[海外中国研究丛书 01] • China by Esherick, Joseph W. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

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Asia’s transformations Edited by Mark

Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Contributors Biographies

Map 1 Map 2

Introduction

The 1911 Revolution The historiography of the revolution New approaches Notes

Part I: Reform and revolution

1. The reform predicament

Post-Boxer reforms Internal contradictions of reform Social impact of reform Notes

2. Late Qing governors and provincial assemblies

Governors and the establishment of provincial assemblies Conflicts between governors and provincial assemblies Reasons for the conflicts Conclusions Notes

3. Conflict and competition: a new perspective on late Qing politics

Revolutionary activity advances constitutionalism The court’s passive response to constitutionalist pressure increases support for revolution Conflict and collaboration between revolution and constitutionalism Notes

Part II: The Sichuan railway crisis: prelude to revolution

4. Zaifeng and late Qing railway policy

Supporting the Railway Protection Movement in Hunan and Hubei Launching the state-owned railway policy Carrying out the nationalization policy Conclusion Notes

Part III: The Hubei reforms and the Wuchang Uprising

5. The New Policies in Hubei

The 1911 Revolution in the long-term perspective of Hubei’s New Policies Promoting industrialization

1. Hanyang ironworks: Asia’s first unified steel corporation 2. Hanyang arsenal 3. Four textiles bureaus 4. Wuchang mint

Building the New Army

1. New conscription policies 2. Specialized army units organized in a vertical formation 3. Modern military education 4. An elite army 5. Revolutionary activities in the Hubei New Army

Promoting new education

1. Reforming traditional academies (shuyuan) and opening new schools 2. Sending students abroad 3. New intellectual associations

The irony of Zhang Zhidong’s New Policies in Hubei Notes

6. Tang Hualong in the 1911 Revolution

Futile petitions in a national crisis The Wuchang Uprising: a call to the nation Preparing for a new China

1. Promptly establishing order to stabilize the situation 2. Reorganizing the military government and clarifying responsibilities 3. Active engagement in diplomacy 4. Preparing the Hankou security forces to resist the Qing army 5. Inducing the navy to abandon its confrontation of the revolution 6. Mediating between Li Yuanhong and Huang Xing to promote the status of Hubei 7. Dealing with the change of governors in Hunan 8. Developing a constitution for Hubei 9. Negotiations with Yuan Shikai’s delegates

Frustration and anger beyond comprehension The frustrations of a patriot Notes

Part IV: Qing officials and the revolution

7. Provincial officials in 1911–12: their backgrounds and reactions to revolution—an inquiry into the structure of “weak center, weak regions” in the late Qing

Overview of governors and governors-general after the Wuchang Uprising Governors’-general and governors’ reactions to revolution

1. Flight and dismissal 2. Leaving office after the revolution 3. Joining the rebels and declaring independence of the Qing 4. Suicide or death 5. Resignation claiming illness 6. Departure after the abdication of the Qing Emperor

A structure of “weak center, weak regions” and the collapse of Qing Notes

8. On the mentalities of Manchu and Mongol elites during the 1911 Revolution

Manchu and Mongol elite reponses to revolution

1. Martyrdom (xunjie sijun) 2. Enduring in silence (yinren) 3. Remaining unperturbed (chuzhi tairan) 4. Waiting for restoration

“All is lost”

1. Manchu and Mongol elites’ perception of the national and international situation 2. Replacing “dynasty” with “family” and protecting one’s own interest

A storm follows the calm

1. Its fighting spirit gone, a group loses power 2. Long-term Manchu-Han contradiction 3. The loss of political equilibrium 4. The lack of a crisis response mechanism

Conclusion Notes

Part V: Yuan Shikai and the 1911 Revolution

9. Zaifeng’s dismissal of Yuan Shikai and Sino–U.S.–Japanese diplomacy

The dismissal of Yuan Shikai by Zaifeng The attitude and response of the U.S. government The failure of the policy of aligning with the United States against Japan The struggle over the re-emergence of Yuan Shikai Notes

10. The Qing’s three armies after the Wuchang Uprising

The initial plan for three armies The first army at the front

Combat awards for the First Army

The second army is never formed

1. The twentieth division 2. The second mixed brigade 3. The third division 4. The fifth division 5. The Qing court acknowledges the failure to establish the Second Army

The impact of the failure to organize the second army

1. Generals at the front hope for the Second Army 2. The Second Army and the civil war

Reflections on the Qing government’s collapse Notes

11. Yuan Shikai and the February 1912 “Beijing Mutiny”

The controversy over the site of the republican capital Yuan Shikai’s preparations to travel to the south Yuan Shikai’s behavior during the mutiny The effect of the mutiny on Yuan Shikai’s reputation Rewriting the history of the transition from Qing abdication to Yuan Shikai’s inauguration Notes

Part VI: The revolution and the frontier

12. The “political game” and “state-building”: outer Mongolia during the 1911 Revolution

State-building practice of Outer Mongolia Early republican policy toward Outer Mongolia

1. From “expel the Manchus” (pai-Man) to a “Republic of Five Nationalities” (wuzu gonghe), to the “Chinese people” (Zhonghua minzu) 2. Conciliating the elites of Mongolia 3. Establishing the legal status of Outer Mongolia 4. Strengthening the administration of Outer Mongolia and other frontier regions 5. Central government integration of education in Outer Mongolia

The Russia–Mongolia Agreement and the ambiguous status of Outer Mongolian state-building The China–Russia–Mongolia Agreement overrides Outer Mongolia’s state-building experience Conclusion Notes

Glossary Index

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