
6-8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph
6-9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph
6-10 Error Evaluation
References
Problems
7 Stereoscopic Viewing
7-1 Depth Perception
7-2 The Human Eye
7-3 Stereoscopic Depth Perception
7-4 Viewing Photographs Stereoscopically
7-5 Stereoscopes
7-6 The Use of Stereoscopes
7-7 Causes of Y Parallax
7-8 Vertical Exaggeration in Stereoviewing
References
Problems
8 Stereoscopic Parallax
8-1 Introduction
8-2 Photographic Flight-Line Axes for Parallax Measurement
8-3 Monoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
8-4 Principle of the Floating Mark
8-5 Stereoscopic Methods of Parallax Measurement
8-6 Parallax Equations
8-7 Elevations by Parallax Differences
8-8 Simplified Equation for Heights of Objects from Parallax Differences
8-9 Measurement of Parallax Differences
8-10 Computing Flying Height and Air Base
8-11 Error Evaluation
References
Problems
9 Elementary Methods of Planimetric Mapping for GIS
9-1 Introduction
9-2 Planimetric Mapping with Reflection Instruments
9-3 Georeferencing of Digital Imagery
9-4 Heads-Up Digitizing
9-5 Photomaps
9-6 Mosaics
9-7 Uncontrolled Digital Mosaics
9-8 Semicontrolled Digital Mosaics
9-9 Controlled Digital Mosaics
References
Problems
10 Tilted and Oblique Photographs
10-1 Introduction
10-2 Point Perspective
10-3 Angular Orientation in Tilt, Swing, and Azimuth
10-4 Auxiliary Tilted Photo Coordinate System
10-5 Scale of a Tilted Photograph
10-6 Relief Displacement on a Tilted Photograph
10-7 Determining the Angle of Inclination of the Camera Axis in Oblique Photography
10-8 Computing Horizontal and Vertical Angles from Oblique Photos
10-9 Angular Orientation in Omega-Phi-Kappa
10-10 Determining the Elements of Exterior Orientation
10-11 Rectification of Tilted Photographs
10-12 Correction for Relief of Ground Control Points Used in Rectification
10-13 Analytical Rectification
10-14 Optical-Mechanical Rectification
10-15 Digital Rectification
10-16 Atmospheric Refraction in Tilted Aerial Photographs
References
Problems
11 Introduction to Analytical Photogrammetry
11-1 Introduction
11-2 Image Measurements
11-3 Control Points
11-4 Collinearity Condition
11-5 Coplanarity Condition
11-6 Space Resection by Collinearity
11-7 Space Intersection by Collinearity
11-8 Analytical Stereomodel
11-9 Analytical Interior Orientation
11-10 Analytical Relative Orientation
11-11 Analytical Absolute Orientation
References
Problems
12 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments
12-1 Introduction
12-2 Classification of Stereoscopic Plotters
PART I DIRECT OPTICAL PROJECTION STEREOPLOTTERS
12-3 Components
12-4 Projection Systems
12-5 Viewing and Tracing Systems
12-6 Interior Orientation
12-7 Relative Orientation
12-8 Absolute Orientation
PART II ANALYTICAL PLOTTERS
12-9 Introduction
12-10 System Components and Method of Operation
12-11 Analytical Plotter Orientation
12-12 Three-Dimensional Operation of Analytical Plotters
12-13 Modes of Use of Analytical Plotters
PART III SOFTCOPY PLOTTERS
12-14 Introduction
12-15 System Hardware
12-16 Image Measurements
12-17 Orientation Procedures
12-18 Epipolar Geometry
References
Problems
13 Topographic Mapping and Spatial Data Collection
13-1 Introduction
13-2 Direct Compilation of Planimetric Features by Stereoplotter
13-3 Direct Compilation of Contours by Stereoplotter
13-4 Digitizing Planimetric Features from Stereomodels
13-5 Representing Topographic Features in Digital Mapping
13-6 Digital Elevation Models and Indirect Contouring
13-7 Automatic Production of Digital Elevation Models
13-8 Orthophoto Generation
13-9 Map Editing
References
Problems
14 Laser Scanning Systems
14-1 Introduction
14-2 Principles and Hardware
14-3 Airborne Laser Scanning
14-4 Terrestrial Laser Scanning
14-5 Laser Scan Data
14-5 Error Evaluation
References
Problems
15 Fundamental Principles of Digital Image Processing
15-1 Introduction
15-2 The Digital Image Model
15-3 Spatial Frequency of a Digital Image
15-4 Contrast Enhancement
15-5 Spectral Transformations
15-6 Moving Window Operations
15-7 Multiscale Representation
15-8 Digital Image Matching
15-9 Summary
References
Problems
16 Control for Aerial Photogrammetry
16-1 Introduction
16-2 Ground Control Images and Artificial Targets
16-3 Number and Location of Photo Control
16-4 Traditional Field Survey Methods for Establishing Horizontal and Vertical Control
16-5 Fundamentals of the Global Positioning System
16-6 Kinematic GPS Positioning
16-7 Inertial Navigation Systems
16-8 GPS-INS Integration
References
Problems
17 Aerotriangulation
17-1 Introduction
17-2 Pass Points for Aerotriangulation
17-3 Fundamentals of Semianalytical Aerotriangulation
17-4 Sequential Construction of a Strip Model from Independent Models
17-5 Adjustment of a Strip Model to Ground
17-6 Simultaneous Bundle Adjustment
17-7 Initial Approximations for the Bundle Adjustment
17-8 Bundle Adjustment with Airborne GPS Control
17-9 Interpretation of Bundle Adjustment Results
17-10 Aerotriangulation with Airborne Linear Array Sensors
17-11 Satellite Image Triangulation
17-12 Efficient Computational Strategies for Aerotriangulation
References
Problems
18 Project Planning
18-1 Introduction
18-2 Importance of Flight Planning
18-3 Photographic End Lap and Side Lap
18-4 Purpose of the Photography
18-5 Photo Scale
18-6 Flying Height
18-7 Ground Coverage
18-8 Weather Conditions
18-9 Season of the Year
18-10 Flight Map
18-11 Specifications
18-12 Cost Estimating and Scheduling
References
Problems
19 Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry
19-1 Introduction
19-2 Applications of Terrestrial and Close-Range Photogrammetry
19-3 Terrestrial Cameras
19-4 Matrix Equations for Analytical Self-Calibration
19-5 Initial Approximations for Least Squares Adjustment
19-6 Solution Approach for Self-Calibration Adjustment
19-7 Control for Terrestrial Photogrammetry
19-8 Analytical Self-Calibration Example
19-9 Planning for Close-Range Photogrammetry
References
Problems
20 Photogrammetric Applications in GIS
20-1 Introduction
20-2 Land and Property Management
20-3 Floodplain Rating
20-4 Water Quality Management
20-5 Wildlife Management
20-6 Environmental Monitoring
20-7 Wetland Analysis
20-8 Transportation
20-9 Multipurpose Land Information System
20-10 Summary
References
Problems
A Units, Errors, Significant Figures, and Error Propagation
B Introduction to Least Squares Adjustment
C Coordinate Transformations
D Development of Collinearity Condition Equations
E Digital Resampling
F Conversions Between Object Space Coordinate Systems
Index
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