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Index
Cover Page
Introductory Foods
Preface
1 Food Choices and Sensory Characteristics
Factors Affecting Patterns of Eating
Family and Social
Cultural
Religious Beliefs
Christian.
Judaism.
Islam.
Hinduism.
Vegetarianism and Religious Belief.
Nutrition and Health
Dietary Guidelines.
Choose My Plate.
Food Labeling.
Economic and Marketplace Factors
Food Availability.
Economics.
Technological Development
Processing.
Biotechnology.
Technology in the Home.
Emotional and Psychological Effects
Sensory Characteristics of Food
Appearance
Taste
Taste Buds.
Influence of Temperature.
Odor
Flavor
Analysis of Flavor.
Flavor
“The nose knows.” How does the nose participate in tasting food?
Umami—What is it?
Impact of Heat on Flavor Development.
Natural Flavors.
Artificial or Synthetic Flavors.
Flavor Researchers.
Texture
Sound
Sensory Evaluation of Food
Trained Sensory Panels.
Consumer Panels.
Objective Evaluation of Food
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
2 Food Economics and Convenience
Trends in Food Use
Food Availability Data
Food Consumption Surveys
USDA and HHS Food Consumption Data.
National Eating Trends Data.
Consumer Purchases and Store Sales
Changes in Food Consumption
Consumer Food Waste
Storage Loss
Preparation Loss
Plate Waste
Some Factors Influencing Food Costs
Marketing
Crop Production
Trade Policies
Food Processing and Packaging
Geographic Food Price Variation
Food Purchasing Practices
Eating Out or Cooking at Home.
Types of Food Stores.
Shopping Aids.
Unit Pricing.
Open-Date Labeling.
Food Labeling.
Computerized Checkout Systems.
Price-Conscious Buying.
Availability and Use of Convenience Foods
Ease of Preparation
Developments by Industry
Special Needs Convenience Foods
Space-Age Convenience.
Military Convenience Foods.
Cost of Convenience
Eating Quality
Nutritive Value
Saving Time and Effort
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
3 Food Safety
Preventing Foodborne Illness
Who Has a Role in Preventing Foodborne Illness?
Government.
Producers, Processors, and Retailers.
Food Service Establishments.
Consumers.
Four Keys to Safe Food Handling
Wash Hands and Surfaces.
Don’t Cross-Contaminate.
Cook to Proper Temperatures.
Refrigerate Promptly.
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points—A Systematic Approach
Technologies to Improve Food Safety
Pasteurization.
Irradiation.
Microorganisms and Other Causes of Foodborne Illness
Bacteria
Salmonella.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Campylobacter jejuni.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Listeria monocytogenes.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Yersinia enterocolitica.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus.
Escherichia coli.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Clostridium perfringens.
Shigella.
Staphylococcus aureus.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Clostridium botulinum.
Food Sources.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness.
Viruses
Hepatitis A.
Norovirus or Calicivirus.
Fungi
Molds.
Yeast.
Animal Parasites
Trichinella spiralis.
Anisakis simplex.
Toxoplasma gondii.
Cyclospora cayetanensis.
Prions
Natural Toxins and Sources of Contamination
Plant Toxins.
Marine Toxins.
Ciguatoxin.
Scrombrotoxins.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning.
Chemical and Physical Contaminants
Mercury.
Other Metals.
Packaging.
Pesticide Residues.
Food Allergies and Intolerances
Additional Potential Food-Safety Issues
Biotechnology
Bioterrorism
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
4 Food Regulations and Standards
FDA
History
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938
Standards of Identity.
Standards of Minimum Quality.
Standards of Fill of Container.
Sanitation Requirements.
Food Additives and Colorings
Food Additives Amendment.
Why use artificial instead of natural colorings in food?
What are “lake” colorants?
Can people be allergic to artificial colors?
Color Additives Amendment.
Labeling of Additives and Colors.
Delaney Clause and Safety.
Irradiation
Pesticide Regulation
What Must Be on a Food Label?
Nutrition Labeling
Exemptions and Requirements.
Recent Updates in Labeling Requirements.
Nutrition Facts Label.
Nutrient Content Claims.
Health Claims.
Food Allergen Labeling
Food Biotechnology
FDA Food Code
The USDA
History
Inspection
USDA Grades
Organic Foods
Other Areas of USDA Influence
The EPA
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
The FTC
Other Federal Agencies
State and Local Agencies
International Standards
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
5 Back to Basics
Small Equipment and Tools
Knives
Knife Blades.
Sharpening.
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel
High-Carbon Stainless Steel
Using Knives.
Hand Tools
Portioning and Measuring Tools
Other Small Equipment
Weights and Measures
Measuring Equipment
Liquid and Dry Measurements.
Accuracy of Measuring Equipment.
Measurement of Staple Foods
Flour.
Solid Fats.
Sugar.
Syrups.
Liquids.
The Metric System
Conversion to Metric
Metric and Recipes
Recipes
Soft Conversion
Hard Conversion
Recipe Styles
Standardization and Recipe Adjustment
Factor Method of Recipe Adjustment.
Standard Recipe Style
Action Recipe Style
Descriptive Recipe Style
Narrative Style
Percentage Method of Recipe Adjustment.
Baker’s Percentage.
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
6 Heat Transfer in Cooking
Why Cook Food?
Food Safety and Shelf Life
Making Foods Edible
Digestibility and Nutritive Value
Aesthestic Appeal
Measurement of Temperature
Heat Involved in Change of State
Change of State of Water
Solid.
Liquid.
Gas.
Heat Capacity of Water
Latent Heat
Latent Heat of Fusion and Solidification.
Latent Heat of Vaporization and Condensation.
Types of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Quality of Materials for Conduction.
Convection
Radiation
Cookware Utensils.
Other Types of Radiation.
Induction Heating
Media for Heat Transfer
Air
Water
Steam
Fat
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
7 Microwave Cooking
Food-Related Uses of Microwaves
Home
Food Service
Food Industry
Action of Microwaves in Heating
What Are Microwaves?
How Do Microwaves Heat Food?
Safety and Regulation
Microwave Ovens
Advantages of Microwave Cooking
Speed of Cooking and Reheating of Foods
Reduction in Nutrient Loss
Energy Conservation
Limitations of Microwave Cooking
Surface Browning of Foods
What is warmed-over flavor?
How can microwavable foods avoid WOF?
Other Quality Considerations
Overcooking and Erupted Hot-Water Phenomena
Unevenness of Heating and Food Safety
Packaging Materials and Cooking Utensils
Starches and Hydrocolloids in Microwavable Foods
What role do starches and hydrocolloids play in the quality of microwavable foods?
General Cooking Suggestions
Browning
Stirring and Turning
Standing Time
Defrosting
Combining Microwave and Conventional Cooking
Heating Meals
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
8 Seasonings, Flavorings, and Food Additives
Basic Seasonings
Salt
Pepper
Flavor Enhancers
MSG
5ʹ-Ribonucleotides
Spices and Herbs
History
Classification
Spice.
Herb.
Spice and Herb Blends.
Use
Storage
Quality
Flavor Extracts
Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers as Flavorings
Hot Peppers
Essential Oils
Vanilla Extract
Fruits
Edible Flowers
Condiments
Alcohol
Food Additives
Nutrient Supplements
Preservatives
Coloring Agents
Flavorings
Emulsifiers
Stabilizers and Thickeners
Sequestrants
Humectants and Anticaking Agents
Bleaching and Maturing Agents
Acids, Alkalis, and Buffers
Alternative Sweeteners
Fat Replacers
Bulking Agents
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
9 Food Composition
Water
Water in Foods
Free Water.
Bound Water.
Water Activity.
Uses of Water in Food Preparation
Universal Solvent.
Heat Transfer.
Freezing.
Cleansing Agent.
Chemical Changes.
Water and pH.
Hydrolysis.
The Nature of Water
Water Hardness
Types of Hard Water.
Hard Water and Food Preparation.
Softening Water.
Carbohydrates
Chemical Classification
Monosaccharides.
Glucose.
Fructose.
Galactose.
Disaccharides.
Sucrose.
Lactose.
Maltose.
Oligosaccharides.
Polysaccharides.
Starch and Dextrins.
Glycogen.
Plant Fiber Components.
Cellulose.
Hemicelluloses.
Beta-glucans.
Pectic Substances.
Vegetable Gums.
Browning
Carmelization.
Maillard Reaction.
Lipids or Fats
Triglycerides (Triacylglycerols)
Fatty Acids.
Cis-Trans Configuration.
Types of Triglyceride Molecules.
Phospholipids
Sterols
Fats in Food Preparation
Proteins
Structure of Proteins
Amino Acids.
Protein Quality
Food Sources
Properties and Reactions
Buffering.
Denaturation and Coagulation.
Enzymes.
Nomenclature.
Mechanism of Action.
Some Types of Enzymes.
Enzyme Activity.
Solutions and Dispersions
Characteristics of Solutions
Characteristics of Colloidal Dispersions
Characteristics of Suspensions
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
10 Fats, Frying, and Emulsions
Fat Consumption and Nutritive Value
Function of Fats in Food Preparation
Properties of Fats
Solubility
Melting Point
Type of Fatty Acids.
Saturated Fats.
Unsaturated Fats.
Trans-Fatty Acids.
Length of Carbon Atoms.
Melting Point of Chocolate.
Smoke Point
Plasticity
Flavor
Processing, Refining, and Types of Fats
Hydrogenation
How Oils Are Hydrogenated.
Health Implications of Hydrogenation.
Hydrogenated Shortening
Margarine
Ingredients.
Types of Margarine.
Processing of Oils
Winterization.
Kinds of Oils
Soybean.
Cottonseed.
Olive.
Canola.
Sunflower, Safflower, Peanut, and Corn.
Tropical Oils.
Butter
Sweet, Cultured, Clarified Butter, and Ghee.
Salted or Unsalted.
Coloring.
Grade Standards.
Flavor.
Lard
Deterioration of Fat and Its Control
Hydrolytic Rancidity
Oxidative Rancidity
Flavor Reversion.
Antioxidants and the Prevention of Rancidity
Why do some fats become rancid more quickly than others?
Frying
Panfrying
Deep-Fat Frying
Frying Temperature.
Fat Absorption.
Fat Selection.
Care of Fat.
Fat Turnover.
Changes to Fat Used for Deep-Fat Frying.
Acrolein.
Polymerization.
Change in Smoke Point.
Surfactants.
Darkening of Fats.
Changes to Food during Frying.
Buying Fats
Cooking Low Fat
Fat Replacers
Fat-Based Replacements
Carbohydrate-Based Replacements
Protein-Based Replacements
Emulsions
Emulsions in Foods
Temporary and Permanent Emulsions
Temporary Emulsions.
Permanent Emulsions.
Emulsifiers
Salad Dressings
Classification
Reduced-Fat Dressings
Mayonnaise Preparation
Factors Affecting Mayonnaise Preparation.
Breaking and Re-Forming an Emulsion.
Variations.
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
11 Sweeteners and Sugar Cookery
Sweetener Consumption and Nutritive Value
Why the Concern?
Why Reexamine Our Sugar Consumption?
Properties of Sugars
Solubility
Saturated and Unsaturated Sugar Solutions.
Supersaturated Solutions.
Melting Point and Decomposition by Heat
Absorption of Moisture
Fermentation
Acid Hydrolysis
Caramelization
Maillard Reaction
Decomposition by Alkalies
Enzyme Hydrolysis
Decomposition by Alkalies
Sweetness
Crystalline Forms of Sugar
Granulated Sugar
Other Crystalline Sugars
Brown Sugars
Cocrystallized Sucrose
Syrups, Molasses, and Honey
Corn Syrups
Corn Syrup Solids.
High-Fructose Corn Syrup.
Molasses and Sorghum
What is meant by dextrose equivalents?
What is a reducing sugar?
Maple Syrup
Honey
Low-Calorie Sweeteners and Other Sugar Substitutes
Saccharin
Aspartame
Acesulfame-K
Sucralose
Neotame
Rebaudioside A (Stevia)
Other Alternative Sweeteners Not Yet Approved in the United States
Cyclamates.
Alitame.
Thaumatin.
Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone.
Glycyrrhizin.
Sugar Alcohols (Polyols) and Novel Sweeteners
Erythritol
Mannitol
Isomalt, Lactitol, and Maltitol
Xylitol
Sorbitol
Hydrogenated Starch Hydrolysates
Novel Sugar Sweeteners
Bulking Agents
Functions of Sugar in Food and Sugar Cookery
Boiling Points and Solutions
Boiling Pure Liquids.
Why does sorbitol prevent dental caries?
What foods contain sorbitol?
Boiling Solutions.
Calibrating and Reading the Thermometer.
Inversion of Sucrose
Classification of Candies
Crystalline Candies
Boiling of Sugar Solution.
Boiling to Concentrate Sugar Solution.
Control of Crystallization.
Ripening.
Fudge.
Fondant.
Noncrystalline Candies
Brittles.
Caramels.
Taffy.
Chocolate Dipping
Temperatures and Techniques
Defects of Dipped Chocolates
The Confectionery Industry
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
12 Frozen Desserts
Consumption Trends and Nutrition
Consumption Trends
Nutrition
Types of Frozen Desserts
Characteristics of Frozen Desserts
Crystal Formation
Overrun
Body
Texture
Ingredients in Frozen Desserts
Milkfat
Nonfat Milk Solids
Sweeteners
Eggs
Stabilizers and Emulsifiers
Acids
Fruit and Flavorings
Ingredient Modifications for “Light” Frozen Desserts
Fat Modifications
Sugar Modifications
Nonfat Milk Solids
Preparation of Frozen Desserts
Commercial Ice Cream Processing
Pasteurization, Homogenization, and Aging.
Freezing and Hardening of the Mix.
Soft-Serve.
Ice Cream Preparation in the Home
Home Ice Cream Freezers.
Packing the Freezer with Ice and Salt.
Rate of Cranking the Mix.
Freezing of the Mix.
Still-Frozen Desserts
Storage of Frozen Desserts
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
13 Starch
Nutrition
Sources of Starch
Composition and Structure
The Starch Molecule
Amylose.
Amylopectin.
Amylose
Amylopectin
The Starch Granule
Kinds of Starch
Native Starches
Improved Native Starches
Modified Starches
Hydrolysis or Acid-Converted Starch.
Cross-Linked or Cross-Bonded.
Substitution or Stabilization.
Physically Modified Starch.
Instant or Pregelatinized Starches.
Cold-Water Swelling Starches.
Heat-Treated Starches.
Resistant Starches
Effect of Heat and Cooling on Starch
Dry Heat
Moist Heat
Gelatinization.
Pasting.
Gel Formation.
Retrogradation or Setback.
Factors Affecting Starch Pastes
Temperature and Time of Heating
Agitation or Stirring
Acidity (pH)
Addition of Other Ingredients
Starch Cookery
Combining Starch with Hot Liquids
Roux.
Slurry.
Sauces
Cream Soups
Starch-Thickened Desserts
Microwave Cooking of Starch Mixtures
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
14 Pasta and Cereal Grains
Consumption
Structure and Composition
Bran
Endosperm
Germ or Embryo
Nutritive Value and Enrichment
Protein
Refined and Enriched Grains
Whole Grains
Common Cereal Grains
Wheat
Classes of Wheat.
Processing.
Corn
Processing.
Uses for Corn.
Rice
Varieties of Rice.
Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Rice.
Specialty Rices.
Processing of Rice.
Oats
Processing.
Beta-Glucan.
Rye
Barley
Other Grains
Wild Rice.
Buckwheat.
Triticale.
Kamut and Spelt.
Quinoa.
Sorghum.
Teff.
Amaranth.
Breakfast Cereals
Ready-to-Eat Cereals
Cooking of Breakfast Cereals
Combining Cereal and Water.
Temperature and Time Periods.
Proportions of Water to Cereal.
Cooking of Rice
White Rice
Brown Rice
Precooked or Instant Rice
Rice Pilaf
Pasta
Manufacture of Pasta
Preparation of Pasta
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
15 Batters and Doughs
Flour
Classes of Wheat
Milling
Grades of Flour
Maturing and Bleaching of Flour
Maturing.
Bleaching.
Maturing and Bleaching Agents.
Enrichment of Flour
Protein in Flour and Gluten Formation
Proteins in Flour.
Gluten Formation.
Gluten Extraction.
Types of Wheat Flour
Whole-Wheat Flour.
Bread Flour.
All-Purpose Flour.
Pastry Flour.
Cake Flour.
Instantized Flour.
Self-Rising Flour.
Gluten Flour.
Other Wheat Products
Flours and Meals Other Than Wheat Flour
Rye Flour.
Corn Meal and Corn Flour.
Soy Flour.
Miscellaneous Flours.
Major Leavening Gases
Air
Steam
Carbon Dioxide
Leavening Agents
Yeast and Bacteria
Baking Soda
Baking Powder
Double-Acting Baking Powder.
Amount of Baking Powder to Use.
Methods of Adding Baking Powder and Soda
Substitutions of Chemical Leavening Agents
Fat
Comparative Shortening Power of Fats
Fat in Leavening
Fat Replacers and Reduced-Fat Formulas
Liquids
Eggs
Sugar and Other Sweeteners
Classification of Batters and Doughs
Batters
Doughs
General Methods for Mixing Batters and Doughs
Muffin Method
Pastry or Biscuit Method
Conventional Method
Structure of Batters and Doughs
Dry Flour Mixes
Baking at High Altitudes
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
16 Quick Breads
Popovers
Ingredients
Characteristics
Baking
Causes of Failure
How Do Eggs Contribute to the Structure of Popovers?
How Can Maillard Browning Be Reduced in Popovers?
Cream Puffs and Éclairs
Ingredients and Mixing
Characteristics
Baking
Causes of Failure
Pancakes
Ingredients and Mixing
Cooking
Waffles
Ingredients and Mixing
Baking
Muffins
Ingredients
Solid Fats Melt
Gases Form and Expand
Microorganisms Die
Egg and Gluten Proteins Stretch and Coagulate
Starches Gelatinize
Gases Evaporate
Caramelization and Maillard Browning Occur
Characteristics
Mixing
Variations
Baking
Nut Breads, Coffee Cakes, and Fried Quick Breads
Biscuits
Ingredients
Characteristics
Mixing
Baking
Scones
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
17 Yeast Breads
Characteristics of Yeast Breads
Texture
Appearance
Flavor
Ingredients
Yeast
Dry Yeast.
Instant Quick-Rising Active Dry Yeast.
Active Dry Yeast.
Bread Machine Yeast.
Compressed Yeast.
Starters.
Amount of Yeast to Use.
Flour
Liquid
Sugar
Fat
Salt
Dough Conditioners and Other Ingredients
Mixing and Handling
Straight-Dough Method
Sponge Method
Batter Method
Automatic Bread Machines
Kneading
Kneading by Hand.
Kneading by Machine.
Quality Considerations.
Fermentation and Proofing
Fermentation
Favorable Conditions for Fermentation.
Punching Down.
Optimal Fermentation.
Growth of Gas Nuclei
Action of Enzymes
Increase in Acidity
Proofing
Decorative Finishes
Baking Bread
Conventional Baking
Microwave Baking
Frozen Yeast Doughs
Rolls
Whole-Grain and Variety Breads
Whole-Wheat Bread
High-Fiber Breads
Use of Flours Other Than Wheat
Other Specialty Breads
Staling of Bread
Spoilage of Bread
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
18 Cakes and Cookies
Shortened Cakes
Types and Characteristics
Pound Cakes.
Butter or Shortened Cakes.
Ingredients
Sugar.
Egg.
Fat.
Emulsifiers.
Leavening Agents.
Flour.
Liquid.
Chocolate.
Mixing
Conventional Method.
Conventional Sponge Method.
Muffin Method.
Quick-Mix Method.
Effects of Under- and Overmanipulation.
Preparation of Pans
Baking
Baking Temperatures.
Cooling the Cake Before Removal from the Pan.
Microwave Baking.
Foam Cakes
Angel Food Cake
Characteristics.
Ingredients.
Egg Whites.
Flour.
Sugar.
Cream of Tartar.
Mixing.
Preparation of Pans.
Baking Temperatures.
Sponge Cake
Ingredients.
Mixing.
Panning and Baking.
Genoise Cake
Ingredients.
Mixing.
Panning, Baking, and Finishing.
Chiffon Cake
Ingredients.
Mixing.
Panning, Baking, and Finishing.
Cookies
Classification and Characteristics
Ingredients.
Flour.
Sugar.
Fat.
Eggs.
Liquid.
Leavening.
Mixing and Handling
Baking
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
19 Pastry
Characteristics of Plain Pastry
Flakiness
Tenderness
Ingredients in Plain Pastry
Flour
Water
Fat
Techniques of Mixing
Traditional Mixing Method
Modified Mixing Method
Hot-Water and Oil Methods
Puff Pastry Method
Rolling Pastry
Baking
Preventing Soaked Crusts
Using a Microwave Oven
Prepared Pie Crust
Other Types of Pastry and Crusts
Crumb, Cookie, and Sweet Tart Crusts
Puff Pastry and Phyllo Dough
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
20 Vegetables and Vegetable Preparation
Consumption Trends and Nutrition
Consumption Trends
Nutrition
Kinds of Vegetables
Leaf Vegetables
Vegetable-Fruits
Flowers and Stems
Roots, Bulbs, and Tubers
Characteristics of Potato Varieties.
Seeds
Mushrooms
Purchasing
Grades
Fresh Vegetable and Fruit Grades.
Canned Vegetable and Fruit Grades.
Economic Considerations
Organic
Biotechnology and Vegetable Production
Partially Processed, Value Added, or Fresh Cuts
Storage
General Conditions
Temperature
Methods to Extend Storage
Preliminary Vegetable Preparation
Food Safety and Preparation
Edible Portion and Yield
Preparation and Quality Considerations
Why Cook Vegetables?
Plant Pigments
Chlorophyll.
Heat.
Acid and Alkalies.
Carotenoids.
Anthocyanins.
Betalains.
Anthoxanthins.
Enzymatic Oxidative Browning
Methods to Control Browning.
Sulfites.
Discoloration in Potatoes after Cooking
Flavor
Chlorophyll
Carotenoids
Anthocyanin
Cabbage Flavors.
Onion Flavors.
Texture
Fiber Components.
Influence of Cooking.
Alkalies, Acids, and Calcium Salts.
Prevention of Nutrient Losses
Storage Losses.
How Cooking Losses Occur.
Cooking Losses—Water-Soluble Nutrients.
Cooking Losses—Fat-Soluble Nutrients.
Cooking Losses—Antioxidants.
Influence of Food Production Systems.
Other Changes
Specific Methods of Cooking Vegetables
Broiling and Grilling
Roasting and Baking
Panfrying and Deep-Fat Frying
Sautéing
Boiling
Blanching.
Parboiling.
Steaming
Pressure Cooking
Microwave Cooking
Cooking Times for Vegetables
Cooking of Frozen Vegetables
Cooking of Canned Vegetables
Plant Proteins and Vegetarian Diets
Dried Legumes
Preparation of Legumes
Soaking of Beans.
Soft or Hard Water.
Use of Alkali.
Canned Beans.
Raffinose and Stachyose.
Soybeans
Soy Protein Products.
Texturized Soy Proteins.
Whole Soybeans.
Soy Milk.
Tofu.
Fermented Soy Products.
Soybeans and Nutrition.
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
21 Fruits and Fruit Preparation
Fruit Classifications
Fruit Consumption, Composition, and Nutritive Value
Consumption
Composition and Nutritive Value
Vitamin C.
Vitamin A Value.
Calcium and Iron.
Fiber.
Phytochemicals and Antioxidants.
Color
Flavor
Aromatic Compounds
Acids
Chemical Reaction
Treatments That will Prevent Enzymatic Browning
Beneficial and Detrimental Aspects of Enzymatic Browning
Essential Oils
Other Components
Changes During Ripening
Role of Ethylene Gas in Ripening
Color
Softening
Flavor
Vitamin Content
Selection of Fresh Fruits
Apples
Avocados
Bananas
Berries
Cherries
Citrus Fruits
Size and Quality.
Varieties of Oranges.
Grapefruit.
Grapes
Melons
Peaches and Nectarines
Plums
Pears
Pineapple
Variety Fruits
Storage of Fresh Fruits
Temperature and Storage Conditions
Methods to Extend Storage
Controlled Atmosphere.
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging.
Irradiation.
Fruit Juices
Sources of Vitamin C
Juice Processing
Pasteurization or Treatment of Juice for Safety.
Orange Juice Processing.
Noncitrus Juice Concentrates.
Cloud or Haze.
Dried Fruits
Methods and Storage
Prunes
Canned Fruits
Frozen Fruits
Preparation
Effect of Cooking Medium
General Cooking Recommendations for Fruits
Cooking Dried Fruits
Baking
Glazing
Broiling or Grilling
Sautéing
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
22 Salads and Gelatin Salads
Salad Use in Meals
Nutrition
Salad Preparation and Ingredients
Pre-Preparation
Salad Ingredients and Preparation
Leafy Greens.
Vegetables.
Fruit Preparation.
Pasta and Grains.
Legumes.
Meat, Poultry, Fish, and Eggs.
Marinated Salads and Salad Dressings
Marinated.
Salad Dressings.
Presentation and Garnishes
Salads and Food Safety
Gelatin and Gels
Nutritive Value of Gelatin
Manufacture of Gelatin
Gelatin as a Gel Structure
Eggs
Pectin
Gelatin Hydration, Swelling, and Dispersion
Gelation
Effect of Temperature
Concentration
Degree of Acidity
Effect of Salts, Sugar, and Enzymes
Salts.
Addition of Sugar.
Effect of Enzymes.
Gelatin Salads and Desserts
Fruit, Vegetable, Meat, and Fish Jellies
Aspics
Foams and Sponges
Bavarian and Spanish Creams
Unmolding the Gel
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
23 Milk and Milk Products*
Consumption Trends and Nutrition
Consumption Trends
Nutritive Value
Composition and Properties of Milk
Protein
Casein.
Whey.
Fat
Carbohydrate
Lactose Intolerance.
Minerals and Vitamins
Color
Flavor
Heat Processing.
Other Factors Influencing Flavor.
Action of Copper in Milk
Since Riboflavin is a Vitamin, How Can it Produce an Off-Flavor in the Milk?
pH
Sanitation, Grading, and Processing
Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance
Grading
Pasteurization
Bacteria Found in Milk
Why is Alkaline Phosphatase Pinpointed when Evaluating the Effectiveness of Milk Pasteurization?
Homogenization
Fortification
Types of Milk Products
Fluid Milk
Whole Milk.
Fat-Reduced Milks.
Flavored Milk and Eggnog.
Concentrated Fluid Milk
Evaporated Milk.
Sweetened Condensed Milk.
Storage and Quality.
Dry Milk
Cultured Milk Products
Why Does Milk Spoil if I Pour Any Milk That was Held at Room Temperature Back into Its Original Carton?
Yogurt.
Rancidity
Browning
Buttermilk.
Acidophilus Milks.
Kefir.
Filled and Imitation Milks
Filled Milk.
Imitation Milk.
Types of Cream Products
Fluid Cream.
Sour Cream.
Dried Cream.
Nondairy Products.
Food Preparation with Milk and Cream
Heat
Protein Coagulation.
Mineral Changes.
Coalescence of Fat Globules.
Surface Film Formation.
Browning.
Acid Coagulation
Enzyme Coagulation
Coagulation by Phenolic Compounds
Coagulation by Salts
Freezing
Whipping of Cream
Temperature and Viscosity.
Fat Content.
Amount of Cream Whipped.
Effect of Other Substances.
Whipping of Other Milk Products
Evaporated Milk.
Nonfat Dry Milk.
Care of Milk
Cheese
Composition and Nutritive Value
Cheese Manufacture
Curd Formation.
Cutting and Heating Curd.
Draining, Knitting, Salting, and Pressing Curd.
Ripening.
Flavor.
Cooking Quality.
Effect of Molds and Other Organisms During Ripening.
Length of Ripening.
Grades
Types of Cheese Products
Where does Rennin (Rennet) Come from?
How Does Rennet Work?
Cold-Pack Cheese.
Process Cheese.
Process Cheese Foods and Spreads.
Low-Fat Cheese.
Cheese Storage
Cheese in Cooked Foods
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
24 Eggs and Egg Cookery
Composition and Nutritive Value
Proteins
Egg Whites.
Egg Yolks.
Lipids
Pigments
Structure
Eggshell
Albumen, Chalazae, and Membranes
Yolk
Egg Quality and Sizing
Physical Characteristics of Fresh and Deteriorated Eggs
Flavor and Odor Deterioration
Purchasing Fresh Eggs
Measuring Quality
Grading
Sizing
Food Safety of Eggs
Government Regulation
Processing and Storage Considerations
Purchasing and Storage Recommendations
Handling and Preparation Recommendations
Preservation and Processing
Processed Egg Products
Pasteurized.
Frozen.
Dried.
Liquid.
Egg Substitutes
Commercial Cold Storage
Coagulation of Eggs and Egg Foams in Food Preparation
Heat Coagulation of Egg Proteins
Concentration and Part of Egg Used.
Time and Temperature.
Effect of Rate of Heating.
Effect of Added Substances.
Coagulation by Mechanical Beating and Egg Foams
Egg White Foams.
Beaten Whole Eggs.
Beaten Egg Yolks.
Factors Affecting Egg Foams.
Thin and Thick Whites.
Temperature.
Type of Beater Used.
Type of Container in Which Eggs Are Beaten.
Effect of Added Substances.
Fat.
Salt.
Acid.
Sugar.
Specific Methods of Egg Preparation
Poached Eggs
Cooked in the Shell
Fried Eggs
Scrambled Eggs
Shirred Eggs
Omelets and Frittatas
French Omelets.
Puffy Omelets.
Frittatas
Crêpes
Soufflés
Custards
Baked Custard.
Soft or Stirred Custard.
Meringues
Microwave Cooking
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
25 Meat and Meat Cookery
Consumption Trends and Nutrition
Consumption Trends
Nutritive Value
Composition and Structure
Muscle
Connective Tissue
Fatty Tissue
Bone
Pigments
Classification
Beef
Veal
Lamb and Mutton
Pork
Meat Production and Marketing
Antibiotics and Hormones
Animal Welfare and Slaughter
Postmortem Changes
Aging
Packaging
Labeling
Government Regulation, Inspection, and Grading
Regulation.
Inspection.
E. coli.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy.
Trichinella spiralis.
Grades and Grading.
Yield Grades.
Quality Grades.
Purchasing Meat
Meat Identification
Beef.
Veal, Lamb, and Pork.
Restructured Meat
Variety Meats
Ground Beef and Hamburger
Economic Considerations
Tenderness and Flavor
Tenderness
Connective Tissue.
Fat and Marbling.
Other Factors.
Tenderizing.
Flavor
Cured Meats
Nitrite
Salt
Cured Products
Ham
Sausages and Luncheon Meats
Cured Meat Pigments
Safe Storage and Preparation of Meats
Safe Storage and Handling
Preparation and Food Safety
Ground Beef.
Beef Steaks, Pork, and Lamb.
Methods of Preparing and Cooking Meat
Dry, Moist, and Combination Cooking Methods
Dry Heat.
Moist Heat.
Combination.
Selection of Cooking Method.
Effect of Heat on Meat
Cooking Losses
Shrinkage
Flavor
Salt.
Rubs.
Marinades.
Basting.
Juiciness
Tenderization
Cooking and Carving.
Marinades.
Specific Cooking Methods
Roasting or Baking.
Cuts of Meat for Roasting.
Length of Cooking Time.
Carryover Cooking and Standing Time.
Thermometer Use.
Broiling.
Pan Broiling.
Sautéing and Frying.
Microwave Cooking.
Braising.
Stewing.
Pressure Cooking.
Crockery Slow Cooking.
Cooking Variety Meats
Cooking Frozen Meats
Stock, Broth, Consommé, Gravy, and Sauces
Stock and Broth
Consommé
Gravies and Sauces
Carving Meat
Beef Steak
Standing Rib Roast
Pot Roasts
Ham
Loin Roasts
Leg of Lamb
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
26 Poultry
Consumption
Composition and Nutritive Value
Classification and Market Forms
Poultry Production and Processing
Production
Processing
Government Regulations
Inspection
Grading
Labeling
Fresh and Frozen.
Absorbed and Retained Water.
Nutrition Labeling.
Other Labeling Requirements.
Buying Poultry
Quality and Characteristics of Age
Amount to Buy and Economic Considerations
Safe Storage and Preparation
Safe Storage and Handling
Thawing of Frozen Poultry
Safe End-Point Cooking Temperatures
To Stuff or Not to Stuff
Handling Leftovers
Cooking Poultry
Roasting
Traditional Roasting.
Electric Roaster Ovens.
Brining Before Roasting.
Roasting of Duck and Goose.
Broiling and Grilling
Grilling and Smoking of Whole Turkeys or Chickens
Panfrying
Deep-Fat Frying
Braising
Stewing
Microwave Cooking
Cooking and Color Changes
Discoloration of Poultry Bones.
Pink Flesh.
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
27 Seafood
Consumption
Composition and Nutritive Value
Classification
Finfish
Shellfish
Mollusks.
Univalves.
Bivalves.
Cephalopods.
Crustaceans.
Shrimp.
Lobster.
Crawfish and Crayfish.
Crab.
Seafood Harvest and Aquaculture
Wild Caught
Aquaculture
Sustainability
Government Regulation
Inspection and Regulatory Oversight
Grading
Buying Fish and Shellfish
Freshness
Market Forms
Fish Products
Minced Fish Products.
Cured Fish.
Canned Fish.
Breaded or Battered Fish Products.
Safe Storage and Handling
Seafood Safety
Spoilage of Fish and Storage Recommendations
Preparation
Cooking Finfish
Broiling
Baking
Frying
Steaming and Simmering
Microwave Cooking
Cooking Shellfish
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
28 Beverages
Consumption Trends and Nutrition
Water
Carbonated Beverages
Functional Beverages
Sports or Isotonic Beverages
Energy Drinks
Noncarbonated Fruit or Vegetable Beverages
Alcoholic Beverages
Wine
Beer
Spirits
Coffee
The Coffee Plant
Harvest and Processing of Beans
Dry Method.
Wet Method.
Semidry Method.
Cleaning, Sorting, and Shipping
Roasting
Composition of Coffee
Organic Acids.
Volatile Substances.
Bitter Substances.
Caffeine.
Kinds of Coffee Beverages
Decaffeinated Coffee.
Instant Coffee Products.
Specialty Coffee Beverages.
Iced Coffee.
Coffee Substitutes.
Purchasing and Storing Coffee
Purchasing.
Storage.
Whole Bean Coffee
Ground Coffee
Grind and Quality
Methods of Making Coffee
Drip or Filtration.
Vacuum Filtration.
French Press.
Percolation.
Steeping.
Other Factors Affecting Coffee Quality
The Coffeepot.
Water.
Temperature and Time.
Tea
The Tea Plant
Processing
Black Tea.
Green Tea.
Oolong Tea.
Composition
Market Forms
Instant Teas.
Herbal Teas.
Considerations for Tea Making
Water Quality and Temperature.
Quantity of Tea and Length of Infusion.
Effect of Lemon Juice.
Tea-Making Methods
Tea Bags.
Steeping of Loose Tea.
Iced Tea.
Cocoa and Chocolate
Processing
Chocolate.
Cocoa.
Natural- and Dutch-Processed Cocoa.
Composition
Fat.
Starch.
Flavor and Color.
Theobromine and Caffeine.
Bloom and Storage Recommendations
Bloom.
Storage.
Cooking with Chocolate
Chocolate Melting.
Methods for Making Cocoa Beverage.
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
29 Food Preservation and Packaging
Causes of Food Spoilage
Microorganisms
Enzymes
Desiccation, Bruising, and Oxidation
General Methods of Food Preservation
Preservation by Temperature Control
Cold Temperatures.
Refrigeration and Controlled-Atmosphere Storage.
Freezing.
Thermal Processing.
Canning.
Pasteurization.
Preservation by Moisture Control
Drying.
Freeze-Drying.
Use of Preservatives
Acids and Sugar.
Spices.
Other Preservatives.
Preservation by Irradiation
Packaging of Food
Functions of Food Packaging
Protection.
Containment.
Marketing and Information.
Regulatory Requirements
Food Packages
Rehydratable Food
Thermostabilized Food
Intermediate Moisture Food
Natural Form Foods
Irradiated Meat
Condiments
Shelf-Stable Tortilla
Packaging Materials
Paper and Paperboard.
Plastics.
Metals.
Combinations of Materials.
Edible Films and Coatings.
Methods of Packaging
Aseptic Packaging.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging.
Sous Vide.
Packaging Waste Management
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
30 Food Preservation by Freezing and Canning
Freezing
The Freezing Process
Changes During Freezing, Storage, and Thawing
Formation of Ice Crystals.
Enzyme Action.
Nonenzymatic Oxidation.
Desiccation.
Activity of Microorganisms.
Selection of Foods for Freezing
Techniques for Freezing
Fruits.
Vegetables.
Meat, Fish, and Poultry.
Eggs.
Prepared Foods.
Containers
Use and Management of the Home Freezer
Canning
Historical Highlights
Methods for Home Canning
Packing.
Processing.
Boiling Water Bath.
Pressure Canning.
Boiling Water Bath—High-Acid Foods
Pressure Canner—Required for Low-Acid Foods
Containers for Canning
Commercial Canning.
Home Canning.
Heat Penetration
Obtaining a Partial Vacuum
Obtaining an Effective Seal
Handling After Processing
Chapter Summary
Study Questions
A Weights and Measures
B Temperature Control
C Nutritive Value of Foods
References
Glossary
Index
PLATE I
Fresh Herbs.
PLATE II
Ingredients Used to Build Flavor.
PLATE III
Peppers.
PLATE IV
Grains
PLATE V
PLATE VI
PLATE VII
PLATE VIII
PLATE IX
PLATE X
PLATE XI
PLATE XII
PLATE XIII
PLATE XIV
PLATE XV
PLATE XVI
PLATE XVII
Primal Cuts of Beef.
Primal Cuts of Veal.
PLATE XVIII
Primal Cuts of Lamb.
Primal Cuts of Pork.
PLATE XIX
Cuts of Beef.
PLATE XX
Cuts of Beefsteak.
PLATE XXI
Cuts of Beef.
PLATE XXII
Veal.
PLATE XXIII
Cuts of Lamb.
PLATE XXIV
Cuts of Pork.
PLATE XXV
Poultry
PLATE XXVI
Carving a Turkey.
PLATE XXVII
PLATE XXVIII
PLATE XXIX
Round Fish.
Flat Fish
PLATE XXX
Procedure for Filleting a Round Fish
PLATE XXXI
Mollusks.
PLATE XXXII
Cephalopods.
Crustaceans
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