Legal Writing and Analysis in a Nutshell (Nutshells) by Bahrych, Lynn -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Preface Introduction Chapter 1. Basic Steps to Legal Writing and Analysis

§ 1.1 Introduction § 1.2 First Step: Identify Your Goal § 1.3 Second Step: Gather Facts and Analyze Law § 1.4 Third Step: Draft Preliminary Outline § 1.5 Fourth Step: Draft Detailed Outline § 1.6 Fifth Step: Write First Draft § 1.7 Sixth Step: Let Your Draft Rest, Then Revise § 1.8 Seventh Step: Check Citations, Quotations, and Format

Chapter 2. Legal Analysis

§ 2.1 Introduction

A. Stare Decisis B. Court Systems and Hierarchy of Authorities C. State and Federal Court Systems

1. Mandatory Authority 2. Persuasive Authority

§ 2.3 Reading and Understanding Legal Authorities

A. Understanding Statutes

1. Identify What the Statute Does 2. Read the Statute in Context 3. Use Interpretive Aids to Construe the Statute

B. Understanding Cases C. How to Read a Case

1. Statement of Facts 2. Procedural Posture and Standards of Review 3. Legal Test 4. The Holding 5. Dicta

D. Analyzing Multiple Authorities

1. Reason in “Layers” 2. Identify Core Substantive Rule and Ancillary Rules

§ 2.4 Applying Legal Rules to a Factual Situation § 2.5 Reaching a Conclusion

Chapter 3. Large-Scale Organization

§ 3.1 Introduction § 3.2 Organizing Advisory and Advocacy Writing § 3.3 Organizing a Discussion or Argument Section

A. Use an Effective Structure B. Choose a Logical Order

1. Legal Rules or Tests 2. Interdependent Issues 3. Chronological Order

C. Other Considerations

§ 3.4 Organizing Individual Issues and Sub-Issues § 3.5 Outlining

Chapter 4. Small-Scale Organization

§ 4.1 Introduction § 4.2 Designing Paragraphs

A. Why to Paragraph B. Unify Each Paragraph C. Begin with a Topic or Thesis Sentence D. Control Paragraph Length E. Take Advantage of Location

§ 4.3 Designing Paragraph Blocks

A. Arrange Paragraph Blocks in Meaningful Patterns B. Use Expected Patterns Like CRAC

§ 4.4 Using Transitions

A. Why to Transition B. Transitional Paragraphs C. Transitional Sentences D. Substantive Transitions Between Sentences E. Transitional Words

1. Choose Precise Transitional Words 2. Prefer Substantive Transitional Words 3. Vary Transitional Words

§ 4.5 More About Outlining

Chapter 5. Language in the Legal Setting

§ 5.1 Introduction § 5.2 Principles for Making Word Choices

A. Use Words in Their Literal Sense B. Omit Archaic Legalisms C. Use the Same Word to Refer to the Same Thing; Use Different Words to Refer to Different Things D. Use Simple, Familiar Words E. Use Concrete Rather than Abstract Words F. Use Words That Create an Appropriate Tone G. Avoid Equivocations H. Use Unqualified Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs I. Use Few Literary Devices J. Avoid Jargon from Other Fields

§ 5.3 A Few Brief Words: Redundancy in Legal Writing

Chapter 6. Advisory Writing

§ 6.1 Introduction § 6.2 Legal Memoranda

A. Purposes of Legal Memoranda B. Format C. Heading D. Introduction E. Questions Presented

1. Draft the Ultimate Question 2. Organize and Format Specific Questions 3. Use Subquestions Effectively 4. Revise and Edit

F. Brief Answers G. Statement of Facts

1. Use Effective Style 2. Organize for Clarity 3. Revise and Edit

H. Discussion

1. Write Objectively 2. Write with Your Reader in Mind 3. Organize Your Analysis 4. Explain the Pertinent Law 5. Include Complete Arguments and Counter-Arguments 6. Use Conservative Style and Tone 7. Use Quotations Selectively

I. Conclusion

§ 6.3 Client Letters § 6.4 Email

A. Perils and Etiquette of Communicating Via Email and Other Electronic Media B. Email Etiquette: Ten Simple Rules

§ 6.5 Revising, Editing, and Proofreading

Chapter 7. Advocacy Writing

§ 7.1 Introduction § 7.2 Legal Briefs

A. Purpose of a Legal Brief B. Preparation for Writing

1. Know the Rules 2. Select Your Arguments 3. Consider Your Theory of the Case

C. Components of a Legal Brief

1. Table of Contents and Point Headings 2. Table of Authorities 3. Questions Presented and Introductions 4. The Statement of the Facts 5. The Argument 6. The Conclusion

§ 7.3 Writing to Persuade

A. Writing Style B. Controlling Tone C. Consider the Purpose of Your Document and Your Audience D. Using Rhetorical Devices for Persuasion

1. Achieving Emphasis with Sentence Structures 2. Achieving Emphasis with Paragraphing 3. Achieving Emphasis with Language 4. Using Classical Devices for Persuasion 5. Avoiding Ineffective Emphasis

§ 7.4 Writing Advocacy Letters

Chapter 8. Sentence Design

§ 8.1 Introduction § 8.2 Principles of Sentence Construction

A. Begin Sentences with the Subject or with Other Significant Words or Phrases

1. Open a Sentence with Its Subject 2. Place Transitional Words Near the Subject 3. Do Not Routinely Open Sentences with Full Citations

B. Keep Subject and Verb Close Together C. Use Subject-Verb-Object Pattern D. Keep Related Parts of the Sentence Together

1. Keep Modifiers Next to the Words They Modify 2. Avoid Misplaced Modifiers at the Beginning of a Sentence 3. Avoid Misplaced Modifiers in the Middle of a Sentence 4. Avoid Split Infinitives When Possible 5. Avoid Ambiguous Modifiers at the End of a Sentence

E. End Sentences Swiftly and Effectively

1. Put Significant Words or Phrases in the Final Position 2. Avoid Prepositional Phrases in the Final Position

§ 8.3 Sentence Revision

A. A Simple Method for Revising Troublesome Sentences

1. First, Lift Main Subject, Verb, and Object from the Sentence 2. Second, Remove Imprecise Subject-Verb Combinations 3. Third, Revise for Subject-Verb-Object Order

B. Simple Techniques for Shortening Sentences

1. Deconstruct Long Sentences 2. Eliminate Unnecessary Words 3. Convert Long Compound Sentences to Shorter Sentences 4. Transfer Internal Clauses or Parenthetical Expressions to Another Sentence

§ 8.4 Techniques to Enhance Readability

A. Use Short and Medium-Length Sentences B. Make One Point Per Sentence C. When Possible, Make Sentences Affirmative, Not Negative D. Use Parallelism and Balance in Sentence Structures E. Provide Extra Structural Clues

1. Include Essential “That” 2. Repeat Some Structural Words to Improve Readability

§ 8.5 Useful Sentence Patterns for Legal Writing

A. Basic Sentence Types B. Useful Patterns: “If . . . Then” C. Useful Patterns: Stating a Rule and Exception D. Useful Patterns: Reversal of Direct Object and Prepositional Phrases E. Useful Patterns: Periodic Sentence

§ 8.6 Principles for Avoiding Ambiguous or Confusing Sentences

A. Avoid the “Not . . . Because” Sentence Pattern B. Avoid Ambiguous Prepositional Phrases

1. Introduction 2. Place Prepositional Phrases Next to What They Modify 3. Avoid Strings of Prepositional Phrases 4. Beware of Adjacent Prepositional Phrases 5. Beware of “With” and “Without” Phrases in Final Position

C. Avoid Sentences Beginning with Relative Pronouns

Chapter 9. Punctuation and Grammar

§ 9.1 Introduction § 9.2 Punctuation

A. Introduction B. Use of the Comma

1. Use a Compound Sentence Comma for Clarity 2. Do Not Use a Comma with Compound Subjects, Verbs, and Objects 3. Use Two Commas to Set Off Interruptions 4. Use Commas for Nonrestrictive Phrases or Clauses 5. Use a Comma with “Which” but Not with “That” 6. Do Not Use a Comma to Separate a Long or Compound Subject from Its Verb 7. Use an Introductory Comma to Set Off Introductory Words, Phrases, or Clauses 8. Use a Series Comma 9. Use a Contrasting Comma for Emphasis 10. Use a Comma to Separate Dependent from Independent Clauses 11. Do Not Use a Comma Before “Because” 12. Use a Comma to Separate Some Adjectives 13. Use a Comma After Parenthetical Material 14. Place a Comma Inside Quotation Marks 15. Use Commas with Numbers

C. Use of the Semicolon

1. Use a Semicolon to Separate Two Sentences 2. Use a Semicolon to Substitute for the Comma in a Complex Series 3. Place a Semicolon Outside Quotation Marks

D. Use of the Colon

1. Use a Colon to Introduce a List or an Enumeration 2. Use a Colon to Introduce an Example, Illustration, or Elaboration 3. Use a Colon to Introduce Quotations or Formal Statements 4. Use a Colon to Emphasize What Follows 5. Place a Colon Outside Quotation Marks

E. Use of Parentheses

1. Use Parentheses to Set Off Potentially Ambiguous Phrases 2. Use Parentheses to Enclose Interruptions 3. Use Correct Punctuation with Parentheses 4. Use Parentheses to Enclose Numbers and Letters Marking Divisions in the Main Text

F. Use of the Hyphen G. Use of a Dash

1. Use the Dash Sparingly 2. Use a Dash to Indicate a Break, Shift, or Interruption 3. Use a Dash to Expand an Idea

H. Use of the Slash or Virgule I. Use of Quotation Marks J. Use of the Apostrophe

1. Use an Apostrophe to Reflect Possession 2. Use “Its” When You Need the Possessive Form of “It” 3. Use an Apostrophe to Indicate Omission of Letters 4. Use an Apostrophe for Certain Plurals 5. Use “ ’S” with Gerunds but Not with Participles

K. Use of the Exclamation Point L. Use of Brackets M. Use of Ellipsis Points N. Punctuation of Citations O. Use of Italics P. Use of Numerals and Section Symbols Q. Punctuation of Structured Enumeration

§ 9.3 Grammar

A. Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Beware of Phrases Between Subject and Verb 2. Beware of Lengthy Subject Phrases or Clauses 3. Use a Plural Verb with Most Compound Subjects 4. Use Singular Verbs with Most Indefinite Pronouns and Collective Nouns 5. Make Forms of “To Be” and Linking Verbs Agree with the Subject

B. Use of “Who” and “Whom” C. Use of Personal Pronouns D. Use of Reflexive Pronouns E. Which to Use: “Who,” “Which,” or “That” F. Pronoun Reference

1. Avoid Pronoun Confusion by Using Proper Names or by Repeating the Antecedent 2. Avoid the Indefinite Use of “It”

G. Use of Sex-Linked Pronouns H. Use of Subjunctive Mood

§ 9.4 Postscript to Punctuation and Grammar

Chapter 10. Final Steps: Editing, Proofreading, Formatting Citations and Quotations

§ 10.1 Introduction § 10.2 Editing and Proofreading

A. Refine Your Editing Process B. Editing and Proofreading Tips

§ 10.3 Formatting Citations and Quotations

A. Remember Why We Cite B. Make Citations Part of Your Writing Process C. Format Citations Correctly D. Use Quotations Correctly

1. Exception to the Golden Rule 2. Quoting Directly 3. Paraphrasing 4. Block Quotations 5. Ideas from Secondary Sources

§ 10.4 A Note About Writing Samples § 10.5 Conclusion

Appendix A. Sample Legal Materials and Documents

I. Authors’ Note II. Writing a Formal Case Brief III. Appellate Opinion: Wilson v. Houston Funeral Home IV. Sample Case Brief: Wilson v. Houston Funeral Home V. Outline Format for Research Memorandum’s Discussion Section VI. Sample Detailed Memorandum Outline, Abrams v. Scott VII. Sample Research Memorandum, Abrams v. Scott VIII. Sample Trial Brief, Abrams v. Scott

Appendix B. Individual Writing Analysis and Microgrammar

I. Individual Writing Analysis II. Writing Analysis Worksheet III. A Microgrammar

Appendix C. Glossary of Words Commonly Misused in Legal Writing

I. Common Transitional Words and Phrases

Appendix D. Selected Sources Index

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