Political History of America's Wars by Axelrod, Alan -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

COVER COPYRIGHT CONTENTS KEY HISTORIC DOCUMENTS BIOGRAPHIES OF NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS PREFACE ESSAYS

1 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1771–1783)

At Issue The Conflict The End of “Salutary Neglect” George III’s Proclamation of 1763 Parliamentary Acts and Actions under Lord Grenville The Stamp Act Congress and Its Effects The Townshend Acts Urban Radicals: An “Affair,” a “Battle,” and a “Massacre” Backcountry Radicals: The Regulator Movement The Gaspée Affair and the Boston Tea Party The Intolerable Acts Quebec Act Colonial Coalescence Military Prelude to Revolution: Lord Dunmore’s War (1774) Virginia Joins In The Olive Branch Toward Independence Independence Moves to Debate Declaration of Independence Congress as High Command Articles of Confederation The Franco-American Alliance The Loyalist Factor The Peace Commission and Its Work Treaty of Paris Unresolved Postwar Issues

2 SHAYS’S REBELLION (1786–1787) AND THE WHISKEY REBELLION (1794)

SHAYS’S REBELLION

At Issue in Shays’s Rebellion The Conflict Conservative vs. Liberal Under Fire: Articles of Confederation At Issue in the Whiskey Rebellion Essential Background

WHISKEY REBELLION

The Conflict Significanc Origin of the Tax Public Opinion Enduring Consequences

3 LITTLE TURTLE’S WAR (1786–1795)

At Issue The Conflict Post-Revolutionary Indian Policy Federal Regulation of White Settlement “Suffering Officers and Soldiers” Indian Treaties The Path of Commerce Northwest Ordinance of 1787 A Conflict of Gvernments Extirpation or Peace? Treaty of Greenville

4 FRANCO-AMERICAN QUASI-WAR (1798–1800)

At Issue The Conflict Polarization of Proand Anti-French Factions The Citizen Genêt Affair The Jay Treaty The XYZ Affair Creation of the United States Navy Alien and Sedition Acts Convention with France

5 TRIPOLITAN WAR (1801–1805) AND ALGERINE WAR (1815)

TRIPOLITAN WAR

At Issue in the Tripolitan War The Conflict Background of the Barbary Pirates Tribute Treaties and Public Response Jefferson Builds a Coalition An American Hero Treaty of 1805

ALGERINE WAR

At Issue in the Algerine War The Conflict Algerine War Context: The Operative Treaty Outrages of the Algerine Dey Negotiation at the “Mouth of a Cannon”

6 WAR OF 1812 AND THE CREEK WAR (1812–1815)

At Issue The Conflict Cause of War: Deteriorating AngloAmerican Relations The Congressional Debate: War Hawks The Congressional Debate: Opposition The President Moves toward War Congress Acts Regionalism and Its Discontents The Prisoner of War Cartel A Movement to Secede: The Hartford Convention Washington and Baltimore: Evacuation and the “Star-Spangled Banner” Peace Talks Treaty of Ghent Indian Policy: The Treaty of Fort Jackson Andrew Jackson’s War Dividend

7 THE FREDONIAN REBELLION (1826–1827) AND THE AROOSTOOK WAR (1838–1839)

FREDONIAN REBELLION

At Issue in the Fredonian Rebellion The Conflict Moses Austin’s Grant, Stephen Austin’s Pledge Hayden Edwards’s Charter Response to Fredonia

AROOSTOOK WAR

At Issue in the Aroostook War The Conflict The Scott Agreement Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842

8 SEMINOLE AND BLACK HAWK WARS (1817–1858)

At Issue The Conflict Toward a Policy of Indian Removal Diplomatic Crisis with Spain: The Adams-Oñis Treaty The Indian Removal Act of 1830 The Law in Letter and Execution Cherokee Politics The Supreme Court Rules: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia President Jackson Defies the Cout The Seminole Response The Epoch of the Trail of Tears Sac and Fox Cession of 1804 The Treaty of 1832 Organization of the Department of Indian Affairs

9 TEXAS WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1835–1836)

At Issue The Conflict Stephen Austin’s Mexican Grants John Quincy Adams Proposes a Deal Andrew Jackson Ups the Ante Congressional Qualms The Changing Political Climate of Texas Factionalism in Texas, Revolt in Mexico The Radicalization of Stephen Austin “Remember the Alamo!” The Treaty of Velasco The United States Responds

10 U.S.-MEXICAN WAR (1846–1848)

At Issue The Conflict Manifest Destiny Texas Statehood Diplomatic Crisis with Mexico British and French Interest in Texas The Slidell Mission and Its Rebuff California’s Bear Flag Rebellion (June–July 1846) California Annexation Debate and Polarization The Antiwar Movement War Aims Political Conduct of the War Enter Santa Anna The Trist Mission The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Coda: The Gadsden Purchase Crisis: The Slavery Issue

11 INTRODUCTION TO THE INDIAN WARS

U.S. Indian Policy Problems Inherent in U.S. Indian Policy The Treaty System Reform Movement Grant’s “Peace Policy” and “Civilization” Programs “Severalty” and Assimilation

12 EARLY INDIAN WARS IN CALIFORNIA (1850–1860)

At Issue The Conflict Indian Policy after the Transfer of Indian Affairs to the Department of the Interior (1849) Mariposa War (1850–1851) Modifications to the India Department (1851) The Commissioner’s Report (1851) Yuma and Mojave Uprising (1851–1852) Creation of a Superintendent of Indian Affairs for California (1852) Evolving Reservation Policy (1858) Paiute War (1860) Evolving Reservation Policy (1862)

13 EARLY INDIAN WARS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST (1855–1858)

At Issue The Conflict Catalyst: The Whitman Massacre (1847) and Response Federal Indian Statutes for Oregon Territory Rogue River War (1855–1856) Governor Stevens Makes and Breaks Treaties Emergence of Kamiakin Yakima War (1855) The Death of Peo-Peo-Mox-Mox and Its Consequences The Miners Appeal, the Army Responds Coeur d’Alene War (1858) A Policy of Unmitigated Aggression The Stevens Treaties Ratified an Enforced

14 APACHE AND NAVAJO WAR (1860–1868)

At Issue The Conflict Official Responses to the Cochis Incident and the Bascom Affair Enforcing Indian Policy in the West: The Impact of the Civil War Reservation Policy and the Commissioner’s Report of 1862 Report of the Doolittle Committee (1867) The Work of the Indian Peace Commission (1867–1868) Congressional Debate on Indian Treaties

15 CIVIL WAR PRELUDE (1854–1861)

At Issue The Conflict Missouri Compromise (1820) Compromise of 1850 Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) The Abolitionist Movement Responses to Abolitionism Bleeding Kansas: The Nation Watches The Dred Scott Case and Decision (1857) Creation of the Republican Party John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry

16 MINNESOTA SANTEE SIOUX UPRISING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES (1862–1864)

At Issue The Conflict Indian Policy and Public Opinion: The Civil War Years Confederate Indian Policy The Reservation System: Policy vs. Execution President Lincoln’s Response to the Uprising Aftermath

17 THE CIVIL WAR (1861–1865)

At Issue The Conflict Prewar Policy under President Buchanan Campaign and Election of 1860 Secession Crittenden Compromise The Silence of the President-Elect The Peace Convention Morrill Tariff Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address Davis and His Cabinet (1861) International Response to the Civil War Suspension of Habeas Corpus and Its Consequences The President and the Committee on the Conduct of the War Emancipation Emergence of Black Troops Election of 1864 Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address Victory and Surrender

18 RECONSTRUCTION (1865–1877)

At Issue Reconstruction Overview Lincoln’s Postwar Plan Wade-Davis Bill Andrew Johnson’s Proclamations Freedmen’s Bureau Civil Rights Act of 1866 Fourteenth Amendment The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 Impeachment The Decline and Fall of Reconstruction

19 CHEYENNE-ARAPAHO WAR (1864–1865)

At Issue The Conflict Territorial Policy: Governor Evans Chivington, the “Fighting Parson” The Sand Creek Massacre Congress Responds Public Opinion and Indian Policy (1864–1865)

20 WAR FOR THE BOZEMAN TRAIL AND HANCOCK’S CAMPAIGN (1866–1868)

At Issue The Conflict In the Wake of the Fetterman Massacre The Peace Commission Treaty of Medicine Lodge (1867) Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) Federal Policy on “Indian Civilization”: The Taylor Report Fragility of the Peace The Debate over Indian Policy Authority

21 SNAKE WAR AND SHERIDAN’S CAMPAIGN (1866–1869)

At Issue The Conflict President Grant’s “Peace Policy” War Department vs. Department of the Interior Secretary of the Interior Cox on Indian Policy (1869) Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners (1869) The Fate of “Conquest through Kindness”

22 MODOC WAR (1872–1873)

At Issue The Conflict Abolition of Treaty Making (1871) Indian Commissioner Walker on Indian Policy (1872) The Peace Commission Response to the Assassination of General Canby The Modocs on Trial A New Power for the President

23 RED RIVER (KIOWA) WAR (1874)

At Issue The Conflict Abandonment of Grant’s Peace Policy Indian Commissioner Smith on Indian Citizenship (1874) General Sherman on the Transfer of the Indian Bureau Commissioner Smith: The Principles of Indian Policy (1876)

24 APACHE WAR (1876–1886)

At Issue The Conflict Indian Commissioner Hayt on Indian Police (1877) A Federal Court Rules in Standing Secretary Schurz on Indian Policy (1880) Indian Commissioner Price on Civilizing the Indians (1881) Sherman: The End of the Army’s Indian Problem (1883) Courts of Indian Offenses The Lake Mohonk Conference

25 SIOUX WAR FOR THE BLACK HILLS (1876–1879)

At Issue The Conflict Federal Intervention in the Black Hills Dispute In the Wake of the Little Bighorn The President and Congress Act The Image of Sitting Bull The Supreme Court Rules in Elk v. Wilkins Indian Major Crimes Act of 1885

26 NEZ PERCE, BANNOCK, SHEEPEATER, AND UTE WARS (1877–1879)

At Issue The Conflict Nez Perce Treaty Revision of 1863 President Grant and the Wallowa Valley (1873) Eloquence vs. Policy The Petition of Chief Joseph and the Generals

27 SIOUX WAR OF 1890–1891

At Issue The Conflict Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (1887): Use of English in Indian Schools An Act in Relation to Marriage between White Men and Indian Women (1888) A System of Education for Indians (1889) The Ghost Dance The Public Response to Wounded Knee Indian Policy after 1891

28 PHILIPPINE INSURRECTIONS (1896–1902)

At Issue The Conflict Yellow Journalism The Imperial Impulse Relations with Aguinaldo President McKinley on the Acquisition of the Philippines American Empire: Pro and Con Aguinaldo Co-opted Governor Taft Proclamation of 1902

29 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898)

At Issue The Conflict Presidents Cleveland and McKinley on the “Cuban Situation” Yellow Journalism and the Narrowing of Public Opinion The Loss of the Maine McKinley Temporizes The War Message Resolution on Cuban Independence and the Teller Amendment Apologies for War Logistical Problems The Treaty of Paris Secretary Hay on “A Splendid Little War” Platt Amendment

30 MORO WARS (1901–1913)

The Conflict Reflections on ProfessorTurner’s Thesis The Vastness of the Philippines Culture Clash on Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago Agreement with the Sultan of Sulu

31 THE BOXER REBELLION (1899–1901)

At Issue The Conflict Background: Sino-American Relations Secretary Hay Endorses the “Open Door” Policy toward China The Shape of Public Opinion (1899–1901) Building a Coalition, Backing into a War The Boxer Protocol of 1901 Taft-Katsura Memorandum of 1905 and Lansing-Ishii Agreement of 1917

32 U.S. INTERVENTIONS IN PANAMA (1903) AND NICARAGUA (1909–1912)

At Issue in Panama The Conflict Panama Canal Background Roosevelt and Hanna The Hay-Herrán Treaty A New Panama Policy: Recognition of Independence The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty At Issue in Nicaragua The Conflic American Business in Nicaragua Dollar Diplomacy Banana Republic: Growth of a Popular Image Minority Report: Major Smedley Butler

33 PUNITIVE EXPEDITION AGAINST PANCHO VILLA (1916–1917)

At Issue The Conflict U.S.-Mexican Relations and American Business Interests The Veracruz Decision (1914) Villa’s Reasons for the Raid on Columbus, New Mexico The Punitive Expedition

34 WORLD WAR I (U.S. PARTICIPATION, 1917–1918)

At Issue The Conflict “He Kept Us Out of War”: The Wilson Platform of 1916 U.S. Neutrality The Proportion of Trade Shifts Public Opinion in a Nation of Immigrants Loss of the Lusitania Mediation Attempts Preparedness Catalyst for War: The Zimmermann Telegram Declaration of War Propaganda Campaign Selective Service Act of 1917 The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 Patriots and Slackers Liberty Loans Wilson’s Fourteen Points Wilson and the Treaty of Versailles Losing the Peace: The Senate Rebels and the People Follow “Return to Normalcy”

35 NICARAGUAN CIVIL WAR OF 1925–1933

At Issue The Conflict Background of U.S. Intervention Policy during the Coolidge Administration Policy during the Hoover Administration Roosevelt on Somoza: “. . . But He’s Son of a Bitch”

36 WORLD WAR II (U.S. PARTICIPATION, 1941–1945)

At Issue The Conflict Butcher’s Bill The Four Neutrality Acts of 1935–1939 U.S. Policy on Appeasement Budgeting for War Peacetime Draft The Lend-Lease Concept and the Lend-Lease Act The Atlantic Charter Period of Undeclared War Toward Pearl Harbor Policy: Pacific vs.Atlantic Bad News and Bold Heroes Japanese Internment Propaganda and Public Relations Congressional Oversight: The Truman Committee Wartime Race Relations The GI Bill Atomic Weapons: Public Policy and Public Opinion Yalta and Potsdam Conferences Selling the Marshall Plan

37 KOREAN WAR (1950–1953)

At Issue The Conflict Potsdam Conference The “Containment” Concept and Policy Korean Aid Package Security Council Resolution of June 27, 1950 “Police Action” Racial Integration of the Armed Forces Relief of MacArthur Revised War Aims The Forgotten War

38 VIETNAM WAR (1954–1975)

At Issue The Conflict Policy under Truman: Reluctant Support of French Colonialism The Eisenhower Era: Domino Theory Policy during the Kennedy Era Johnson and the Tonkin Gulf Resolution (1964) Johnson and His Advisers Emergence of the Anti-war Movement (1967) Johnson’s “Media Offensive” The Television War The Tet Crisis (1968) From Protest to Resistance Johnson Steps Down The 1968 Presidential Election Policy and Strategy under Nixon and Kissinger The My Lai Massacre Court Martial Invasion of Cambodia The “Kent State Massacre” (May 4, 1970) Withdrawal and the End of Selective Service The Pentagon Papers The Paris Peace Talks and Accords Nixon’s Decline and Fall An Exit without Strategy: The Fall of Saigon

39 THE UNITED STATES AS PEACEMAKER

Overview The Russo-Japanese War (1904Ð1905) Israel and the Arab World Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo

40 U.S. INTERVENTIONS IN LEBANON (1958 AND 1975–1992)

At Issue The Conflict Promulgation of the “Eisenhower Doctrine” The Murphy Mission (1958) The New War: Period of U.S. Spectatorship President Reagan’s Lebanon Policy America Withdraws from Lebanon

41 CIVIL WARS IN NICARAGUA AND HONDURAS (1978–1990)

At Issue The Conflict School of the Americas President Carter’s Central American Policy President Reagan’s Central American Policy Economic Warfare The Iran-Contra Affair The Defeat of Ortega

42 U.S. INVASIONS OF GRENADA (1983) AND PANAMA (1989)

INVASION OF GRENADA

At Issue in Grenada The Conflict Democrats Connect Beirut and Grenada Reagan Connects Flight 007, Beirut, and Grenada The Reagan Containment Policy Information Management

INVASION OF PANAMA

At Issue in Panama The Conflict Noriega as a U.S. Ally Noriega’s Transition from Ally to Enemy Drug-Trafficking Indictment Toward a Military Option The Bush Policy The Noriega Trial

43 PERSIAN GULF WAR (1991)

At Issue The Conflict The Evolution of U.S. Policy on Iraq The Vietnam Syndrome Building a Coalition Opposition and Justification Diplomacy Fails Media Coverage of Operation Desert Storm Evaluating an Unfinished War

44 WAR IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA (1992–1995)

At Issue The Conflict Struggle toward a U.S. Policy on Bosnia and Herzegovina Peace Plans Toward U.S. Ground Intervention America as Peace Broker: Dayton Accords

45 U.S. INTERVENTION IN THE SOMALI CIVIL WAR (1988–1994)

At Issue The Conflict Policy under President George H. W. Bush Policy under President Bill Clinton “Black Hawk Down,” 1993

46 U.S. INTERVENTION IN THE KOSOVO CRISIS (1996–1999)

At Issue The Conflict U.S. Policy Evolves Operation Allied Force Public Response to an Air-Only War Resolution

47 WAR IN AFGHANISTAN AND THE WAR ON TERROR (2001– )

At Issue The Conflict Asymmetrical Warfare: Formulating Policy and Doctrine Bipartisan Support The USA PATRIOT Act and Other Legislative Initiatives Summary Detentions Homeland Security

48 OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM (2003– )

At Issue The Conflict The Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 Bush at the United Nations State of the Union Address, January 28, 2003 Colin Powell at the United Nations A “Coalition of the Willing” or a Failure of Diplomacy? Deadline Set for Saddam Quagmire? History Being Written

INDEX PHOTO CREDITS TEXT CREDITS

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