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Index
Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics Contents Figures Maps Tables Contributors Abbreviations Introduction
Section I: Historical perspectives and traditional Englishes Section II: Regional varieties and the ‘new’ Englishes Section III: Emerging trends and themes Section IV: Contemporary contexts and functions Section V: Debates and pedagogical implications Section VI: The future Conclusion References
Section I Historical perspectives and ‘traditional’ Englishes
1 Standardized English
Introduction
Before the three circles Periodization
Proto-Germanic period
Grimm’s Law (the first consonant shift) Language and social contact in the Germanic period
Old English 449–1066
Social history and its linguistic effects
The Roman Empire in Britain 43–410 CE The settlement of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes 449 CE Contact with the British Celts Latin loanwords in Old English Contact with Old Norse
Grammatical features
Middle English 1066–1476
Social history and its linguistic effects
English submerged The re-emergence of English French loanwords into Middle English
Loss of inflectional endings in Middle English
Early Modern English 1476–1776
Social history and its linguistic effects
Centralization of political power Printing Chancery, law and administration The City of London The Reformation Expansion of vocabulary
The Great Vowel Shift Grammatical developments in Early Modern English
Conclusion Summary Suggestions for further reading References
2 Grammatical variation in the contemporary spoken English of England
Introduction Studies of variation
Present tense verbs
Present tense of BE Periphrastic do/did Present participles
Past tense verbs
Past tense BE Perfective aspect
Modal verbs Quotative verbs Imperatives Negation
Negative concord Negation of auxiliaries and modals ‘Never’ as a negator
Adverbs Prepositions Plurality Pronouns
Personal pronouns Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Relative pronouns Pronominal word order
Demonstratives Comparison Definite and indefinite articles Conjunctions Question tags
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
3 Phonological innovation in contemporary spoken British English
Introduction Factors associated with variation and change English in the UK
Realization of /t/ TH-fronting Labial /r/ and rhoticity Vowels Aspects of prosody
Prospects
Acknowledgements
Notes Suggestions for further reading References
4 The Englishes of Ireland
Introduction The coming of English to Ireland
The medieval period The early modern period
Scots input to Northern Ireland Language shift in Ireland Dublin English The transportation of Irish English
The Irish in Britain
Merseyside Tyneside
Ulster Scots in the United States The Catholic dimension to Irish emigration Canada
Newfoundland Mainland Canada
The Caribbean Australia
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
5 The development of Standard American English
Introduction The emergence of American English The emergence of Standard American English
Webster and prescriptive texts Characteristics of SAE
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
6 The Englishes of Canada
Introduction Sociohistorical context
Early migration patterns and the emergence of Canadian English Migration patterns in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries Linguistic heterogeneity and the roots of Canadian English
Variation and change
Phonological variation and change
Canadian English: a phonologically distinctive variety? Regional variation The ‘Americanization’ of Canadian speech
Lexical variation and change
Lexical borrowings from indigenous languages Lexical change Regional lexical variability
Morphosyntactic variation and change
Early approaches Variationist studies of grammatical sub-systems
Discourse-pragmatic variation and change
The quotative system Discourse LIKE Canadian eh
Regional and enclave varieties
Newfoundland Enclaves of African-American English in Nova Scotia
Canadian English in contact with other languages
The impact of multilingualism on Canadian English The relationship between English and French Ethnicity and linguistic variation in Canadian English
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
7 English in Australia
The early story of Australian English The distinctiveness of Australian English
Lexical features Phonological features Consonants Vowels Prosodic features Grammatical features
Pronouns Nouns and noun phrases Verbs and verb phrases Negation Interrogatives Composite sentences
Distinctive cultural and discourse features
Ethnic variation within Australia
Background Migrant ethnolects Aboriginal English and Aboriginal creoles ‘Americanization’ of AusE
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
8 The English(es) of New Zealand
Introduction Historical background of NZ Development of NZE Description of NZE
Phonology
Consonants Vowels
Syntax Lexis Discourse
Social and regional variation The Maori language Maori English Pasifika English Written NZE Acknowledgements Suggestions for further reading References
Section II Regional varieties and the ‘new’ Englishes
9 The development of the English language in India
Introduction Diachronic development: English in India 1600–2010
Describing the formation of Indian English: an evolutionary model Foundation phase Exonormative stabilization Nativization Endonormative stabilization Differentiation?
Synchronic manifestations: characteristic features of present-day Indian English
Features of Standard Indian English Present-day Indian English as a semi-autonomous variety The creative function of Indian English
Conclusion and avenues for future research Suggestions for further reading References
10 Sri Lankan Englishes
Introduction Speakers of Sri Lankan English The status and functions of English in Sri Lanka
Administration The judiciary Education Interpersonal communication
Sri Lankan English (SLE): stability and evolution
Phonology Syntax Grammar Morphology and the lexicon
Sri Lankan English: myth or reality? Sri Lankan writing in English Suggestions for further reading References
11 East and West African Englishes
Introduction Historical background and reasons for the emergence of distinct West and East African varieties of English Linguistic features of East African and West African Englishes
Cameroon English Nigerian English Ghanaian English Liberian English Sierra Leonean English Gambian English
Cognitive sociolinguistic findings on African English Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
12 The development of English in Botswana
Introduction Language situation in Botswana Language policy of Botswana Historical development of English in Botswana Present-day English use in Botswana
Politics
Political rallies Parliament House of Chiefs (‘Ntlo ya Dikgosi’)
Education Home Language distribution and language shift Language shift and code-switching
The acculturation of the Botswana variety of English Discussion and conclusion: view to the future of English in Botswana Suggestions for further reading Note References
13 English in Singapore and Malaysia
Introduction Development of English in Singapore and Malaysia (SME)
A shared history Language policy in Singapore and Malaysia: post-1965
Post-independent language policies in Singapore Post-independent language policies in Malaysia
Variation in present-day English in Singapore and Malaysia Linguistic features of Standard Singapore and Malaysian English
Lexis Syntax Phonology
Vowels Consonants Stress Rhythm
Conclusion and directions for further research Suggestions for further reading References Online resources
14 Periphery ELT
Introduction Longfellow’s legacy: what Filipino students do not read Myths about English in the Philippines
Myth 1: American English is the only correct English Myth 2: English is the only cure to all economic ailments Myth 3: English and Filipino are languages in opposition Myth 4: English is the only language of knowledge
Seeds of resistance in Philippine ELT Suggestions for further reading References
15 East Asian Englishes
Introduction Controversies over a proposal to make English an official language in Korea and Japan The Korean government and English education The Japanese government and English Education Japanese and Korean English proficiencies and the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) The contribution and involvement of native speakers of English in educational environments English learning and using situations in Korea and Japan
English villages in Korea: an ‘authentic’ environment for learning English Wild geese Lingual frenectomy
The diversification of Japanese society: more demand for English communication skills
Korean and Japanese Englishes for international communication
Conclusion Note Suggestions for further reading References
16 Chinese English
Introduction Background Linguistic features of CE
Lexical features of CE Syntactic features of CE Discourse and pragmatic features of CE
CE: a rising expanding circle variety and a future power? Suggestions for further reading References
17 Slavic Englishes
A brief history of Slavic and English language contacts Current sociolinguistic situation and functions of English
English in education
Background
Issues English in culture
Russian English linguistic features English influence on Russian
Attitudes: purification vs enrichment
Conclusion: intercultural approach and prospects of research Suggestions for further reading References
18 West Indian Englishes
Introduction and background The emergence of creoles Status and roles of Englishes in Caribbean communities
Some considerations related to culture and identity
Creoles in the future Suggestions for further reading References
19 English and English teaching in Colombia
Introduction Some background information about Colombia and English in Colombia
Islander: our English-based creole English in San Andrés and Providencia islands English in continental Colombia English in Colombia: landmarks of a growing demand
Current English language education policies Tensions and possibilities in the expanding circle
Tensions
Use of the CEFR as the model to set the standards and levels of proficiency The notion of bilingualism EFL teachers’ responsibility in the attainment of the goals The role of the British Council The promotion of standards in teaching and learning The use of international professional development models for EFL teachers
Possibilities
More opportunities to learn English More professional development opportunities for EFL teachers Inclusion of a Colombian English variety in the repertoire of language immersion for EFL teachers The construction of local knowledge The need to search for new pedagogies to teach English varieties The collaborative construction of ELT agendas between policy-makers and scholars
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
Section III Emerging trends and themes
20 Lingua franca English
Introduction The European legacy: territory, people, language, culture ELF as the de facto lingua franca of Europe The contradictions of EU language policy
A case in point: EU interpreting
The way forward and the ELF alternative Implications for language education Suggestions for further reading References
21 Developmental patterns of English
Introduction Similarities and differences: a broad survey
Sociolinguistic settings Linguistic processes and features
Koinéization Emergent bilingualism Substrate transfer Sequence of contact effects Contact effects in line with cline of contact intensity Structural nativization Adoption of indigenous forms Appropriation of innovative linguistic forms for social purposes
Explanations and models
Categorial models
Kachru’s three circles ENL–ESL–EFL
Cyclic models
Moag, Llamzon, Schmied Schneider’s ‘Dynamic Model’
Discussion: further issues
Of ‘native speakers’ and ‘first languages’–or for what it’s worth Adstrates and global patterns of ethnic diffusion
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
22 Variation across Englishes
Introduction Data Analysis
Singapore English Nigerian English Indian English
Shared features
The TH sounds The vowels in FACE and GOAT Reduced vowels Rhythm
Discussion Suggestions for further reading References
23 Variation across Englishes
Introduction Data
Survey data Corpus data
From vernacular universals to vernacular angloversals Distinctive morphosyntactic features of individual variety types
L1 varieties Indigenized, non-native L2 varieties Pidgins and creoles The morphosyntactic profiles of the major variety types
Do grammars of varieties differ in degrees of complexity? Large-scale areal patterns: a comparison of Anglophone world regions
Geography matters too Prominent features in the individual world regions
Conclusion Appendix: The WAMVE Feature Catalogue
Pronouns, pronoun exchange, pronominal gender Noun phrase Verb phrase: tense and aspect Verb phrase: modal verbs Verb phrase: verb morphology Adverbs Negation Agreement Relativization Complementation Discourse organization and word order
Notes Suggestions for further reading References
24 Mixed codes or varieties of English?
Introduction Background and frame of reference Review of relevant literature: ‘substratum’ perspectives Brunei English examples
Single or ‘bare’ nouns Noun phrases Malay influence in English-only texts Rich intrasentential alternation
Discussion: a separate code-mixed variety? Conclusion Appendix A Appendix B Note Suggestions for further reading References
25 Semantic and pragmatic conceptualizations within an emerging variety
Introduction Cultural conceptualizations
Cultural conceptualizations in World Englishes
English in Iran and the emerging variety of Persian English Cultural conceptualizations in Persian English Âberu Târof Shakhsiat
Greeting in Persian English
Terms of address
Conceptualizations of emotions in Persian English
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading
References
Section IV Contemporary contexts and functions
26 In defence of foreignness1
Note References
27 Writing in English(es)
Introduction Bourdieu’s linguistic capital Voice and Englishes The torment of difference Suggestions for further reading List of poems References
28 Online Englishes
Introduction Whose language? Electronic mail
Instant messaging and chatting Short-messaging service
Whose voice? Whose knowledge? Conclusion Acknowledgments Suggestions for further reading References
29 The Englishes of business
Introduction The Englishes of business in the inner circle The Englishes of business in the outer circle The Englishes of business in the expanding circle Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
30 Englishes in advertising
Introduction Research on advertisements English in Malaysian advertisements Example 2.1: Pizza Hut
Visuals
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
31 The Englishes of popular cultures
Introduction The Englishes of popular culture and English in popular culture
The Englishes of popular culture English in popular culture
Vertical and horizontal analysis of popular culture
Vertical flows in popular culture Horizontal flows in popular culture
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
32 ‘Thank you for calling’
Introduction Researching native-like performance in Philippine call centres
Initial findings of research on the Philippine call-centre industry
Authentic call-centre conversations Interviews with call-centre agents
Commentary and conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
Section V Debates and pedagogical implications
33 Which norms in everyday practice
Introduction Recontextualizing the debate: norms in everyday struggle
Standard Englishes are inner circle Englishes Standard Englishes in everyday struggle
Standard Englishes, as viewed from the chalkface
Teaching Standard English by resisting it: Philippine examples
The context of the research
Resisting Standard English by teaching it Cultural strategies in teaching Standard English
Codifying errors from the ground: Singapore examples
The context of the research
A conflicted discourse on norms A teacher’s duty Form vs content
Norming and norms
Norms are normed Norms do norm
Conclusion: the way(s) to go Suggestions for further reading References
34 Construing meaning in World Englishes
Introduction On naming practices in World Englishes
On semantic descriptions of World Englishes Studying meaning in World Englishes
Systemic Functional Linguistics and genre studies
Analysing the data Construing meaning in World Englishes
Linguistic resources in Niloo’s texts Linguistic resources in Ashwini’s text Linguistic resources in Yasmina’s texts
In search of patterns Putting it all together
Concluding remarks Note Suggestions for further reading References
35 Which test of which English and why?
Introduction Why test?
Reasons for testing
Accountability Placement Predicting suitability Passing judgement Improving teaching Improving learning
Objectives for testing
What to test?
Which capabilities? Which topic content? Which English?
Criteria for testing?
Learner-centred criteria
Universal criteria (i.e. those relevant for all ESL tests) Local criteria (i.e. those relevant to a specific test)
Tester-centred criteria
When to test?
Pre-course? Whilst-course? Post-course? Learner-centred decisions Tester-centred decisions
How to test? Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
36 When does an unconventional form become an innovation?
Introduction Sources of learner-unfriendliness
Standard English is inconsistent Considerable variation in Standard English
Non-standard lexico-grammatical features
Deviations from Standard English: errors or innovations?
Internet as catalyst of acceptance: web-enabled innovations in cyberspace
Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
37 Academic Englishes
Some initial considerations Academic Englishes – personal influences Academic English as a lingua franca Cross-cultural variation in academic English Conclusion Note Suggestions for further reading References
38 Cameroon
Introduction Background Language use, language choices and language conflict in Cameroon
Language use Language choices
Language conflict A comparative overview of the situation in Africa: focus on language of education Conclusion Suggestions for further reading References
Section VI The future
39 The future of Englishes
Introduction Language possibilities and ideologies English amid economic and political forces Models, empires, multitudes Changing English
English as local practice Translingua franca English
Suggestions for further reading References
Index
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