Research Methods in Education by Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion, Keith Morrison, Richard Bell -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Front Cover Research Methods in Education Title Page Copyright Contents List of figures List of tables List of boxes List of contributors Preface to the seventh edition Acknowledgements PART 1: The context of educational research

1 The nature of enquiry: setting the field

1.1 Introduction 1.2 The search for truth 1.3 Two conceptions of social reality 1.4 Positivism 1.5 The assumptions and nature of science 1.6 The tools of science 1.7 The scientific method 1.8 Criticisms of positivism and the scientific method 1.9 Alternatives to positivistic social science-naturalistic approaches 1.10 A question of terminology: the normative and interpretive paradigms 1.11 Phenomenology, ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism 1.12 Criticisms of the naturalistic and interpretive approaches 1.13 Mixed methods research: a new paradigm? 1.14 Is mixed methods research a new paradigm? 1.15 A note on post-positivism, postmodernism and post-structuralism 1.16 The paradigm of complexity theory

2 Critical educational research

2.1 Critical theory and critical educational research 2.2 Criticisms of approaches from critical theory 2.3 Critical theory and curriculum research 2.4 Participatory research and critical theory 2.5 Feminist research 2.6 A note on post-colonial theory and queer theory 2.7 A summary of three major paradigms

3 Evaluation and the politics of educational research

3.1 Research and evaluation 3.2 Research, politics and policy making

4 The search for causation

4.1 Causes and conditions 4.2 Causal inference and probabilistic causation 4.3 Causation, explanation, prediction and correlation 4.4 Causal over-determination 4.5 The timing and scope of the cause and the effect 4.6 Causal direction, directness and indirectness 4.7 Establishing causation 4.8 The role of action narratives in causation 4.9 Researching causes and effects 4.10 Researching the effects of causes 4.11 Researching the causes of effects 4.12 Conclusion

PART 2 : Planning educational research

5 The ethics of educational and social research

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Informed consent 5.3 Access and acceptance 5.4 The field of ethics 5.5 Sources of tension 5.6 Voices of experience 5.7 Ethical dilemmas 5.8 Privacy 5.9 Anonymity 5.10 Confidentiality 5.11 Against privacy, confidentiality and anonymity 5.12 Ethics in electronic research 5.13 Betrayal 5.14 Deception 5.15 Ethics and evaluative research 5.16 Research and regulation: ethical codes and review boards 5.17 Sponsored research 5.18 Responsibilities to the research community 5.19 Conclusion

6 Choosing a research project

6.1 Introduction 6.2 What gives rise to the research project? 6.3 The importance of the research 6.4 The purposes of the research 6.5 Ensuring that the research can be conducted 6.6 Considering research questions 6.7 Considering the scope of the literature review 6.8 Summary of key issues in choosing a research topic or project

7 Planning educational research

7.1 Introduction 7.2 Approaching research planning 7.3 A framework for planning research 7.4 Conducting and reporting a literature review 7.5 Searching for literature on the internet 7.6 Orienting decisions in planning research 7.7 Research design and methodology 7.8 How to operationalize research questions 7.9 Data analysis 7.10 Presenting and reporting the results 7.11 A planning matrix for research 7.12 Managing the planning of research 7.13 A worked example 7.14 Ensuring quality in the planning of research

8 Sampling

8.1 Introduction 8.2 The sample size 8.3 Sampling error 8.4 The representativeness of the sample 8.5 The access to the sample 8.6 The sampling strategy to be used 8.7 Probability samples 8.8 Non-probability samples 8.9 Sampling in qualitative research 8.10 Sampling in mixed methods research 8.11 Planning a sampling strategy 8.12 Conclusion

9 Sensitive educational research

9.1 Introduction 9.2 What is sensitive research? 9.3 Sampling and access 9.4 Ethical issues in sensitive research 9.5 Researching powerful people 9.6 Researching powerless and vulnerable people 9.7 Asking questions 9.8 Conclusion

10 Validity and reliability

10.1 Defining validity 10.2 Validity in quantitative research 10.3 Validity in qualitative research 10.4 Types of validity 10.5 Triangulation 10.6 Validity in mixed methods research 10.7 Ensuring validity 10.8 Reliability 10.9 Reliability in quantitative research 10.10 Reliability in qualitative research 10.11 Validity and reliability in interviews 10.12 Validity and reliability in experiments 10.13 Validity and reliability in questionnaires 10.14 Validity and reliability in observations 10.15 Validity and reliability in tests 10.16 Validity and reliability in life histories

PART 3: Styles of educational research

11 Naturalistic, qualitative and ethnographic research

11.1 Foundations of naturalistic, qualitative and ethnographic enquiry 11.2 Planning naturalistic, qualitative and ethnographic research 11.3 Features and stages of a qualitative study 11.4 Critical ethnography 11.5 Some problems with ethnographic and naturalistic approaches

12 Historical and documentary research in education

12.1 Introduction 12.2 What is a document? 12.3 Primary documents 12.4 In the archive 12.5 Documentary analysis 12.6 Ethical and legal issues 12.7 Conclusions

13 Surveys, longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies

13.1 What is a survey? 13.2 Some preliminary considerations 13.3 Planning a survey 13.4 Low response and non-response, and how to reduce them 13.5 Survey sampling 13.6 Longitudinal, cross-sectional and trend studies 13.7 Strengths and weaknesses of longitudinal, cohort and cross-sectional studies 13.8 Postal, interview and telephone surveys 13.9 Internet-based surveys 13.10 Comparing methods of data collection in surveys

14 Case studies

14.1 What is a case study? 14.2 Generalization in case study 14.3 Reliability and validity in case studies 14.4 What makes a good case study researcher? 14.5 Examples of kinds of case study 14.6 Why participant observation? 14.7 Planning a case study 14.8 Data in case studies 14.9 Recording observations 14.10 Writing up a case study 14.11 Conclusion

15 Ex post facto research

15.1 Introduction 15.2 Co-relational and criterion groups designs 15.3 Characteristics of ex post facto research 15.4 Occasions when appropriate 15.5 Advantages and disadvantages of ex post facto research 15.6 Designing an ex post facto investigation 15.7 Procedures in ex post facto research

16 Experiments, quasi-experiments, single-case research and internet-based experiments

16.1 Introduction 16.2 Designs in educational experimentation 16.3 True experimental designs 16.4 A quasi-experimental design: the non-equivalent control group design 16.5 Single-case research: ABAB design 16.6 Procedures in conducting experimental research 16.7 Threats to internal and external validity in experiments 16.8 The timing of the pre-test and the post-test 16.9 Examples from educational research 16.10 The design experiment 16.11 Internet-based experiments 16.12 Conclusion

17 Meta-analysis, research syntheses and systematic reviews

17.1 Evidence-based research 17.2 Meta-analysis 17.3 Research syntheses and systematic reviews

18 Action research

18.1 Introduction 18.2 Defining action research 18.3 Principles and characteristics of action research 18.4 Participatory action research 18.5 Action research as critical praxis 18.6 Action research and complexity theory 18.7 Procedures for action research 18.8 Reporting action research 18.9 Reflexivity in action research 18.10 Some practical and theoretical matters 18.11 Conclusion

19 Virtual worlds in educational research

19.1 Simulations and virtual worlds 19.2 Theoretical bases of simulations and virtual worlds 19.3 Applications of virtual worlds 19.4 A worked example of virtual world research 19.5 Opportunities and limitations 19.6 Issues and problems in virtual world research 19.7 Using a virtual world and simulations in educational research 19.8 Ethical issues in virtual world research 19.9 Online tools for data collection from virtual worlds 19.10 Conclusions

PART 4: Strategies and instruments for data collection and researching

20 Questionnaires

20.1 Ethical issues 20.2 Approaching the planning of a questionnaire 20.3 Types of questionnaire items 20.4 Asking sensitive questions 20.5 Avoiding pitfalls in question writing 20.6 Sequencing questions 20.7 Questionnaires containing few verbal items 20.8 The layout of the questionnaire 20.9 Covering letters/sheets and follow-up letters 20.10 Piloting the questionnaire 20.11 Practical considerations in questionnaire design 20.12 Administering questionnaires 20.13 Processing questionnaire data

21 Interviews

21.1 Introduction 21.2 Conceptions of the interview 21.3 Purposes of the interview 21.4 Types of interview 21.5 Planning interview-based research procedures 21.6 Group interviewing 21.7 Interviewing children 21.8 Interviewing minority and marginalized people 21.9 Focus groups 21.10 Non-directive, focused, problem-centred and in-depth interviews 21.11 Telephone interviewing 21.12 Ethical issues in interviewing

22 Accounts

22.1 Introduction 22.2 The ethogenic approach 22.3 Characteristics of accounts and episodes 22.4 Procedures in eliciting, analysing and authenticating accounts: an example 22.5 Network analysis 22.6 Discourse analysis 22.7 Analysing social episodes 22.8 Account gathering in educational research: an example 22.9 Problems in gathering and analysing accounts 22.10 Strengths of the ethogenic approach 22.11 A note on stories

23 Observation

23.1 Introduction 23.2 Structured observation 23.3 The need to practise structured observation 23.4 Analysing data from structured observations 23.5 Critical incidents 23.6 Naturalistic and participant observation 23.7 Data analysis for less structured observations 23.8 Natural and artificial settings for observation 23.9 The use of technology in recording observations 23.10 Timing and causality with observational data 23.11 Ethical considerations 23.12 Some cautionary comments 23.13 Conclusion

24 Tests

24.1 What are we testing? 24.2 Parametric and non-parametric tests 24.3 Norm-referenced, criterion-referenced and domain-referenced tests 24.4 Commercially produced tests and researcher-produced tests 24.5 Constructing a test 24.6 Software for preparation of a test 24.7 Devising a pre-test and post-test 24.8 Ethical issues in testing 24.9 Computerized adaptive testing

25 Personal constructs

25.1 Introduction 25.2 Strengths of repertory grid technique 25.3 Working with personal constructs 25.4 Grid analysis 25.5 Some examples of the use of repertory grid in educational research 25.6 Difficulties in the use of repertory grid technique in research 25.7 Resources

26 Role-playing

26.1 Introduction 26.2 What is role-play? 26.3 Why use role-play in research? 26.4 Issues to be aware of when using role-play 26.5 Role-play as a research method 26.6 How does it work? 26.7 Important strategies for successful role-play 26.8 Three examples of research using role-play

27 Visual media in educational research

27.1 Introduction 27.2 Photographs and still images 27.3 Video and moving images 27.4 Artefacts 27.5 Ethical practices in visual research

PART 5: Data analysis

28 Approaches to qualitative data analysis

28.1 Introduction 28.2 Data analysis, thick description and reflexivity 28.3 Ethics in qualitative data analysis 28.4 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis (CAQDAS)

29 Organizing and presenting qualitative data

29.1 Tabulating data 29.2 Seven ways of organizing and presenting data analysis 29.3 Narrative and biographical approaches to data analysis 29.4 Systematic approaches to data analysis 29.5 Methodological tools for analysing qualitative data

30 Coding and content analysis

30.1 Coding 30.2 What is content analysis? 30.3 How does content analysis work? 30.4 A worked example of content analysis 30.5 Reliability in content analysis

31 Discourses: conversations, narratives and autobiographies as texts

31.1 What is a discourse? 31.2 A conversational analysis 31.3 A narrative discourse 31.4 Autobiography 31.5 Conclusion

32 Analysing visual media

32.1 Introduction 32.2 Content analysis 32.3 Discourse analysis 32.4 Grounded theory 32.5 Interpreting images 32.6 Interpreting an image: a worked example 32.7 Analysing moving images 32.8 Concluding remarks

33 Grounded theory

33.1 Introduction 33.2 The tools of grounded theory 33.3 Developing grounded theory 33.4 Evaluating grounded theory 33.5 Preparing to work in grounded theory

34 Approaches to quantitative data analysis

34.1 Scales of data 34.2 Parametric and non-parametric data 34.3 Descriptive and inferential statistics 34.4 Kinds of variables 34.5 Hypotheses 34.6 One-tailed and two-tailed tests 34.7 Distributions 34.8 Statistical significance 34.9 Hypothesis testing 34.10 Effect size 34.11 A note on symbols

35 Descriptive statistics

35.1 Frequencies, percentages and crosstabulations 35.2 Measures of central tendency and dispersal 35.3 Taking stock 35.4 Correlations and measures of association 35.5 Partial correlations 35.6 Reliability

36 Inferential statistics

36.1 Measures of difference between groups 36.2 The t-test 36.3 Analysis of variance 36.4 The chi-square test 36.5 Degrees of freedom 36.6 The Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon tests 36.7 The Kruskal-Wallis and Friedman tests 36.8 Regression analysis 36.9 Simple linear regression 36.10 Multiple regression 36.11 Standardized scores 36.12 Closing remarks

37 Multidimensional measurement and factor analysis

37.1 Introduction 37.2 Elementary linkage analysis: an example 37.3 Factor analysis 37.4 What to look for in factor analysis output 37.5 Cluster analysis 37.6 Examples of studies using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis 37.7 Multidimensional data: some words on notation 37.8 Using the chi-square test in a three-way classification table 37.9 A note on structural equation modelling 37.10 A note on multilevel modelling

38 Choosing a statistical test

38.1 Introduction 38.2 How many samples? 38.3 The types of data used 38.4 Choosing the right statistic 38.5 Assumptions of tests

Notes Bibliography Index

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