The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation by Garner, Bryan A. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Copyright Title Page Series Page Dedication Series List Epigraphs Contents Introduction

1. The field of grammar 2. Who killed grammar? 3. Why study grammar? 4. Overview of the book

I. The Traditional Parts of Speech

5. How did we arrive at the canonical eight? Nouns

Traditional Classifications

6. Nouns generally 7. Common nouns 8. Proper nouns 9. Count nouns 10. Collective nouns 11. Expressions of multitude 12. Expressions of partition 13. Mass nouns

Properties of Nouns

14. Generally 15. Case 16. Number 17. Gender 18. Person

Plurals

19. Generally 20. Adding “‑s” or “‑es” 21. Plurals of proper nouns 22. Nouns ending in “‑f” or “‑fe”. 23. Nouns ending in “‑o” 24. Nouns ending in “‑y” 25. Nouns ending in “‑ics” 26. Compound nouns 27. Irregular plurals 28. Borrowed plurals 29. Plural form with singular sense 30. Plural-form proper nouns 31. Tricky anomalies

Case

32. Function 33. Common case, nominative function 34. Common case, objective function 35. Genitive case 36. The “of”-genitive 37. Genitives of titles and names 38. Joint and separate genitives

Agent and Recipient Nouns

39. Definitions; use 40. Appositives: definition and use

Conversions

41. Nouns as adjectives 42. Nouns as verbs 43. Adverbial functions 44. Other conversions

Pronouns

Definition and Uses

45. “Pronoun” defined 46. Antecedents of pronouns 47. Clarity of antecedent 48. Pronouns without antecedents 49. Sentence meaning

Properties of Pronouns

50. Four properties 51. Number and antecedent 52. Exceptions regarding number of the antecedent 53. Pronoun with multiple antecedents 54. Some traditional singular pronouns 55. Gender 56. Case 57. Pronouns in apposition 58. Nominative case misused for objective

Classes of Pronouns

59. Seven classes

Personal Pronouns

60. Form 61. Identification 62. Changes in form 63. Agreement generally 64. Expressing gender 65. Determining gender 66. Special rules 67. Case after linking verb 68. Case after “than” or “as–as” 69. Special uses 70. The singular “they”

Possessive Pronouns

71. Uses and forms 72. Possessive pronouns vs. contractions

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

73. Compound personal pronouns: “‑self” forms 74. Basic uses of reflexive and intensive pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

75. Definition

Reciprocal Pronouns

76. Generally 77. Simple and phrasal pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

78. Definition 79. Referent of interrogative pronouns

Relative Pronouns

80. Definition 81. Gender, number, and case with relative pronouns 82. Positional nuances 83. Antecedent 84. Remote relative clauses 85. Omitted antecedent 86. Relative pronoun and the antecedent “one” 87. Function of relative pronoun in clause 88. Genitive forms 89. “Whose” and “of which” 90. Compound relative pronouns 91. “Who” vs. “whom”

Indefinite Pronouns

92. Generally 93. The indefinite pronoun “one”

Adjectives

Types of Adjectives

94. Definition 95. Qualitative adjectives 96. Quantitative adjectives 97. Demonstrative adjectives 98. Possessive adjectives 99. Interrogative adjectives 100. Distributive adjectives 101. Indefinite adjectives 102. Pronominal adjectives 103. Proper adjectives 104. Compound adjectives 105. Relative adjectives

Articles as Limiting Adjectives

106. Definition 107. Definite article 108. Definite articles and proper names 109. Indefinite article 110. Indefinite article in specific reference 111. Choosing “a” or “an” 112. Articles with coordinate nouns 113. Effect on meaning 114. Omitted article and zero article 115. Article as pronoun substitute

Dates as Adjectives

116. Use and punctuation

Position of Adjectives

117. Basic rules 118. After possessives 119. Adjective modifying pronoun 120. Predicate adjective 121. Dangling participles 122. Distinguishing an adjective from an adverb or participle

Degrees of Adjectives

123. Generally 124. Comparative forms 125. Superlative forms 126. Forming comparatives and superlatives 127. Equal and unequal comparisons 128. Noncomparable adjectives

Special Types of Adjectives

129. Participial adjectives 130. Coordinate adjectives 131. Phrasal adjectives 132. Exceptions for hyphenating phrasal adjectives

Functional Variation

133. Adjectives as nouns 134. Adjectives as verbs 135. Other parts of speech functioning as adjectives 136. The weakening effect of injudicious adjectives

Verbs

Definitions

137. Verbs generally 138. Transitive and intransitive verbs 139. Ergative verbs 140. Dynamic and stative verbs 141. Regular and irregular verbs 142. Linking verbs 143. Phrasal verbs 144. Principal and auxiliary verbs 145. Verb phrases 146. Contractions

Infinitives

147. Definition 148. Split infinitive 149. Uses of infinitive 150. Dangling infinitive

Participles and Gerunds

151. Participles generally 152. Forming present participles 153. Forming past participles 154. Participial phrases 155. Gerunds 156. Gerund phrases 157. Distinguishing between participles and gerunds 158. Fused participles 159. Dangling participles 160. Dangling gerunds

Properties of Verbs

161. Five properties

Voice

162. Active and passive voice 163. Progressive conjugation and voice

Mood

164. Generally 165. Indicative mood 166. Imperative mood 167. Subjunctive mood 168. Subjunctive vs. indicative mood 169. Present subjunctive 170. Past subjunctive 171. Past-perfect subjunctive

Tense

172. Generally 173. Present tense 174. Past indicative 175. Future tense 176. Present-perfect tense 177. Past-perfect tense 178. Future-perfect tense 179. Progressive tenses 180. Backshifting in reported speech

Tenses Illustrated

181. Conjugation of the regular verb “to call” 182. Conjugation of the irregular verb “to hide” 183. Conjugation of the verb “to be”

Person

184. Generally

Number

185. Generally 186. Agreement in person and number 187. Disjunctive compound subjects 188. Conjunctive compound subjects 189. Some other nuances of number involving conjunctions 190. Peculiar nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense 191. Agreement of indefinite pronouns 192. Relative pronouns as subjects 193. “There is”; “Here is” 194. False attraction to intervening matter 195. False attraction to predicate noun 196. Misleading connectives: “as well as,” “along with,” “together with,” etc. 197. Agreement in first and second person

Auxiliary Verbs

198. Generally 199. Modal auxiliaries 200. “Can” and “could” 201. “May” and “might” 202. “Must” 203. “Ought” 204. “Shall” 205. “Should” 206. “Will” and “would” 207. “Dare” and “need” 208. “Do” 209. “Have”

Adverbs

Definition and Formation

210. Generally 211. Sentence adverbs 212. Adverbial suffixes 213. Adverbs without suffixes 214. Distinguished from adjectives

Simple vs. Compound Adverbs

215. Standard and flat adverbs 216. Phrasal and compound adverbs

Types of Adverbs

217. Adverbs of manner 218. Adverbs of time 219. Adverbs of place 220. Adverbs of degree 221. Adverbs of reason 222. Adverbs of consequence 223. Adverbs of number 224. Interrogative adverbs 225. Exclamatory adverbs 226. Affirmative and negative adverbs 227. Relative adverbs 228. Conjunctive adverbs

Adverbial Degrees

229. Generally 230. Comparative forms 231. Superlative forms 232. Irregular adverbs 233. Noncomparable adverbs

Position of Adverbs

234. Placement as affecting meaning 235. Modifying words other than verbs 236. Modifying intransitive verbs 237. Adverbs and linking verbs 238. Adverb within verb phrase 239. Importance of placement 240. Adverbial objective 241. Adverbial clause 242. “Only”

Prepositions

Definition and Types

243. Generally 244. Simple, compound 245. Phrasal prepositions 246. Participial prepositions

Prepositional Phrases

247. Generally 248. Prepositional function 249. Placement 250. Refinements on placement 251. Preposition-stranding 252. Clashing prepositions 253. Elliptical phrases 254. Case of pronouns

Other Prepositional Issues

255. Functional variation 256. Use and misuse of “like”

Limiting Prepositional Phrases

257. Avoiding overuse 258. Cutting prepositional phrases 259. Cutting unnecessary prepositions 260. Replacing with adverbs 261. Replacing with genitives 262. Using active voice

Conjunctions

263. Definition and types 264. Types of conjunctions: simple and compound 265. Coordinating conjunctions 266. Correlative conjunctions 267. Copulative conjunctions 268. Adversative conjunctions 269. Disjunctive conjunctions 270. Final conjunctions 271. Subordinating conjunctions 272. Special uses of subordinating conjunctions 273. Adverbial conjunctions 274. Expletive conjunctions 275. Disguised conjunctions 276. “With” used loosely as a conjunction 277. Beginning a sentence with a conjunction 278. Beginning a sentence with “however” 279. Conjunctions and the number of a verb

Interjections

280. Definition 281. Usage generally 282. Functional variation 283. Words that are exclusively interjections 284. Punctuating interjections 285. “O” and “oh”

II. Syntax

Sentences, Clauses, and Their Patterns

286. Definition 287. Statements 288. Questions 289. Some exceptional types of questions. 290. Directives 291. Exceptional directives 292. Exclamations

The Four Traditional Types of Sentence Structures

293. Simple sentence 294. Compound sentence 295. Complex sentence 296. Compound-complex sentence

English Sentence Patterns

297. Importance of word order 298. The basic SVO pattern 299. All seven patterns 300. Variations on ordering the elements 301. Constituent elements 302. Identifying the subject 303. Identifying the predicate 304. Identifying the verb 305. Identifying the object 306. Identifying complements 307. Inner and outer complements 308. Identifying the adverbial element

Clauses

309. In general 310. Relative clauses 311. Appositive clauses 312. Conditional clauses

Ellipsis

313. Generally 314. Anaphoric and cataphoric ellipsis 315. Whiz-deletions

Negation

316. Negation generally 317. The word “not” 318. The word “no” 319. Using negating pronouns and adverbs 320. Using “neither” and “nor” 321. Words that are negative in meaning and function 322. Affix negation 323. Negative interrogative and imperative statements 324. Double negatives 325. Other forms of negation 326. “Any” and “some” in negative statements

Expletives

327. Generally 328. Expletive “it” 329. Expletive “there”

Parallelism

330. Generally 331. Prepositions 332. Paired joining terms 333. Auxiliary verbs 334. Verbs and adverbs at the outset 335. Longer elements

Cleft Sentences

336. Definition 337. Types 338. Uses

Traditional Sentence Diagramming

339. History and description 340. Benefits of diagrams 341. Using diagrams 342. Criticisms 343. How diagrams work 344. Baseline 345. Subject 346. Predicate 347. Direct object 348. Objective complement 349. Indirect object 350. Subjective complement 351. One-word modifiers 352. Prepositional phrases 353. Adjective clauses 354. Adverbial clauses 355. Noun clauses 356. Infinitives 357. Participles 358. Gerunds 359. Appositives 360. Independent elements 361. Conjunctions 362. Diagramming compound sentences 363. Diagramming complex sentences 364. Diagramming compound-complex sentences

Transformational Grammar

Overview

365. Definition 366. Scope of section 367. Terminology of transformational grammar 368. Tools of transformational grammar 369. Universal symbols in rules 370. Tree diagrams

Base Rules in Transformational Grammar

371. Parts of speech 372. Sentence basics

Nouns and Noun Phrases

373. Functions of noun phrases 374. Simple noun phrases

Determiners

375. Types of determiners 376. Numeric and nonnumeric determiners 377. Multiple determiners 378. Determiners in noun phrases 379. Prearticles 380. Noun phrases with determiner and prearticle

Noun-Phrase Modifiers

381. Modifiers 382. Compound nouns 383. Combined rules 384. Number, person, and possession

Verb Phrases

385. Introduction 386. Functions of verb phrase 387. Principal verbs 388. Auxiliaries 389. Auxiliary verbs 390. “Have” 391. Multiple auxiliaries 392. “Be” as a principal verb

Different Types of Principal Verbs

393. Generally 394. Middle verbs 395. Special subtypes

Adverbials

396. Adverbials with principal verbs 397. Simple adverbs 398. Functions of simple adverbs 399. Prepositional phrase as adverbial 400. Noun phrase as adverbial 401. Adverbials of place, time, and manner 402. Number and tense of verbs

Transformations

403. Deep and surface structure 404. Transformational rules 405. Surface transformation 406. Simple-question transformation 407. Imperative transformation 408. Active- to passive-voice transformation and back again

Spotting Ambiguities

409. Identification 410. Lexical ambiguity 411. Surface-structure ambiguity 412. Deep-structure ambiguity 413. Active- and passive-voice diagrams

III. Word Formation

414. Generally 415. Criteria for morphemes 416. Free and bound morphemes 417. Stems and affixes 418. Inflectional and derivational suffixes 419. Compounding 420. Conversion 421. Shortened forms 422. Elongations 423. Reduplicative forms 424. Loan translations 425. Acronyms and initialisms 426. Neologisms

IV. Word Usage

Introduction

427. Grammar vs. usage 428. Standard Written English 429. Dialect 430. Focus on tradition

Troublesome Words and Phrases

431. Good usage vs. common usage 432. Using big data to assess linguistic change 433. Preventive grammar 434. Glossary of troublesome expressions

Bias-Free Language

435. Maintaining credibility 436. Gender bias 437. Other biases 438. Invisible gender-neutrality 439. Techniques for achieving gender-neutrality 440. Necessary gender-specific language 441. Sex-specific labels as adjectives 442. Gender-neutral singular pronouns 443. Problematic suffixes 444. Avoiding other biased language 445. Unnecessary focus on personal characteristics 446. Unnecessary emphasis on the trait, not the person 447. Inappropriate labels

Prepositional Idioms

448. Idiomatic uses 449. Shifts in idiom 450. Words and the prepositions construed with them

V. Punctuation

451. Introduction The Comma

Using Commas

452. With a conjunction between independent clauses 453. After a transitional or introductory phrase 454. To set off a nonrestrictive phrase or clause 455. To separate items in a series 456. To separate parallel modifiers 457. To distinguish indirect from direct speech 458. To separate the parts of full dates and addresses 459. To separate long numbers into three-digit chunks 460. To set off a name, word, or phrase used as a vocative 461. Before a direct question inside another sentence 462. To set off “etc.,” “et al.,” and the like at the end of a series 463. After the salutation in an informal letter

Preventing Misused Commas

464. Not to separate a subject and its verb 465. Not to separate a verb and its object 466. Not to set off a quotation that blends into the sentence 467. Not to set off an adverb that needs emphasis 468. Not to separate compound predicates 469. Not to use alone to splice independent clauses 470. Not to use after a sentence-starting conjunction 471. Not to omit after an internal set-off word or phrase 472. Not to set off restrictive matter 473. Not around name suffixes such as Jr., III, Inc., and Ltd. 474. Not to separate modifiers that aren’t parallel

The Semicolon

Using Semicolons

475. To unite two short, closely connected sentences 476. To separate items in a complex series 477. In old style, to set off explanation or elaboration

Preventing Misused Semicolons

478. Not where a colon is needed, as after a formal salutation 479. Not where a comma suffices, as in a simple list

The Colon

Using Colons

480. To link matter and indicate explanation or elaboration 481. To introduce an enumerated or otherwise itemized list 482. To introduce a question 483. Use a colon to introduce a question 484. After the salutation in business correspondence 485. To separate hours from minutes and in some citations 486. Without capitalizing the following matter needlessly

Preventing Misused Colons

487. Not to introduce matter that blends into your sentence

Parentheses

Using Parentheses

488. To set off inserted matter that you want to minimize 489. To clarify appositives or attributions 490. To introduce shorthand or familiar names 491. Around numbers or letters when listing items in text 492. To denote subparts in a citation 493. Correctly in relation to terminal punctuation 494. To enclose a brief aside

Preventing Misused Parentheses

495. Not before an opening parenthesis

The Em-Dash (or Long Dash)

Using Em-Dashes

496. To set off matter inserted in midsentence 497. To set off but emphasize parenthetical matter 498. To tack on an important afterthought 499. To introduce a specification or list 500. To show hesitation, faltering, or interruption

Preventing Misused Em-Dashes

501. Not using more than two in a sentence 502. Not after a comma, colon, semicolon, or terminal period

The En-Dash (or Short Dash)

Using En-Dashes

503. In a range, to show tension, or to join equivalents

Preventing Misused En-Dashes

504. Not in place of a hyphen or em-dash 505. Not with the wording it replaces

The Hyphen

Using Hyphens

506. To join parts of a phrasal adjective 507. To mark other phrasal-adjective and suffix connections 508. In closely associated compounds according to usage 509. When writing out fractions and two-word numbers 510. To show hesitation, stammering, and the like 511. In proper names when appropriate 512. In some number groups or when spelling out a word 513. With “l‑” suffixes (e.g., “-like”) on words ending in “-ll”

Preventing Misused Hyphens

514. Not after a prefix unless an exception applies 515. Not in place of an em-dash, even when doubled (“--”) 516. Not with an “‑ly” adverb and a participial adjective 517. Not in a phrasal verb

The Apostrophe

Using Apostrophes

518. To indicate the possessive case 519. To mark a contraction or to signal dialectal speech 520. To form plurals of letters, digits, and some abbreviations

Preventing Misused Apostrophes

521. Not to form other plurals, especially of names 522. Not to omit obligatory apostrophes

Quotation Marks

Using Quotation Marks

523. To quote matter of 50 or fewer words 524. When using a term as a term or when defining a term 525. When you mean “so-called” or “but-not-really” 526. For titles of short-form works, according to a style guide 527. To show internal quotation using single marks 528. To signal matter used idiomatically, not literally 529. Placed correctly in relation to other punctuation

Preventing Misused Quotation Marks

530. Not for a phrasal adjective 531. Not to emphasize a word or note its informality

The Question Mark

Using Question Marks

532. After a direct question

Preventing Misused Question Marks

533. Not after an indirect question

The Exclamation Mark

Using Exclamation Marks

534. After exclamatory matter, especially when quoting others

Preventing Misused Exclamation Marks

535. Not to express your own surprise or amazement

The Period

Using Periods

536. To end a typical sentence, not a question or exclamation 537. To indicate an abbreviated name or title 538. Placed properly with parentheses and brackets 539. To show a decimal place in a numeral

Preventing Misused Periods

540. Not with an abbreviation at sentence end

Brackets

Using Brackets

541. In a quotation, to enclose matter not in the original 542. In parenthetical matter, to enclose another parenthetical 543. To enclose the citation of a source, as in a footnote

Preventing Misused Brackets

544. Not in place of ellipsis dots when matter is deleted

The Slash (Virgule)

Using Slashes

545. To separate alternatives (but never “and/or”) 546. To separate numerical parts in a fraction 547. Informally, to separate elements in a date 548. Informally, as a shorthand signal for “per” 549. To separate lines of poetry or of a song

Preventing Misused Slashes

550. Not when a hyphen or en-dash would suffice

Bullets

551. To mark listed items of a more or less equal ranking

Ellipsis Dots

Using Ellipsis Dots

552. To show that an unfinished sentence trails off 553. To signal rumination, musing, or hesitation 554. To signal an omission of matter within a quotation 555. With following period, to show omission at sentence end 556. With preceding period, to show omission after sentence

Preventing Misused Ellipsis Dots

557. Omitting space or allowing a line break between dots 558. Beginning a quotation with ellipsis dots

Select Glossary Notes Sources for Inset Quotations Select Bibliography Acknowledgments Word Index General Index Pronunciation Guide

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