Cannabis by Clarke, Robert -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Title Copyright Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgments Notes to Readers Table 1: Acronyms Used in this Book Map 1: Present-Day Ranges of Cannabis 1 Introduction to the Multipurpose Plant Cannabis

In the Beginning: Circumstances of Early Human Contact with Cannabis A Brief Summary of the Long and Diverse History of Relationships between Cannabis and Humans What Shall We Call These Plants? Should We Praise or Condemn This Multipurpose Plant? What We Discuss in This Book

2 Natural Origins and Early Evolution of Cannabis

Introduction Basic Life Cycle of Cannabis Ecological Requirements of Cannabis: Sunlight, Temperature, Water, and Soil Cannabis Origin and Evolution Studies

Central Asia: Vavilov and the Origins of Cannabis Cannabis and Vitis Theories for South Asian Origin of Domesticated Cannabis

Model for the Early Evolution of Cannabis Summary and Conclusions

3 Ethnobotanical Origins, Early Cultivation, and Evolution through Human Selection

Introduction First Contacts: Origins of “Human-Cannabis” Relationships Transitions to Cultivation and Civilization Earliest Uses of Cannabis: Useful Traits for Ancient People Evolution of Cannabis through Human Selection Disruptive Selection Origin from Weedy Populations Natural Hybridization: Introgression versus Isolation Artificial Hybridization Atavism Isolation of Populations Population Size and Changes in Variability Evolutionary Effects of Dioecy Effects of Human Selection on Sexual Expression for Different Products

Seeds Fibers Marijuana and Hashish

Sexual Dimorphism and Selection Phenotypic Changes during Domestication

Seeds Fibers Inflorescences

Directional Evolutionary Changes

Cannabinoid Profile Timing of Floral Maturation

Evolution of Cannabinoid Phenotypes Geographical Distribution of Cannabinoid Phenotypes

North America Western Europe Eastern Europe Central America and the Caribbean South America Middle East East Asia Indian Subcontinent Southeast Asia Equatorial Africa South and East Africa

Summary and Conclusions

4 The Cultural Diffusion of Cannabis

Introduction Methodology: The Multidisciplinary Approach Types of Archaeobotanical Evidence for Cannabis

Seeds Fibers Pollen Fiber and Seed Impressions Other Carbonized and Chemical Remains Phytoliths

Written Records of Cannabis’s Presence and Use Nonhuman Agencies Affecting the Geographical Range of Cannabis Human Impact on the Dispersal and Expanding Geographical Range of Cannabis Early Relationships among Humans and Cannabis in Central Asia

Fishing and Hemp Hemp, Humans, and Horses in Eurasia Scythians and Cannabis

Archeological and Historical Evidence for the Spread of Cannabis Diffusion throughout East Asia Diffusion from Northeastern China into Korea and Japan Diffusion into South Asia Archaeobotanical Evidence from South Asia Diffusion into Southwest Asia and Egypt Diffusion into Europe and the Mediterranean

Romania Bulgaria Hungary Poland Baltic Region Finland Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia Germany Switzerland Northern France Iberian Peninsula Netherlands Sweden Norway Denmark British Isles Mediterranean Region

Summary of Dispersal Phases within and Beyond Eurasia

Phase 1: Primary Dispersal across Eurasia-ca. 10,000 to 2000 BP Phase 2: Spread into Africa and Southeast Asia-ca. 2000 to 500 BP Phase 3: Diffusion to the New World-1545 to 1800 Phase 4: Diffusion to the New World-1800to 1945 Phase 5: Expansion after World War II-1945 to 1990 Phase 6: Artificial Environments and the Proliferation of Industrial Hemp-1990 to the Present

Summary and Conclusions: Cannabis’s Dispersal from an Evolutionary Point of View

5 History of Cannabis Use for Fiber

Introduction Textile Basics Historical and Archeological Evidence for Cannabis Fiber Use in China Hemp Fiber Use in Clothing, Lacquerware, Weapons, and Ships in Ancient China Traditional Korea Contemporary South Korea and North Korea Ancient Japan and Hemp Ancient Evidence from South Asia, Southwest Asia, and Egypt Ancient Mediterranean Region Ancient Europe North of the Mediterranean Spread of Hemp Fiber Use to the New World Some Aspects of the Modern History of Hemp Cannabis and Paper

Advent and Early History of Papermaking in China Hemp Paper in Ancient Korea and Japan Dispersal to North Africa and Europe Hemp Paper Production in North America

Summary and Conclusions

6 Food, Feed, and Oil Uses of Hemp

Introduction Human Food and Animal Feed Uses of Hemp Seeds Early Hemp Seed Use in China: Neolithic Period through the Han Dynasty Hemp Seed Oil in Ancient China Ancient Evidence for Traditional Production and Use beyond China

Korea Japan South and Southwest Asia Central and Eastern Europe Mediterranean and Western European Regions

Present-Day Hemp Seed Production and Use Summary and Conclusions

7 Historical Aspects of Psychoactive Cannabis Use for Ritual and Recreation

Introduction Discovery of the Euphoriant Properties of Cannabis in Eurasia

Central Asia China Taoism and Tales of Ma Gu India and Nepal Was Soma Cannabis?

South Asian Psychoactive Cannabis Products Hindu Acceptance of Ritual Bhang Use Shiva Worship and Cannabis Other Occasions on which Bhang Was Used Worship of the Bhang Plant Mongols and Cannabis

Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, Africa, and Europe

The Advent of Cannabis Smoking: Tobacco Meets Hashish Summary and Conclusions

8 Ethnobotanical History and Contemporary Context of Medicinal Cannabis

Introduction Early East Asian Medicinal Cannabis Use South and Southeast Asian Medical Traditions Egyptian Medicinal Cannabis Use Cannabis in Early Middle Eastern and Later Islamic Medicine African and South American Medicinal Cannabis Use European Medicinal Cannabis Use Present-Day Western Medicinal Applications of Cannabis Summary and Conclusions

9 Nonpsychoactive Ritual Uses of Cannabis

Introduction Hempen Rituals of Major Religions: Shamanic Influences Survive Repression Archeological Remains from Ritual Contexts: Central Asia, China, and Europe The Hmong: Spirit Travel in Healing, Life Cycle, and Funerary Rituals China: Shamanism, Taoism, and Confucianism Korea: Shamanic Funerary Rites, Confucian Mourning, and Ancestor Worship Japan: Shamanist, Shinto, and Buddhist Hemp Traditions Europe and the Middle East: Judeo-Christian Hemp Rituals Hangings: Hemp Cordage and Hempen Executions Conclusions

10 Recent History of Cannabis Breeding

Introduction European Hemp Breeding North American Hemp Breeding Introduction of NLD Cannabis to North America Breeding History of NLD Varieties Introduction of BLD Cannabis Recent Trends in Cannabis Breeding Summary and Conclusions

11 Classical and Molecular Taxonomy of Cannabis

Introduction One, Two, or Three Species? History of Cannabis Taxonomy Recent Advances in Cannabis Taxonomy Genetic and Historical Model for the Evolution of Cannabis Biotypes Recent Geographical Distributions of Cannabis Biotypes

Europe and the Former Soviet Union China Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan India and Nepal Southeast Asia Africa and the Middle East New World

Summary and Conclusions

12 Hypotheses Concerning the Early Evolution of Cannabis

Introduction Prehistoric Climate Change and Plant Distribution

The Pleistocene The Holocene

Early Human Dispersals Plant Speciation and Colonization

Pleistocene Refugia Postglacial Population Expansion Speciation Rate

Early Evolution of Cannabaceae: The Hemp and Hop Family Breeding Systems and Reproductive Strategies as Clues to Geographical Origin

Angiospermy Annuality Anemophily Dioecy Sex Determination

Reconstruction of a Cannabaceae Ancestor Summary and Conclusions

13 Cannabis and Homo sapiens

Introduction The Long-Term Relationship Summary of Cannabis’s Evolution Cannabis’s Influence on the Evolution of Human Culture A Case for the Social Benefits of Cannabis’s Psychoactivity Human Influence on Cannabis’s Evolution Environmental Impact of the Human-Cannabis Relationship Coevolution of Cannabis and Humans: Fresh Concepts Present Position of the Human-Cannabis Relationship Remaining Questions and Future Directions

Timeline References Index

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