Histories of Maize by Staller, John -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Table of Contents Contributors An Introduction to the Histories of Maize Part I Histories of Maize: Genetic, Morphological, and Microbotanical Evidence

1. Differing Approaches and Perceptions in the Study of New and Old World Crops

Introduction Different Emphases in New and Old World Agriculture

Reasons for the Difference in Emphasis Outcomes of the Difference in Emphasis

Different Perceptions of the Role of Science

2. Maize in the Americas

Purpose and Scope of Review Introduction

Genetic Evidence of Teosinte Domestication Genetic Evidence of Population Manipulation Archaeological-Macrobotanical-Evidence of Teosinte Domestication and Maize Agriculture Pollen Evidence for Use of Zea and Climate Change and Phytoliths Document Neotropical Plant Domestication

Juxtaposing the Archaeological and Genetic Evidence for Early Maize

3. Origin of Polystichy in Maize

Abstract Introduction: The Origin of Maize The Maizoid Eve—An Emphatic Restatement

The Maizoid Eve Concept Is Useful and Should Not Be Rejected

First for Sugar, Then for Grain: Reflections on Corn Domestication Chronology The Cupulate Fruitcase and the Ear Cluster: Adaptive Marvels of Coordinated Sequential Maturation The Origin of Polystichy in Maize

An Abbreviated History The “Twisted Cob Hypothesis” of Collins: Its Merits and Follies What Happened After Tga 1 Caused the Maizoid Revolution? Collins’ Figure, With All of Its Faults, Is a Classic Illustration The Origin of Polystichy in Maize: The “Second Bifurcation”—A Reappraisal

The Shank and Its Husks—The Key to Maize Ear Polystichy

Maize Polystichy—With Its Roots in the Shank to Its Glory in the Ear On the Inexcusable Neglect of the Shank and Its Husks A Note on Twisting, and the Basic Bilateral Dorsiventrality of Zea Edgar Anderson and the Shank—The Story of an Unconsummated Love Affair The Condensation in the Maize Shank and Its Husks and Preconceived Notions

From Teosinte Distichy to Maizoid Polystichy: Or How to Study Husk Phyllotaxy in Nine Easy Steps

Iltis and His Gigantic Footnote

S. G. Stephens and the Shank Condensation Theory—Sharp-Eyed, Unsung, Uncited, and Unequivocally Correct Postscript

4. Dating the Initial Spread of Zea mays

Introduction Temporal Frameworks for Zea mays’ Early Dispersal Direct Dating of Maize On the Indirect Dating of Maize Dating the Early Distribution of Zea Pollen Dating the Early Distribution of Maize Phytoliths Dating the Early Distribution of Moderate-to-High Stable Carbon Isotope Ratios Comparing the Different Lines of Evidence Discussion of the Social Implications of Maize’s Early Spread: Initial uses of Maize

5. El Riego and Early Maize Agricultural Evolution

Introduction Domestication and Agriculture Methods Results: Calibrating and Averaging Ams Dates Results: Morphological Trends and Rates Results: Evolutionary Rates Results: Stable Isotope Determinations Discussion and Summary

6. Ancient DNA and the Integration of Archaeological and Genetic Approaches to the Study of Maize Domestication

Introduction Morphological and Molecular Approaches to Documenting the Early History of Maize Molecular Level Analysis of Archaeological Maize: A Case Study

Monitoring for Selection of Preferred Attributes in Ancient Maize The Archaeological Maize Tb1: Maize Plant Architecture 4400 Years Ago Pbf and Su1: The Development of Starch and Protein Properties Population Substructure in the Sugary-1 Gene

The Timing and Sequence of Selection for Key Attributes in Maize: Combining Morphological and Molecular Evidence

Loss of Natural Seed Dispersal Mechanisms Fewer Larger Seed “Packages” Loss of Germination Dormancy Terminal Seed Clusters and Uniform Ripening Improved Starch and Protein Quality Future Directions in Ancient DNA Analysis of Crop Plants

7. Ancient Maize in the American Southwest: What Does It Look Like and What Can It Tell Us?

Introduction Archaeological Context

Chronology The Sites

Analysis of the Maize: Methods and Materials Results Discussion Conclusions

8. Environmental Mosaics, Agricultural Diversity, and the Evolutionary Adoption of Maize in the American Southwest

Introduction The Simplistic Paradigm Proto-Agriculture Diversity in Early Water Management Agricultural Niches in an Environmental Mosaic Maize Varieties and Crop Complexes Conclusion

9. Toward a Biologically Based Method of Phytolith Classification

Introduction The Raw Data and Its Presumed Meaning Exploring Genetic Versus Nongenetic Variation Conclusions

Part II Stable Isotope Analysis and Human Diet

10. Isotope Analyses and the Histories of Maize

Isotope Definitions History of Isotope Studies Sample Preparation and Isotopic Analysis Interpretation and Significance of Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Data Oxygen and Strontium Isotopes Isotope Studies in this Volume

11. Social Directions in the Isotopic Anthropology of Maize in the Maya Region

A Brief History of Isotopic Anthropology in Mesoamerica Ideology Social Structure

Rise of Social Differentiation Socioeconomic Status

Intraelite Differentiation Gender Trade Identification of the “Other” in Sacrifices Conclusion

12. Diet in Prehistoric Soconusco

Introduction Sample Selection Sample Preparation and Analysis Plant Results Animal Results Human Results Conclusions

13. Early to Terminal Classic Maya Diet in the Northern Lowlands of the Yucatán (Mexico)

Introduction Methods Isotopic Studies of the Maya

Yaxuná Chunchucmil

Discussion and Conclusion

14. The Importance of Maize in Initial Period and Early Horizon Peru

Introduction Archaeological Sites Tested

Pacopampa The Manchay Culture Sites of the Lurin Valley Mina Perdida Tablada de Lurin

Stable Isotope Analysis Results and Discussion

Pacopampa Cardal Mina Perdida Tablada de Lurin

Conclusion

15. Maize on the Frontier: Isotopic and Macrobotanical Data from Central–Western Argentina

Introduction Zea mays on the Frontier: A South American Case The Study Area Domesticates: Maize and Other Resources in the Late Holocene Isotopic Ecology and Human Diet: δ13C and δ15N Information Late Holocene Human Diet and the Use of Maize The Zea mays Frontier Adoption Model Final Remarks

16. Dietary Variation and Prehistoric Maize Farming in the Middle Ohio Valley

Introduction Late Woodland and Late Prehistoric Subsistence Records Theory and Method

Theoretical Framework Generating Dietary Data

The Isotope Record of Dietary Change

Multiple Populations? Recent Efforts to Account for Dietary Change

Geographic Variation in Maize-Based Farming Systems

Recent Efforts to Account for Geographic Variation in Diet Evaluation

Conclusions

Future Directions

17. A Hard Row to Hoe: Changing Maize Use in the American Bottom and Surrounding Areas

Introduction Models of Maize Adoption in the American Bottom Types of Analysis Used

Paleoethnobotany and Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis Pottery Residue Analysis

Early Emergent Mississippian Late Emergent Mississippian The Mississippian Lohmann Phase (CAL AD 1050–1100) Middle Mississippian Phases (CAL AD 1100–1350)

Stirling Phase (CAL AD 1100–1200) Moorehead Phase (CAL AD 1200–1300)

Discussion Conclusions

18. Evidence for Early Use of Maize in Peninsular Florida

Introduction The Natural Setting of Peninsular Florida Historic Evidence for Plant Foods in Florida Stable Isotope Studies in Florida Huaaan Skeletal Samples in This Study Site Background

Cross Creek and Melton Mound I (Inland Sites) Crystal River (An Estuary Environment) Dunwoody, Pillsbury, Bay Pines, Horr’s Island, Weeden Island, and Bayshore Homes (Coastal Sites)

Processing and Analyzing Skeletal Material Stable Isotope Results for All Sites

Cross Creek and Melton Mound I (Inland Sites) Crystal River (Estuarine Site) Bay Pines, Dunwoody, Pillsbury, Bayshore Homes, Weeden Island, Horr’s Island (Coastal Sites)

Discussion

Inland Sites Crystal River Coastal Sites

Conclusion

19. Prehistoric Maize in Southern Ontario: Contributions from Stable Isotope Studies

Introduction Previous Studies Stable Isotope Analysis of Faunal Remains: Earlier Study and New Data Refining Estimates of the Introduction of Maize in Southern Ontario from Human Collagen Samples Conclusions

20. The Stable and Radio-Isotope Chemistry of Eastern Basketmaker and Pueblo Groups in the Four Corners Region of the American Southwest: Implications for Anasazi Diets, Origins, and Abandonments in Southwestern Colorado

Introduction Overview of Basketmaker II Research Site Descriptions

Talus Village Sites 22 and 23 Site 22 Site 23 Unnamed Sites

Methods

Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis Stable Nitrogen Isotope Analysis Laboratory Procedures

Results Discussion

Talus Village Sites 22/23 Pueblo II–III Burials Radiocarbon Chronology

Conclusion

21. The Agricultural Productivity of Chaco Canyon and the Source(s) of Pre-Hispanic Maize Found in Pueblo Bonito

Introduction Agricultural Productivity and Population Densities of the Chaco Canyon Core Area

Acres under Cultivation Southwestern American Indian Maize Yields and Rates of Consumption Estimated Population Densities Supported by Chaco Canyon Maize Production Areas from Which Maize May Have Been Imported

Archaeological Maize Samples

Chemical Tracing of Biological and Archaeobiological Materials Methodological Considerations: Sampling and Laboratory Methods Results and Discussion

Summary and Conclusions

22. Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis and Human Diet: A Synthesis

Introduction Theoretical Basis of the Use of Isotopes The Significance of Isotopes in Reconstruction of Paleodiet in the Americas Rate of Spread of Maize and Agriculture Isotopic Studies in North America Mesoamerica South America Other Isotopic Methods Conclusions

Part III Histories of Maize: The Spread of Maize in Central and South America

23. Caribbean Maize: First Farmers to Columbus

Introduction Caribbean Biogeography and Physical Geography in Brief Synopsis of the History of Human Settlement and Cultivation Practices The Evidence for Maize: Archaeological Research

Archaeobotany Human Bone Chemistry

Discussion

Why Such a Low Signal? The Development of a Uniquely Caribbean Cuisine

Conclusion

24. Maize on the Move

Introduction Ethnographic Evidence Discussion Conclusions

25. The Gift of the Variation and Dispersion of Maize: Social and Technological Context in Amerindian Societies

Introduction The Development of Ceramics: Its Social Setting Ceramics and Maize: Dispersion in South America and the Caribbean Timing of Maturation of Maize Conclusions

26. The Maize Revolution: A View from El Salvador

Introduction Making Sense of Fossil Zea Pollen from El Salvador and Beyond Prehistoric Maize from Western El Salvador

The Pacific Coastal Plain The Rio Paz Basin The Sierra de Apaneca-Llamatepec Highlands

Prehistoric Maize Fields from Central El Salvador

Valle de las Hamacas (San Salvador) The Zapotitán Basin

Conclusions

27. Pre-Columbian Maize Agriculture in Costa Rica: Pollen and Other Evidence from Lake and Swamp Sediments

Introduction Maize Pollen Identification and Dispersal and Associated Paleoecological Evidence Maize Pollen in Archaeological Regions of Costa Rica

The Central Highlands–Atlantic Watershed Archaeological Region The Guanacaste–Nicoya Archaeological Region The Diquís Archaeological Region

Conclusion

28. Caral–Supe and the North-Central Area of Peru: The History of Maize in the Land Where Civilization Came into Being

Introduction The Social System of Caral-Supe The Territory of Caral The Settlement of Caral Tools for Farming Maize from Caral

Residential Sector A, Subsector A1 Subsector A5 Sector I2–Residential Units Sector H1: The Gallery Pyramid Sector C, Subsector C2 Residential Sector NN2 Settlement of Miraya, Subsector C4 Sector C5

Interpretations Conclusions

29. Prehistoric Maize from Northern Chile: An Evaluation of the Evidence

Introduction The Archaeological Evidence

Tiliviche Camarones Quiani Cáñamo Caleta Huelén-43 Chiu Chiu Guatacondo-Ramaditas Tulan Pichasca, San Pedro Viejo El Salto

Discussion of the Evidence

30. Early Maize on the Copacabana Peninsula: Implications for the Archaeology of the Lake Titicaca Basin

Introduction Archaeological Background and Paleobotanical Maize Samples from Copacabana Opal Phytoliths

Food Residue Phytolith Assemblages Maize Chaff Assemblages Blind Tests of Phytolith Assemblage Recognition

Materials and Methods of Phytolith Identification in Ancient and Modern Samples

Comparisons of Residues and Modern Maize Varieties

Discussion and Conclusions

31. The Movements of Maize into Middle Horizon Tiwanaku, Bolivia

Introduction Tiwanaku: An Early Highland Polity The Andes: Ecological Diversity, Maize Diversity Maize at Tiwanaku

Hypotheses

Research Goals

Data Methods Analysis of the Data Results

Discussion Conclusions

32. The Social, Symbolic, and Economic Significance of Zea mays L. in the Late Horizon Period

Introduction The Social and Symbolic Significance of Maize Social and Symbolic Aspects of Maize to Interaction and Sealing Alliances

An Encounter of Historic Proportions

The Significance and Role of Maize To Andean Economy Symbolic Aspects of Maize to Inca State Religion Summary and Conclusions

Part VI Histories of Maize: North America and Northern Mexico

33. Early Agriculture in Chihuahua, Mexico

Introduction Early Agriculture The Introduction of Maize Early Agriculture in Chihuahua Paleoenvironment Previous Research in Chihuahua Northwestern Chihuahua South-Central Chihuahua

D-Shaped Terrace Sites Cerros de Trincheras

The Sierra Tarahumara Discussion

34. Protohistoric and Contact Period Salinas Pueblo Maize Trend or Departure?

Introduction to the Salinas Area Research Questions and Data

Data Sample Data Analysis Techniques

Maize Consumption Maize Production Maize Trait Variation Conclusions: Trend or Departure?

35. Early Maize Agriculture in the Northern Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico

Introduction A Review of Early Agriculture in the Northern Rio Grande An Evaluation of Early Maize Morphology and Dates in the Northern Rio Grande Early Agriculture in the Northern Rio Grande Conclusion

36. Hominy Technology and the Emergence of Mississippian Societies

Introduction Hominy Technology

Alternative Methods of Hominy Production Other Methods of Freeing the Essential Nutrients

Testing the Hypothesis

A New Race of Maize Cultural Changes Physical Changes

Origins of the Hominy Revolution American Bottoms and the Central Mississippi

Lower Mississippi and Arkansas Lowlands Southeast Northeast

Conclusions

37. The Migrations of Maize into the Southeastern United States

Introduction

Phytoliths The Assemblage Approach Maize History and Varieties Maize in the Southeastern United States

The Pilot Study

Methods and Materials Results

Conclusion

38. The Science behind the Three Sisters Mound System: An Agronomic Assessment of an Indigenous Agricultural System in the Northeast

Introduction Mounds

Soil Temperature and Moisture Soil Organic Matter Soil Fertility Soil Erosion and Compaction Spacing and Plant Population

Intercropping An Integrated System

39. The Origin and Spread of Maize (Zea mays) in New England

Introduction The Maize Debate and Mobile Farmers New England’s Mobile Farmers The Maize Chronology and the Importance of AMS Dating Maize Dating Project Implications of a Chronology for Maize Horticulture in New England

40. Pre-Contact Maize from Ontario, Canada: Context, Chronology, Variation, and Plant Association

Introduction Middle Woodland, Late Woodland I, and Late Woodland II in Southern Ontario Paleoethnobotany of Middle Woodland, Princess Point and Late Woodland II Maize in the Northeast Princess Point Maize

Contexts Plant Associations

Late Woodland I Maize Morphology Discussion

Part V Histories of Maize: The Language of Maize

41. Siouan Tribal Contacts and Dispersions Evidenced in the Terminology for Maize and Other Cultigens

Introduction Glottochronological Dating Impressionistic Dating Improving Dating Techniques

Gourds Squash (Often Pumpkin) Maize

Other Technology

Beans

Summary

The Agricultural and Technological Chronology The Siouan Family Tree Further Research

42. Maize in Word and Image in Southeastern Mesoamerica

Introduction Vocabulary

Basic Maize Words Maize Growth Stages Food Preparation Ritual Names and Maize Deities

Narratives Sayings, Metaphors, and Beliefs

Rituals Numbers Glyphs Images Calendar Plants

Conclusion

43. Thipaak and the Origins of Maize in Northern Mesoamerica

Introduction Thipaak Maize Histories Thipaak and Maize in Conversation and Daily Life Maize Cultivation Rituals Relation to Other Mesoamercan Traditions Discussion and Concluding Observations

44. The Place of Maize in Indigenous Mesoamerican Folk Taxonomies

Introduction The Ethnobotany of the Amuzgo Amuzgo Ethnobotany and Folk Taxonomy Comparative Mesoamerican Plant Categorization

Tzeltal (Mayan) Ethnobotanical Categories Chuj (Mayan) Ethnobotanical Categories Itzá (Mayan) Ethnobotanical Categories Popolocan (Otomanguean) Ethnobotanical Categories

The Emergence of Mesoamerican Life Forms Classic Maya Science Concluding Remarks

45. Native Aymara and Quechua Botanical Terminologies of Zea mays in the Lake Titicaca and Cuzco Regions

Introduction Historical Background of Quechua and Aymara Languages Tunqu (Aymara) and Sara (Quechua) Maize Terminologies

Maize Plant Parts Maize Varieties

Chicha, K’usa (Aymara), and Aqha (Quechua) Terms Conclusions

46. The Historical Linguistics of Maize Cultivation in Mesoamerica and North America

Introduction Historical–Linguistic Methods Reconstructed Maize Complex Vocabularies in Mesoamerican Languages Maize Complex Loan Words in Mesoamerican Languages Maize Vocabularies in the Southwestern United States Maize Vocabulary in the Eastern United States Summary and Conclusion

47. Glottochronology and the Chronology of Maize in the Americas

Introduction Glottochronology Methodology Theoretical Considerations Concerning Terms for Maize in Ancestral Languages Chronology of Maize in the Americas Maize Chronology and Glottochronological Dates Adjusting Glottochronology Conclusion

48. The Antiquity, Biogeography, and Culture History of Maize in the Americas

The Culture History of Maize in the Americas

Contextual Considerations

Antiquity Biogeography: Dispersal and Racial Diversification Culture History—Staple, Variety, and Cultural Acceptance Maize in Language, Legend, and Myth Extinction

Index

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