C in a Nutshell by Prinz, Peter -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

C in a Nutshell SPECIAL OFFER: Upgrade this ebook with O’Reilly Preface

How This Book Is Organized

Part I Part II Part III

Further Reading Conventions Used in This Book Using Code Examples Safari® Enabled Your Questions and Comments Acknowledgments

Peter Tony

I. Language

1. Language Basics

1.1. Characteristics of C 1.2. The Structure of C Programs 1.3. Source Files 1.4. Comments 1.5. Character Sets

1.5.1. Wide Characters and Multibyte Characters 1.5.2. Universal Character Names 1.5.3. Digraphs and Trigraphs

1.6. Identifiers

1.6.1. Identifier Name Spaces 1.6.2. Identifier Scope

1.7. How the C Compiler Works

1.7.1. The C Compiler's Translation Phases 1.7.2. Tokens

2. Types

2.1. Typology 2.2. Integer Types

2.2.1. Integer Types with Exact Width (C99)

2.3. Floating-Point Types 2.4. Complex Floating-Point Types (C99) 2.5. Enumerated Types 2.6. The Type void

2.6.1. void in Function Declarations 2.6.2. Expressions of Type void 2.6.3. Pointers to void

3. Literals

3.1. Integer Constants 3.2. Floating-Point Constants

3.2.1. Decimal Floating-Point Constants 3.2.2. Hexadecimal Floating-Point Constants (C99)

3.3. Character Constants

3.3.1. The Type of Character Constants 3.3.2. Escape Sequences

3.4. String Literals

4. Type Conversions

4.1. Conversion of Arithmetic Types

4.1.1. Hierarchy of Types 4.1.2. Integer Promotion 4.1.3. Usual Arithmetic Conversions 4.1.4. Other Implicit Type Conversions 4.1.5. The Results of Arithmetic Type Conversions

4.1.5.1. Conversions to _Bool 4.1.5.2. Conversions to unsigned integer types other than _Bool 4.1.5.3. Conversions to signed integer types 4.1.5.4. Conversions to real floating-point types 4.1.5.5. Conversions to complex floating-point types

4.2. Conversion of Nonarithmetic Types

4.2.1. Array and Function Designators 4.2.2. Explicit Pointer Conversions

4.2.2.1. Object pointers 4.2.2.2. Function pointers

4.2.3. Implicit Pointer Conversions

4.2.3.1. Pointers to void 4.2.3.2. Pointers to qualified object types 4.2.3.3. Null pointer constants

4.2.4. Conversions Between Pointer and Integer Types

5. Expressions and Operators

5.1. How Expressions Are Evaluated

5.1.1. Lvalues 5.1.2. Side Effects and Sequence Points 5.1.3. Operator Precedence and Associativity

5.2. Operators in Detail

5.2.1. Arithmetic Operators

5.2.1.1. Standard arithmetic 5.2.1.2. Pointer arithmetic

5.2.2. Assignment Operators

5.2.2.1. Simple assignment 5.2.2.2. Compound assignments

5.2.3. Increment and Decrement Operators 5.2.4. Comparative Operators 5.2.5. Logical Operators 5.2.6. Bitwise Operators

5.2.6.1. Boolean bitwise operators 5.2.6.2. Shift operators

5.2.7. Memory Addressing Operators

5.2.7.1. The & and * operators 5.2.7.2. Elements of arrays 5.2.7.3. Members of structures and unions

5.2.8. Other Operators

5.2.8.1. Function calls 5.2.8.2. Compound literals 5.2.8.3. The sizeof operator 5.2.8.4. The conditional operator 5.2.8.5. The comma operator

5.3. Constant Expressions

5.3.1. Integer Constant Expressions 5.3.2. Other Constant Expressions

6. Statements

6.1. Expression Statements 6.2. Block Statements 6.3. Loops

6.3.1. while Statements 6.3.2. for Statements 6.3.3. do...while Statements 6.3.4. Nested Loops

6.4. Selection Statements

6.4.1. if Statements 6.4.2. switch Statements

6.5. Unconditional Jumps

6.5.1. The break Statement 6.5.2. The continue Statement 6.5.3. The goto Statement 6.5.4. The return Statement

7. Functions

7.1. Function Definitions

7.1.1. Functions and Storage Class Specifiers 7.1.2. K&R-Style Function Definitions 7.1.3. Function Parameters 7.1.4. Arrays as Function Parameters 7.1.5. The main() Function

7.2. Function Declarations

7.2.1. Declaring Optional Parameters 7.2.2. Declaring Variable-Length Array Parameters

7.3. How Functions Are Executed 7.4. Pointers as Arguments and Return Values 7.5. Inline Functions 7.6. Recursive Functions 7.7. Variable Numbers of Arguments

8. Arrays

8.1. Defining Arrays

8.1.1. Fixed-Length Arrays 8.1.2. Variable-Length Arrays

8.2. Accessing Array Elements 8.3. Initializing Arrays

8.3.1. Writing Initialization Lists 8.3.2. Initializing Specific Elements

8.4. Strings 8.5. Multidimensional Arrays

8.5.1. Matrices 8.5.2. Declaring Multidimensional Arrays 8.5.3. Initializing Multidimensional Arrays

8.6. Arrays as Arguments of Functions

9. Pointers

9.1. Declaring Pointers

9.1.1. Null Pointers 9.1.2. void Pointers 9.1.3. Initializing Pointers

9.2. Operations with Pointers

9.2.1. Using Pointers to Read and Modify Objects 9.2.2. Modifying and Comparing Pointers

9.3. Pointers and Type Qualifiers

9.3.1. Constant Pointers and Pointers to Constant Objects 9.3.2. Restricted Pointers

9.4. Pointers to Arrays and Arrays of Pointers

9.4.1. Array Pointers 9.4.2. Pointer Arrays

9.5. Pointers to Functions

10. Structures and Unions and Bit-Fields

10.1. Structures

10.1.1. Defining Structure Types 10.1.2. Structure Objects and typedef Names 10.1.3. Incomplete Structure Types 10.1.4. Accessing Structure Members 10.1.5. Initializing Structures 10.1.6. Initializing Specific Members 10.1.7. Structure Members in Memory 10.1.8. Flexible Structure Members 10.1.9. Pointers as Structure Members

10.2. Unions

10.2.1. Defining Union Types 10.2.2. Initializing Unions

10.3. Bit-Fields

11. Declarations

11.1. General Syntax

11.1.1. Examples 11.1.2. Storage Class Specifiers 11.1.3. Type Qualifiers 11.1.4. Declarations and Definitions 11.1.5. Complex Declarators

11.2. Type Names 11.3. typedef Declarations 11.4. Linkage of Identifiers

11.4.1. External Linkage 11.4.2. Internal Linkage 11.4.3. No Linkage

11.5. Storage Duration of Objects

11.5.1. Static Storage Duration 11.5.2. Automatic Storage Duration

11.6. Initialization

11.6.1. Implicit Initialization 11.6.2. Explicit Initialization

12. Dynamic Memory Management

12.1. Allocating Memory Dynamically 12.2. Characteristics of Allocated Memory 12.3. Resizing and Releasing Memory 12.4. An All-Purpose Binary Tree 12.5. Characteristics 12.6. Implementation

12.6.1. Generating an Empty Tree 12.6.2. Inserting New Data 12.6.3. Finding Data in the Tree 12.6.4. Removing Data from the Tree 12.6.5. Traversing a Tree 12.6.6. A Sample Application

13. Input and Output

13.1. Streams

13.1.1. Text Streams 13.1.2. Binary Streams

13.2. Files

13.2.1. File Position 13.2.2. Buffers 13.2.3. The Standard Streams

13.3. Opening and Closing Files

13.3.1. Opening a File 13.3.2. Access Modes 13.3.3. Closing a File

13.4. Reading and Writing

13.4.1. Byte-Oriented and Wide-Oriented Streams 13.4.2. Error Handling

13.4.2.1. Return values and status flags 13.4.2.2. The error variable errno

13.4.3. Unformatted I/O

13.4.3.1. Reading characters 13.4.3.2. Putting a character back 13.4.3.3. Writing characters 13.4.3.4. Reading strings 13.4.3.5. Writing strings 13.4.3.6. Reading and writing blocks

13.4.4. Formatted Output

13.4.4.1. The printf() function family 13.4.4.2. The format string 13.4.4.3. Field widths 13.4.4.4. Printing characters and strings 13.4.4.5. Printing integers 13.4.4.6. Printing floating-point numbers

13.4.5. Formatted Input

13.4.5.1. The scanf() function family 13.4.5.2. The format string 13.4.5.3. Field widths 13.4.5.4. Reading characters and strings 13.4.5.5. Reading integers 13.4.5.6. Reading floating-point numbers

13.5. Random File Access

13.5.1. Obtaining the Current File Position 13.5.2. Setting the File Access Position

14. Preprocessing Directives

14.1. Inserting the Contents of Header Files

14.1.1. How the Preprocessor Finds Header Files 14.1.2. Nested #include Directives

14.2. Defining and Using Macros

14.2.1. Macros Without Parameters 14.2.2. Macros with Parameters

14.2.2.1. Variable numbers of arguments 14.2.2.2. The stringify operator 14.2.2.3. The token-pasting operator

14.2.3. Using Macros Within Macros 14.2.4. Macro Scope and Redefinition

14.3. Conditional Compiling

14.3.1. The #if and #elif Directives 14.3.2. The defined Operator 14.3.3. The #ifdef and #ifndef Directives

14.4. Defining Line Numbers 14.5. Generating Error Messages 14.6. The #pragma Directive 14.7. The _Pragma Operator 14.8. Predefined Macros

II. Standard Library

15. The Standard Headers

15.1. Using the Standard Headers

15.1.1. Execution Environments 15.1.2. Function and Macro Calls 15.1.3. Reserved Identifiers

15.2. Contents of the Standard Headers

15.2.1. assert.h 15.2.2. complex.h 15.2.3. ctype.h 15.2.4. errno.h 15.2.5. fenv.h

15.2.5.1. Macro and type definitions for the floating-point environment 15.2.5.2. Macro and type definitions for floating-point exceptions 15.2.5.3. Macro definitions for rounding modes

15.2.6. float.h

15.2.6.1. Normalized representation of floating-point numbers 15.2.6.2. Rounding mode and evaluation method 15.2.6.3. Precision and value range

15.2.7. inttypes.h

15.2.7.1. Types 15.2.7.2. Functions 15.2.7.3. Macros

15.2.8. iso646.h 15.2.9. limits.h 15.2.10. locale.h 15.2.11. math.h

15.2.11.1. The types float_t and double_t 15.2.11.2. Classification macros 15.2.11.3. Other macros in math.h

15.2.12. setjmp.h 15.2.13. signal.h 15.2.14. stdarg.h 15.2.15. stdbool.h 15.2.16. stddef.h 15.2.17. stdint.h

15.2.17.1. Value ranges of the integer types with specific widths 15.2.17.2. Value ranges of other integer types 15.2.17.3. Macros for integer constants

15.2.18. stdio.h 15.2.19. stdlib.h 15.2.20. string.h 15.2.21. tgmath.h 15.2.22. time.h 15.2.23. wchar.h 15.2.24. wctype.h

16. Functions at a Glance

16.1. Input and Output 16.2. Mathematical Functions

16.2.1. Mathematical Functions for Integer Types 16.2.2. Floating-Point Functions 16.2.3. Function-like Macros

16.2.3.1. Type-generic macros 16.2.3.2. Categories of floating-point values 16.2.3.3. Comparison macros

16.2.4. Pragmas for Arithmetic Operations 16.2.5. The Floating-Point Environment

16.2.5.1. Accessing status flags 16.2.5.2. Rounding modes 16.2.5.3. Saving the whole floating-point environment

16.2.6. Error Handling

16.2.6.1. Domain errors 16.2.6.2. Range errors

16.3. Character Classification and Conversion

16.3.1. Character Classification 16.3.2. Case Mapping

16.4. String Processing 16.5. Multibyte Characters 16.6. Converting Between Numbers and Strings 16.7. Searching and Sorting 16.8. Memory Block Handling 16.9. Dynamic Memory Management 16.10. Date and Time 16.11. Process Control

16.11.1. Communication with the Operating System 16.11.2. Signals

16.12. Internationalization 16.13. Nonlocal Jumps 16.14. Debugging 16.15. Error Messages

17. Standard Library Functions

_Exit C99 abort abs acos acosh C99 asctime asin asinh C99 assert atan atan2 atanh C99 atexit atof atoi atol, atoll bsearch btowc cabs C99 cacos C99 cacosh C99 calloc carg C99 casin C99 casinh C99 catan C99 catanh C99 cbrt C99 ccos C99 ccosh C99 ceil cexp C99 cimag C99 clearerr clock conj C99 copysign C99 cos cosh cpow C99 cproj C99 creal C99 csin C99 csinh C99 csqrt C99 ctan C99 ctanh C99 ctime difftime div erf C99 erfc C99 exit exp exp2 C99 expm1 C99 fabs fclose fdim C99 feclearexcept C99 fegetenv C99 fegetexceptflag C99 fegetround C99 feholdexcept C99 feof feraiseexcept C99 ferror fesetenv C99 fesetexceptflag C99 fesetround C99 fetestexcept C99 feupdateenv C99 fflush fgetc fgetpos fgets fgetwc fgetws floor fma C99 fmax C99 fmin C99 fmod fopen fpclassify C99 fprintf fputc fputs fputwc fputws fread free freopen frexp fscanf fseek fsetpos ftell fwide fwprintf fwscanf fwrite getc getchar getenv gets getwc getwchar gmtime hypot C99 ilogb C99 imaxabs C99 imaxdiv C99 isalnum isalpha isblank C99 iscntrl isdigit isfinite C99 isgraph isgreater, isgreaterequal C99 isinf C99 isless, islessequal, islessgreater C99 islower isnan C99 isnormal C99 isprint ispunct isspace isunordered C99 isupper iswalnum iswalpha iswblank C99 iswcntrl iswctype iswdigit iswgraph iswlower iswprint iswpunct iswspace iswupper iswxdigit isxdigit labs ldexp ldiv llabs C99 lldiv C99 llrint llround localeconv localtime log log10 log1p C99 log2 C99 logb C99 longjmp lrint C99 lround C99 malloc mblen mbrlen mbrtowc C99 mbsinit mbsrtowcs mbstowcs mbtowc memchr memcmp memcpy memmove memset mktime modf nearbyint C99 nextafter C99 nexttoward C99 perror pow printf putc putchar puts putwc putwchar qsort raise rand realloc remainder C99 remove remquo C99 rename rewind rint C99 round C99 scalbln, scalbn C99 scanf setbuf setjmp setlocale setvbuf signal signbit C99 sin sinh snprintf sprintf sqrt srand sscanf strcat strchr strcmp strcoll strcpy strcspn strerror strftime strlen strncat strncmp strncpy strpbrk strrchr strspn strstr strtod, strtof, strtold strtoimax C99 strtok strtol, strtoll strtoul, strtoull strtoumax C99 strxfrm swprintf swscanf system tan tanh time tmpfile tmpnam tolower toupper towctrans towlower towupper trunc C99 ungetc ungetwc va_arg, va_copy, va_end, va_start vfprintf, vprintf, vsnprintf, vsprintf vfscanf, vscanf, vsscanf vfwprintf, vswprintf, vwprintf vfwscanf, vswscanf, vwscanf wcrtomb wcscat wcschr wcscmp wcscoll wcscpy wcscspn wcsftime wcslen wcsncat wcsncmp wcsncpy wcspbrk wcsrchr wcsrtombs wcsspn wcsstr wcstod, wcstof, wcstold wcstoimax C99 wcstok wcstol, wcstoll wcstold wcstoll wcstombs wcstoul, wcstoull wcstoumax C99 wcsxfrm wctob wctomb wctrans wctype wmemchr wmemcmp wmemcpy wmemmove wmemset wprintf wscanf

III. Basic Tools

18. Compiling with GCC

18.1. The GNU Compiler Collection 18.2. Obtaining and Installing GCC 18.3. Compiling C Programs with GCC

18.3.1. Step by Step

18.3.1.1. Preprocessing 18.3.1.2. Compiling 18.3.1.3. Assembling 18.3.1.4. Linking 18.3.1.5. All of the above 18.3.1.6. None of the above

18.3.2. Multiple Input Files

18.3.2.1. File types 18.3.2.2. Mixed input types

18.3.3. Dynamic Linking and Shared Object Files 18.3.4. Freestanding Programs

18.4. C Dialects 18.5. Compiler Warnings 18.6. Optimization

18.6.1. The -O Levels 18.6.2. The -f Flags 18.6.3. Floating-Point Optimization 18.6.4. Architecture-Specific Optimization 18.6.5. Why Not Optimize?

18.7. Debugging 18.8. Profiling 18.9. Option and Environment Variable Summary

18.9.1. Command-Line Options 18.9.2. Environment Variables

19. Using make to Build C Programs

19.1. Targets, Prerequisites, and Commands 19.2. The Makefile 19.3. Rules

19.3.1. The Command Script 19.3.2. Pattern Rules 19.3.3. Suffix Rules 19.3.4. Built-in Rules 19.3.5. Implicit Rule Chains 19.3.6. Double-Colon Rules

19.4. Comments 19.5. Variables

19.5.1. Assignment Operators 19.5.2. Variables and Whitespace 19.5.3. Target-Specific Variable Assignments 19.5.4. The Automatic Variables 19.5.5. Other Built-in Variables 19.5.6. Environment Variables

19.6. Phony Targets 19.7. Other Target Attributes 19.8. Macros 19.9. Functions

19.9.1. Built-in Functions

19.9.1.1. Text-processing functions 19.9.1.2. Filename-manipulation functions 19.9.1.3. Conditions and flow control functions 19.9.1.4. Operations on variables 19.9.1.5. System functions

19.9.2. User-Defined Functions

19.10. Directives

19.10.1. Conditionals 19.10.2. Includes 19.10.3. Other Directives

19.11. Running make

19.11.1. Generating Header Dependencies 19.11.2. Recursive make Commands 19.11.3. Command-Line Options 19.11.4. Special Targets Used as Runtime Options 19.11.5. GCC Options for Generating Makefile Rules

20. Debugging C Programs with GDB

20.1. Installing GDB 20.2. A Sample Debugging Session

20.2.1. Symbol Information 20.2.2. Finding a Bug

20.3. Starting GDB

20.3.1. Command-Line Arguments 20.3.2. Command-Line Options

20.3.2.1. Passing arguments to the program being debugged 20.3.2.2. Selecting files 20.3.2.3. Selecting the user interface 20.3.2.4. Executing command scripts

20.3.3. Initialization Files

20.4. Using GDB Commands

20.4.1. Command Completion 20.4.2. Displaying Help for Commands 20.4.3. Status Information

20.4.3.1. Status information on the program being debugged 20.4.3.2. Status information on the debugger

20.4.4. Running a Program in the Debugger 20.4.5. Displaying Source Code 20.4.6. Working with Breakpoints

20.4.6.1. Setting and displaying breakpoints 20.4.6.2. Deleting, disabling, and ignoring breakpoints 20.4.6.3. Conditional breakpoints

20.4.7. Resuming Execution After a Break 20.4.8. Analyzing the Stack

20.4.8.1. Displaying a call trace 20.4.8.2. Displaying and changing the current stack frame 20.4.8.3. Displaying arguments and local variables

20.4.9. Displaying Data

20.4.9.1. Displaying values of expressions 20.4.9.2. Output formats 20.4.9.3. Displaying memory blocks

20.4.10. Watchpoints: Observing Operations on Variables 20.4.11. Analyzing Core Files in GDB

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