Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminology · an Interdisciplinary Approach by Ellis, Lee -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

List of Tables and Figures Preface PART I: Getting Started

1 The Scientific Method and Criminal Justice and Criminology as Social Sciences

Learning to Become a Researcher Circumscribing Criminal Justice and Criminology Circumscribing the Other Social and Behavioral Sciences The Near Social Sciences Other Disciplines that Utilize Social Science Research Methods Features of the Scientific Methods The Scientific Spirit Types of Questions Addressed by Social Scientists Varied Adherence to the Scientific Method Summary

2 Formulating Scientific Questions and Locating Background Research

The Nature of Scientific Variables Conceptual Versus Operational Definitions of Variables Levels of Measurement Formulating and Refining Scientific Questions Locating Information on Topics of Interest How to Get Copies of Articles of Interest Distinctiveness of Scientific Communication How Scientific Research Gets Reviewed and Sometimes Published Summary Suggested Readings

PART II: The Importance of Statistics

3 Univariate Statistics and the Concept of Statistical Significance

The Nature of Univariate Statistical Concepts Averages Dispersion Illustrating the Concepts of Averages and Dispersions Building the Concept of Statistical Significance Hypothesis Testing and the Concept of the Null Hypothesis Inferential Statistics Closing Remarks about Statistical Significance and Inferential Statistics Summary Suggested Readings

4 Bivariate and Multivariate Statistics: The Concept of Correlation

Background Constructing Scattergrams Curvilenear Versus Linear Correlations Interpreting Statements about the Strength of Correlations Variability and Correlations The Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients Interpreting Two Studies Based on Correlation Correlation Does Not Equal Causation: Words of Caution Reflections on the Importance of Statistics in the Research Process Multivariate Statistics: When Bivariate Statistics Are Not Enough Closing Comments on Multivariate Statistics Summary Suggested Readings

PART III: Documentation and Measurement

5 Research Report Structure and Styles for Citing and Referencing

The Basic Format for a Research Report Identifying the Parts of a Research Report Citation and Referencing Styles Summary Suggested Readings

6 Reliability, Validity, and Precision in Measurement

Handedness as an Example of Problems in Measurement Three Aspects of Accurate Measurement Reliability Validity Precision Factors Analysis for Refining Measurement Accuracy Some Closing Remarks about Reliability, Validity, and Precision Summary Suggested Readings

PART IV: Selecting and Retaining Those to Be Studied

7 Surveying and Sampling

The Nature of Scientific Surveys Basic Terminology Representative Versus Nonrepresentative Samples Probability Versus Non-Probability Sampling Methods Sample Size Surveying Over Time Summary Suggested Readings

8 The Human Side of Sampling and the Reliability of Self-Reports

People’s Willingness to Serve as Research Subjects Assessing the Extent and Causes of Sample Attrition New Computer-Assisted ‘‘Interviewing’’ Limiting Sample Attrition Inaccuracies in Self-Reports Techniques for Minimizing and Detecting Subject Dishonesty Interviews as Social Activity Summary Suggested Readings

PART V: Types of Social Science Data

9 Data Based on Self-Reports: Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires

Basic Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Based on Self-Reports Response Options for Questions Deciding Which Response Option to Use Types of Self-Reported Items Guidelines for Item Construction Clustering Items with Similar Formats Types of Questions to Avoid Examples of Poorly Phrased Questions Combining Two or More Items to Improve Reliability Time Diaries: A Special Type of Questionnaire Computerized Questionnaires and Use of the Internet Final Comments on Questionnaire Data Summary Suggested Readings

10 Direct Observations: Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Qualitative Direct Observations

Participant Observations Ethnographic Observations Case Studies Focus Group Research Archaeological Data Procedures in Ethnographic and Participant Observation Data Collection

Quantitative Direct Observations

Laboratory and Clinical Observations Field Research Direct Observations among Nonhuman Animals Content Analysis

Closing Comments on Direct Observations Summary Suggested Readings

11 Archival Data Analysis and Meta-Analysis

Units of Analysis Archival Data Analyzing Cross-Cultural Atlases Review Articles and Meta-Analyses Summary Suggested Readings

12 Measuring Crime and Criminality

Categorizing and Measuring Crime The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially Crime Victimization Survey Data Self-Reported Crime Surveys What Can We Conclude about the Three Main Measures of Crime in America? Summary Suggested Readings

PART VI: Probing for Causal Explanations

13 Theories, Models, Hypotheses, and Empirical Reality

The Concept of Causation The Nature of Scientific Theorizing Criteria for Assessing the Elegance of a Scientific Theory How Theories Fit into the Research Process Scientific Models Scientific Laws Scientific Paradigms Hypothesis Testing and Attempts to Generalize Closing Remarks Regarding Scientific Theorizing Summary Suggested Readings

14 Controlled Experimentation

Basic Experimental Terminology Main Types of Experimental Designs Pitfalls with Human Experimentation Shortcomings of Experimental Research Summary Suggested Readings

15 Quasi-Experimentation

Quasi-Experiments Compared with Controlled Experiments Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Narrower Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Broader Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs for Addressing Nature–Nurture Issues Summary Suggested Readings

PART VII: Avoiding Harm and Doing Good

16 Ethical Issues in Social and Behavioral Science Research

Responsibilities to Research Subjects Responsibilities to Fellow Social and Behavioral Scientists Responsibilities to Humanity Summary Suggested Readings

17 Evaluation and Other Applied Research

Conceptualizing Evaluation Research Terminology Surrounding Evaluation Research History of Evaluation Research Types of Programs Evaluated Locating Reports of Evaluation Research Program Evaluation: Doing It Right Program Evaluation: A Source of Tension Closing Thoughts about Evaluation Research Summary Suggested Readings

18 Epilogue Appendix A: The American Psychological Association Referencing Style

APA Referencing Format for Articles APA Referencing Format for Books APA Referencing Format for Chapters in Edited Books

Appendix B: Guidelines and Recommendations for Preparing Research Reports

Overall Format and Style of a Research Manuscript The Basic Format for the Initial Pages The Body of the Manuscript What Follows the Body of a Research Manuscript? Tailoring a Research Manuscript for a Specific Journal Suggested Readings

Appendix C: Guidelines for Professional Writing in the Social and Behavioral Sciences

Special Comments on Citing and Typing Suggested Readings

Notes References About the Authors

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