Isaiah

1. PROPHECIES AGAINST JUDAH (1:1–12:6)

The first twelve chapters of Isaiah may be compared to a painting with three panels (a triptych). Isaiah’s call to be a prophet (chap. 6) is at the center, while the other two parts of the triptych concern judgment and hope. The first section (chaps. 1–5) is in the form of a covenantal lawsuit, and the third section (chaps. 7–12) presents God’s word of judgment and hope in the historical situation of the growing Assyrian Empire. A holistic approach to these chapters presents the reader with God’s holiness (6:3), Isaiah’s prophetic calling (6:8), the finality of God’s judgment (6:11–13a), and the hope for the remnant (6:13b). Each motif is developed throughout the triptych. The prophet begins with God’s charges against Judah and Jerusalem (1:2–31) and concludes with the new song of the remnant who have discovered that the Holy One of Israel is still in the midst of his people (12:6). The focus, then, of all twelve chapters is on the Holy One of Israel, who cleanses Isaiah (6:7) and who, through the process of judgment, cleanses his people from all their sins and defilement (4:3–4).

A. Judgment and comfort: Part one (1:1–2:5). 1:1–4. Isaiah calls on heaven and earth to witness against God’s people (1:2) in language reminiscent of the Song of Moses (Dt 32:1; cf. Dt 30:19; Mc 6:1–2). God’s people have severed their relationship with him, their Father. Though God has treated them as his children, and Judah has received great benefits, the people foolishly abandon their heritage. They have become fools, who do not “know” and “do not understand” (1:3). Their folly has led to open rebellion against their suzerain (covenant) Lord. They have forsaken their loyalty to the Lord and replaced it with hatred and apostasy. They are not children of God but a “brood of evildoers” (1:4). They have rejected “the Holy One of Israel,” the God who not only sovereignly rules over his people but also has promised to dwell in their midst so as to sanctify them.

1:5–9. Yet the Lord has severely judged Judah not to destroy her but in order to get her attention. Her wounds symbolize the extent to which God has patiently dealt with his people (1:5–6). He has used wars, oppression, desolation, and famine to bring his people to their senses and to himself (1:7). The desolation may very well reflect the situation in 701 BC, when Sennacherib despoiled the land, destroyed the cities, and nearly took the city of Jerusalem. Were it not for the grace of God, Judah would have been destroyed like Sodom and Gomorrah (1:9). The leaders were at fault for bringing judgment on Judah. Clearly God did not intend to destroy her from under the face of the sun. The “Daughter Zion” (Jerusalem, remnant) is spared like “a shelter” (1:8). The intent of God’s judgment is purification, and to that end he is patient and merciful.

1:10–17. The leaders are corrupt, like the people of Sodom and Gomorrah (1:10; cf. Gn 18:20). They are reminded of God’s law, which requires righteousness as a prerequisite for bringing offerings and sacrifices (1:11–14; cf. Dt 33:19). The prophet is not antagonistic to offerings and sacrifices, feasts and festivals, and prayer; but he knows that God rejects any act of worship when it is little more than an empty ritual. The requirements of ritual purity must be kept, and sacrifices are to be offered from a pure heart.

In their rebellion against God, they have maintained “religion,” but in their practices they are corrupt. They cannot merit God’s grace by their “pious” activities. Their “hands are covered with blood” (1:15), because they have disregarded the rights of the needy. It is impossible to pray for relief from the enemy as long as no compassion is shown to the oppressed (1:16–17).

1:18–20. The proper response, then, to the grace of God is obedient faith. Obedient faith entails the willingness to remove and cleanse oneself from the evil of one’s generation, to love one’s neighbor, and to receive divine cleansing and forgiveness (1:18). True repentance results in faithful obedience, as an expression of gratitude and the willingness to obey God (1:19). The remnant that has survived the ordeal may again be restored to enjoy God’s blessings. God has graciously opened up a future for them, but for those who rebel, judgment is sure to come (1:20).

1:21–26. In a lament, the prophet speaks about the filth of Jerusalem. Rather than resembling pure silver in the practice of justice, righteousness, and faithfulness, the city’s silver has become dross (1:21–22). Isaiah reflects on the era of David and Solomon as one in which Israel was characterized by justice, righteousness, and loyalty to the Lord, because these leaders upheld God’s law. But Jerusalem has become faithless, like an adulteress. She is as worthless as beer diluted with water. People and leaders are all alike: each one is out for him- or herself (1:23). God, the great and merciful King, has seen their insensitivities and will come to the defense of the poor. He will bring them through another judgment in order to remove the “foes” (1:24–26). God’s “enemies” are all those who do not do his will, and it is significant that he addresses the covenant community.

In Is 1:24, God refers to his people who have defied his law as his “foes” and “enemies.” Similarly, Jesus says that whoever is not with him is against him (Mt 12:30; Lk 11:23).

1:27–31. God will certainly distinguish between the righteous and the wicked. The future belongs to the remnant, which repents by doing righteousness, but judgment will make an end of rebels and idolaters (1:27–29). Isaiah then compares the people as a whole to the effects of a drought in which the leaves of an oak fall off and the garden is burned up (1:30). However, the oak still stands and the garden is still there. Hard times may come upon the godly, but they will persevere. The wicked, however, will be utterly consumed as by fire (1:31).

2:1–5. In four verses (2:1–4) Isaiah describes the nature of God’s kingdom: its glory, its extent, and its effect. The glory of God’s kingdom is so great that it will be recognized by the nations. God’s kingdom will not be limited to the Jews in Jerusalem or Judea but will extend to the nations, who will desire to be instructed by the people of God. The language is centripetal; the people are coming to one center to be instructed. The knowledge of God will be among the nations; and the nations, having been disciplined in the ways of God, will live in accordance with God’s word. The universal knowledge of God is the precondition for the rule of God, which brings peace to the earth.

The promises of 2:4 are especially reassuring in an age marred by terrorism and nuclear warfare. However, we must keep in mind that as long as nations make decisions for themselves without respect to God, there is little possibility for peace. The prophet envisions a time when the Lord himself will rule the nations and will make decisions for them; then and only then will there be a state of shalom, when weaponry can be changed into implements of peace.

Before this glorious vision may be realized, there is one precondition: people must respond in full submission to the Lord (2:5). It is possible to be inspired by the vision of the messianic age, but inspiration should lead to obedient faith.

B. Judgment and comfort: Part two (2:6–4:6). 2:6–22. Isaiah now focuses on how God’s people have rebelled. First, he singles out their rampant materialism, idolatry, and acceptance of pagan practices. He includes all pagan cultures by referring to the superstitions from the east and west (2:6). Judah, though isolated geographically, has opened herself to foreign cultures. This fits well with the period of Uzziah, when Judah made alliances with nations so as to maintain commercial and military relations. Their strength was in negotiation and not in God. The people possessed silver and gold, horses and chariots, and idols (2:7–8). Judah was no different from other nations. God’s judgment would show that idols would provide no help, that gold and silver could not save his people in the hour of disaster, and that the nations would be impotent in the hour of need. God’s judgment comes against any and every monument of human pride. The Lord alone will be exalted (2:9–11). [Rock]

The “day” of God’s judgment (2:12) is a reference to an era in which God reveals his wrath. The emphasis on arrogance in this passage fits well with the imagery of the cedars of Lebanon, the oaks of Bashan, the mountains and hills, the high towers and fortified walls, and the stately ships, which sailed the seas and brought crafts and products from other nations into the finest homes of Jerusalem (2:13–16). All these objects symbolize human pride and autonomous accomplishments (2:17–18). Humanity will have to face God, who comes to quell the rebellion of his subjects (2:19–22). The Lord’s day is the day of his self-exaltation, which excludes humanity and any reasons for pride.

3:1–15. Isaiah now charges the people with open rebellion. Their leaders are particularly responsible. He charges the leaders with irresponsibility and injustice, which have caused the poor to become poorer. This charge is also to be understood in the light of the previous charge of rebellion (2:8–9). The combination of corrupt leadership and widespread, open rebellion has resulted in social and moral upheaval. The Lord’s judgment, however, will result in an even more catastrophic disruption of life in Judah. He will take away their food and water (3:1). He will remove the divinely ordained officers and will instead put over the people corrupt leaders who are immature and lacking in experience, like “youths” and “unstable rulers” (3:4), and who will contribute to further social and moral decay in Judah (3:2–4).

In addition, judgment comes in the form of the collapse of the economy and political structures (3:5–9, 11–12). The ruins and the absence of qualified leaders reflect the situation in Judah after the ravages of Nebuchadnezzar (586 BC). Though God’s judgment will result in terrible lawlessness, the righteous remnant must take heart, knowing that they will be rewarded (3:10). The Lord brings a suit against the corrupt leaders who have taken advantage of their office (3:13–15).

3:16–4:1. The Lord charges the daughters of Jerusalem with pride and seduction. The men of Jerusalem are selfish, materialistic, and oppressive, but they have partners in their wives and lovers, who have an insatiable desire to beautify themselves, enrich themselves, and compete with each other (3:16–17). The brief description of the “fine” women is followed by the effects of the day of the Lord (3:18–26): all their pretty things will be removed, they will go around filled with mourning, and their men will fall in battle. Their glory will turn to shame. The severity of their loneliness will be so great that these women will fight over a man in order to remove the disgrace of their childlessness (4:1).

As part of his judgment, God will remove all the jewelry and finery from the women of Israel and send them into captivity (Is 3:16–26).

4:2–6. The prophet’s theme now changes abruptly, for in 4:2–6 Isaiah speaks about the new messianic era. While human pride is gone, there is a future for the remnant who have humbled themselves in the presence of the Lord. Isaiah develops the theme of the messianic kingdom, begun in 2:1–5, by speaking about the people as “the Branch of the LORD” (4:2a). This “Branch” is not the branch of a tree but a new shoot out of the ground; it refers to the survivors of the day of judgment. “Branch” may also signify the Messiah of David, as in Jr 23:5; 33:15; and Zch 3:8; 6:12, but the more general designation of messianic “people” fits the context best. The “fruit of the land” (4:2b) describes the blessedness of the land, as the people are restored to God’s blessings.

The messianic era is characterized here as an era of restoration. The remnant, the people of God, has survived God’s judgment. The day of the Lord has been a day of terror but also one of purification. The filth of corruption, the fires of rebellion, and the folly of God’s people have been removed; those who are left are now described as holy; and their names are recorded in the book of life (4:3–4). Having consecrated for himself a new people who will be responsive to him, God assures them of his glorious presence (4:5–6). The glory of the Lord, revealed to Israel in the wilderness, will protect only those who are holy and over whom his judgment has passed.

C. Judgment (5:1–30). 5:1–7. Isaiah may have sung this parabolic poem about the vineyard at a wine festival, surprising his listeners with the application. He sings about a “loved one” who gives himself with exacting care to the preparation of a vineyard. The vineyard, however, produces only sour grapes (5:1–2). Isaiah asks what else this “loved one” could have done for the vineyard (5:3–4). The rhetorical question must be answered!

The prophet then explains that the vineyard represents the people of Israel and Judah and that the Lord is the keeper of the vineyard (5:5–7). He deeply cared for his people and lavished on them his grace and love, expecting justice and righteousness as the appropriate fruits. Instead of justice and righteousness, the people have responded with bloodshed, which has elicited a cry of distress from the downtrodden.

5:8–23. Six woes explaining the nature of oppression, bloodshed, and the cry for justice (5:7) are directly related to the parable of the vineyard. In these six woes Isaiah has painted for us a portrait of God’s people near the end of the eighth century. The portrait is that of social elites who have perverted justice, morality, religious values, and the wisdom that flows out of the fear of the Lord. In his description of the rich, Isaiah gives us a candid glimpse not only of the Judean society of his day but of the besetting sins of human society at any time and place.

The first woe (5:8–10) is against economic opportunists who amass more and more material wealth. They flaunt the inalienable relationship of the people to God’s land (Lv 25:13–16). They accumulate houses and fields at the expense of the economically disadvantaged. Their houses will be in ruins, and their vineyards and fields will not produce enough to make a living. The picture in these verses is one of loneliness: houses that were once full of parties will be no more. A large vineyard will produce a limited amount of wine; several bushels of seed will yield only a tenth of that amount in grain.

The second woe (5:11–17) pertains to drunkards who spend all their time feasting and drinking. They cannot wait to begin their day with a drink and prepare banquets in order to attract others who enjoy drinking. Isaiah does not say much about the source of the money with which their wine and strong drink are purchased, but it may be deduced from the context that the wine has been obtained with the money and labors of the poor. In their drunken stupor, they are ignorant of the ways of God. They will go into exile as fools who did not know that the day of the Lord was coming on all. Death will inevitably overtake those who know nothing but the joys of life.

The third woe (5:18–19) pertains to those who corrupt justice. They have no sense of the holiness of God and even scoff at the thought of the coming judgment.

The fourth woe (5:20) is pronounced against those who corrupt religious values. They do not know the difference between good and evil, darkness and light, bitter and sweet. They confound their own conscience and the consciences of others. The revelation of God is no longer a light for their path because their standards have confused the clarity of God’s revelation.

The fifth woe (5:21) is to those who have exchanged the wisdom of God for the folly of humans.

The sixth woe (5:22–23) also applies to drunkards. Here Isaiah describes the drunkard as a man who feels strong in his drinking. He enjoys power. While he feasts, he is getting rich at the expense of others.

5:24–30. While there are hints at the coming judgment of God throughout the woes, the prophet provides greater detail toward the end. Clearly social position does not deter judgment, because the ultimate polarity is between sinful people and a holy God (5:16). When God enters into judgment, he comes as the great king (“LORD of Armies”) and the Holy One of Israel (5:24). Because they have spurned his law and his covenant, the anger of the God of Mount Sinai will burn against his own people. He will mercilessly strike his people with blow upon blow (5:25). Fierce and untiring enemies will come at God’s command (5:26–27). With rapidity and catastrophic power they will destroy and exile God’s people (5:28–29). The day of the Lord is not a day of restoration and light but rather a day of darkness, anxiety, and gloom (5:30).

D. Isaiah’s call (6:1–13). 6:1–4. The prophet dates his vision of God’s glory to the year in which King Uzziah died (6:1a), which connects chapter 6 to the context of the Syro-Ephraimite War (see 7:1). A vision of the Lord appears to the prophet. He sees the Lord sitting on the throne, exalted in the temple (6:1b). The prophet concentrates not on the throne or on the Lord seated on it but on “the hem of his robe” as it fills the temple, which is filled with the glorious presence of the Lord. He touches the earth in his power and glory, and yet the earth and the earthly temple cannot contain him. The appearance of the Lord, transcendent in his majesty and yet immanent in his presence, is represented in the language of a theophany. It affects all things on earth: the doorposts and thresholds of the temple, for instance, shake as in an earthquake (6:4; cf. Ex 19:16). [Theophany: A Direct Encounter with God]

Isaiah finds himself gazing at a ceremony in which the seraphim announce the glorious presence of the Holy One of Israel. The seraphim (6:2) are like humans in appearance, with faces and feet; however, they are unlike humans in that they have six wings, with which they cover themselves in the presence of the Lord. As they hover in his presence, they call out, “Holy, holy, holy” (6:3b).

The holiness of the Lord is important in the teaching of Isaiah. God’s holiness is an expression of his separateness from the corruption of his people. As the Holy One of Israel, he is the “wholly other” one. Until Israel and Judah have been cleansed and sanctified, they cannot experience the presence of the Holy One. The seraphim ascribe holiness to “the LORD of Armies” (6:3a). He is the great King over the host of heaven (Dt 4:19; 1 Kg 22:19; Is 40:26) and over the earth, which as part of his kingdom is filled with his glory. The word “glory” is also important to the message of Isaiah (6:3b). It signifies the majesty and splendor of the presence of God. When the King of glory establishes his kingdom and extends it from shore to shore, the fullness of his glory will become evident.

6:5–7. In an appropriate response to the impact of the vision of God’s holiness, presence, and glory, Isaiah calls out, “Woe is me” (6:5). The prophet fears for his life, as he is particularly aware of his uncleanness—he represents the sinful nation. In response, one of the seraphim takes with special tongs a burning coal from the altar and touches Isaiah’s mouth (6:6–7). The ceremony is reminiscent of the incense altar (Ex 30:1–10), which was lit by a burning coal taken from the altar (Lv 16:12–13). Before Isaiah is able to speak to the Lord, he must be forgiven. This forgiveness is personal. Once Isaiah has been purified, he is permitted to speak in the heavenly council and receives his commissioning.

6:8–13. In his heavenly council the Lord asks the question, “Who will go for us?” (6:8). Isaiah volunteers, and the Lord immediately commissions him. The commission consists of a declaration that Isaiah’s ministry is going to be hard and long. His message will prick the conscience of people, but they will harden themselves against God and his word (6:9–10). Isaiah is shown the desolation of the land and the exile of the population (6:11–13). The emphasis is on judgment, devastation, and desolation. But there is hope, for the “holy seed” (6:13) will remain.

Isaiah 6:9–10 (“keep listening, but do not understand”) is quoted more times in the NT than any other OT passage (Mt 13:14–15; Mk 4:10–12; Lk 8:10; Jn 12:39–41; Ac 28:26–27; Rm 11:8).

E. Crisis in perspective (7:1–8:22). The messages of the first part of the triptych (chaps. 1–5) are not set in historical context. This changes with the historical reference to the year of Uzziah’s death (6:1), and the third part of the triptych (chaps. 7–12) begins with events associated with Ahaz. When Ahaz came to the throne, the Aramean (Syrian) power was about to be eclipsed. The Arameans were already feeling mounting pressure from the east, as the Assyrians were moving westward. God’s word comes to Israel, Aram, Assyria, and Judah. Everything that happens on earth results from God’s sovereign rule.

Bronze tongs. “Then one of the seraphim flew to me, and in his hand was a glowing coal that he had taken from the altar with tongs” (Is 6:6).

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Israel Museum. Collection of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, and courtesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority, exhibited at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

7:1–9. The Arameans have made an alliance with the Israelites in order to create a united front against Assyria (7:5; cf. 2 Kg 16:5–9). In order to further their goals, they plan to dethrone Ahaz and place their own man (7:6) on the throne in Jerusalem.

The prophet and his son Shear-jashub (whose name signifies the hope that “a remnant will return”; see the CSB footnote) meet Ahaz at the upper pool (7:3). Ahaz is shaken by the alliance and needs counsel.

Isaiah calls on Ahaz to face the crisis from God’s perspective. These two mighty kingdoms, Israel and Aram, are nothing more than “two smoldering sticks” (7:4) who will soon come to an end. (Aram came to an end in 732 BC, and Assyria exiled Israel in 722 BC.) The challenge (7:9) is a pun created by the assonance of the Hebrew words translated “stand firm” and “stand.”

7:10–17. The emphasis on God’s presence in this crisis receives special significance in the naming of a child: Immanuel. The Lord challenges Ahaz to ask for a sign (7:10–11). The king piously refuses (7:12). Knowing that Ahaz has set his heart on a political solution, Isaiah rebukes him (7:13). Ahaz is impatient with the solution of faith and looks toward Assyria for a novel approach. The Lord, however, has a sign for Ahaz, the house of David, and all who would hear it. The sign is the “Immanuel” (7:14).

Much controversy has surrounded the meaning of the sign: what is the meaning of “virgin” (7:14), and who is the child? The validity of the sign lies in a miracle or event and must be of significance to Ahaz. The birth of Christ was a miracle but would have been of little relevance to Ahaz in his time. If the sign was to strengthen the word of God in Ahaz’s time, it may have been that Isaiah spoke of a woman in the royal court or of his own wife (8:1–4, 18). The child could not be Hezekiah, however, since he was already born by this time. Though Isaiah’s son is not the Immanuel, he is a sign of the Immanuel, in that Judah is spared. Through Isaiah, God assures Judah that his promises to David (2 Sm 7:11–16) will come to pass. The Lord has not abandoned the house of David! He marshals the Assyrians to remedy this crisis situation (7:15–17).

Matthew 1:23 declares that Jesus fulfills Is 7:14 by his virgin birth and his role as Immanuel (“God is with us”).

7:18–25. Ahaz’s policy pushes him into direct contact with Assyria. He appeals to Tiglath-pileser (the “razor hired,” 7:20). Others have looked to Egypt (7:18). The clash for power in the Mediterranean Basin will result in great devastation. Assyria is God’s appointed means and will “shave” Judah; that is, he will exact tribute. Judah will be impoverished and will survive only on “curds and honey” because its luxuriant vineyards and cultivated fields will become grazing land for cows and sheep (7:21–25).

8:1–4. The birth of Isaiah’s second son is significant. To properly emphasize its significance, he writes on a large scroll the name “Speeding to the Plunder, Hurrying to the Spoil” (Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 8:1; see the CSB footnote). This he does in the presence of two witnesses: Uriah the high priest and Zechariah (8:2). Then he has relations with his wife, “the prophetess,” and out of that union a child is born (8:3). The child’s name signifies judgment on Israel and Aram and a contemporary fulfillment of 7:14. Thus, in a short time the Assyrian forces will carry off the “plunder” of Damascus and Samaria (8:4).

8:5–10. The people have rejected the Lord and his promises to David (symbolized by the water of Shiloah, 8:6). They have lost heart over the Israelite-Aramean alliance, not trusting in God. Yet God is sovereign over the nations. He permits the Assyrians to “flood” the Mediterranean Basin with their forces. The Euphrates River (8:7) symbolizes Assyrian strength. It will overpower the nations but will not destroy Judah, because of the Immanuel-presence of the Lord. The “flooded banks” in 8:8 are a figure of God’s protection of his people (cf. Ps 91:4). God has set the bounds of Assyria’s power.

The prophet calls on the nations to recognize that they are pawns in the hands of God (8:9–10). The Lord effectively works out all his plans. The nations cannot stand up against the God who has promised to protect his people. He is Immanuel! There also seems to be an eschatological dimension here, as it foreshadows the end of human resistance to God’s plans. God’s plan will be done on earth as it is in heaven.

8:11–15. Isaiah is warned not to identify with the secular values of his contemporaries (8:11–12). Those who follow the Lord are not to give in to the prevailing political and economic winds of their age. As secularism and humanism grow stronger and the believing community is increasingly pressured in a world without God, Isaiah reminds us to look at the world from God’s perspective: the world is under his judgment, and the Lord himself, who alone is holy, should be the object of our fear (8:13).

The name of the Lord is a “stone to stumble over” (8:14) to those who keep their political options open. The people do not listen to his message because they are hardened. Rather than enjoying God’s protection, they plot their own course with self-reliance. He is the Lord of Armies and the Holy One, who offers sanctuary to those who fear him alone. As the “stone,” he evokes a response of either faith or rejection, causing an offense that will snare the people of Jerusalem (8:15).

8:16–22. Isaiah leads the godly remnant to find shelter in the Lord. The Lord has instructed Judah through Isaiah, whose teachings are consonant with the testimony and instruction of Moses (8:16–17). His teaching of judgment and hope is summarized in the names Maher-shalal-hash-baz, Shear-jashub, and Isaiah (8:18; see “Isaiah the Prophet” in the introduction to Isaiah).

As for the rest of the people, God’s judgment will find them out if they continue to reject the prophetic call to repentance. The judgment is described as desolation, devastation, famine, and despair from which there is no escape (8:21–22). It is a time without hope for the future, because God appears to be at a great distance from his people. In their abandonment they will even consult the dead (8:19). Isaiah calls on them to seek the light of the Lord’s testimony and instruction as revealed in his own message (8:20). Otherwise, they will come to realize the futility of reliance on kings and nationhood.

F. The Messiah (9:1–7). In 733 BC, Tiglath-pileser III besieged Damascus, invaded the region of Galilee, including Zebulun and Naphtali (9:1), and incorporated it into his kingdom (2 Kg 15:29) in fulfillment of God’s word. “Gloom” and “distress” result from such oppression and separation from God’s covenantal love. But the Lord will graciously turn humiliation into glory. How? By the coming of the Messiah of David. Although the northern tribes have rejected David’s dynasty in favor of Jeroboam (1 Kg 12:1–20), their salvation will come from the very one whom they rejected. The new era will be characterized by great joy. The Messiah will free his people from their enemies and actualize the Davidic ideal (9:7).

The child (9:6) is Immanuel (7:14). He is God’s gift to humanity’s predicament. He is fully human (“child,” “born,” “son”), but he is also divine, with all the perfections of kingship in himself: supernatural wisdom, might, paternal beneficence, and peace. This son will reign forever in justice, righteousness, and peace. The certainty of his kingdom is guaranteed by “the zeal of the LORD” (9:7).

G. The wrath of God (9:8–10:34). The Lord’s mercy is demonstrated in his patience with the corrupt northern kingdom. However, they are not responsive. The shadow of God’s outstretched hand hangs over Samaria (9:12, 17, 21; 10:4; cf. 5:25; Am 4:6–12). His judgment is relentless in view of the stubborn persistence of evil in Israel.

9:8–12. The attack of the Arameans and Philistines (ca. 737 BC) weakens Israel (9:12), but Israel does not view this military defeat as an expression of the Lord’s discipline. Instead, the leaders seize it as a political opportunity. Foolish Israel cannot see that the Lord has raised up the Assyrians to chasten it!

9:13–21. This era is marked by civil wars and coups d’état (2 Kg 15:8–30). All classes of people will ultimately suffer at the hands of the Lord: young and old, rich and poor, political and religious leaders alike (9:13–17). All Israel is characterized by perversity, evil, and impiety.

Godlessness and chaos are twins. Anarchy destroys the fiber of Israel’s life like a fire (9:18–19). It spreads first through the underbrush and finally destroys everything. The Lord permits the anarchy, but he is still in control. The destructive forces of civil war and anarchy are also described metaphorically as a ferocious and uncontrollable appetite (9:20–21).

10:1–4. At the root of Israel’s troubles is its resistance to God’s just laws (10:1–2). Injustice prevails at the expense of the oppressed. In time, all Israel will be oppressed, but there will be no help forthcoming from the Lord (10:3–4). His anger will see to the righteous execution of his decree against Israel.

10:5–11. The Lord has granted Assyria’s rise to power (10:5–19). He permitted Assyria to enrich herself as he sent her on his holy mission to reduce those nations that had provoked his wrath (10:5–6). Assyria’s lust for power, however, is unbridled. She is a tyrant who boasts of her victories over cities and nations (10:7–11). The boast displays an attitude of autonomy and evidences no fear of God. Since Samaria has fallen (722 BC) and the Lord did not rescue it, how can Jerusalem expect to be rescued? The Assyrian advance has swept from Carchemish on the Euphrates to Jerusalem, and who can stop it? The Lord.

10:12–19. Isaiah interrupts his sarcastic poem about Assyria’s pride with a brief prose section (10:12) containing the Lord’s response to Assyria’s taunt. He will punish Assyria. Assyria is nothing more than God’s instrument.

The nature of the judgment is then given in poetic form and is likened to a fire and a wasting disease. Assyria claimed that her wealth and strength came by clever strategy and irresistible power (10:13–14). Nations were despoiled, being impotent to resist the might of Assyria, but the God of Israel was witness and will judge Assyria. When he is through with Assyria, her power will be at an end. Assyria’s warriors will be rendered powerless by an “emaciating disease,” and Assyria’s pomp will be easily reduced, even as a fire destroys a forest (10:16–19). Nonetheless, the Lord’s “Light” (10:17), which assures Judah of a future, will bring Assyria to an end.

10:20–23. The Lord’s mercy is for the sake of the remnant. Jerusalem was besieged in 701 BC, and the country was desolated. Yet after the siege was lifted, even this remnant did not return to the Lord. Therefore, destruction has been decreed and will ultimately bring down both Judah and Jerusalem. Through the ministry of the prophets, a true remnant is sensitized. They will return and rely on the Lord. The expectation of repentance and restoration is symbolized in Isaiah’s son Shear-jashub (“A Remnant Will Return,” 7:3).

10:24–26. The Lord, who dealt graciously with his people in Egypt and rescued them from the Midianites in the days of the judges, will come to the rescue of his people once more. The victory belongs to the Lord. The promise of his wrath passing from Judah to the enemy has eschatological overtones. The prophet looks forward to the period of restoration as the end of the Lord’s wrath and the beginning of deliverance from the oppressors.

10:27–34. The picture of the Assyrian advance from 10:9–11 is continued in 10:27–34. The Assyrians are closing in on Jerusalem, devastating city after city (10:28–32). The Assyrian march need not be construed as historical. The poetic imagery permits Isaiah to project the advance on Jerusalem from the direction of Samaria, as if it has just been conquered. The period between Samaria’s fall (722 BC) and Jerusalem’s siege (701 BC) is not his concern. He brings out a sense of panic. What will happen now? Will the Lord be faithful to his promise to remain with Judah? The answer is yes. God will first “chop off the branches” by stopping Assyria’s advance, and later he will cut down the might of Assyria (10:33–34). In less than a hundred years, Assyria will not be reckoned among the nations. God’s word is true.

H. The Branch from Jesse (11:1–16). The threat to the Davidic dynasty (Is 7) has passed. Ahaz has survived the attack, and Aram and Israel have been conquered by Assyria. In chapter 9 the prophet speaks about “a son” to whom the everlasting government will be given and whose throne will be established with justice, righteousness, and peace. In chapter 11 Isaiah again takes up the theme of the messianic rule.

11:1–9. Assyria and all world powers will fall like “tall trees” (10:33), but the Lord will raise up his Messiah as a “shoot” (11:1). This shoot does not spring from one of the branches of a tree; its origin is the roots. The Messiah is a shoot from the roots of David’s dynasty. The new leadership over God’s people must come from David’s dynasty, but it is also separate from the old dynastic interests. Kingship may cease in Judah, but God’s promise to David will be kept. The messianic shoot does not conform to the old way. He introduces God’s rule on earth, symbolized by the presence of the “Spirit of the LORD” (11:2).

The new stage in God’s kingdom will combine the old (the Davidic covenant) and the new (the era of the Spirit). The presence of God’s Spirit on the Messiah will be evident in his rule of wisdom, justice, righteousness, faithfulness, and peace, complete with the absence of evil and the universal knowledge of God. The messianic era is an idealization of the period of David and Solomon’s rule over Israel. The qualities of the Messiah make him fit to protect his people. His relationship with God is beyond criticism, as he fears God and delights to do his will. He will protect the needy and execute judgment on the wicked without mercy (11:3–4). He favors his subjects with a rule of righteousness and faithfulness (11:5) and will establish a paradisal renewal of the earth in which his peace extends even to nature; all people will know God (11:6–9).

11:10–16. The Messiah of the root of Jesse will be a “banner for the peoples” (11:10). He gathers the scattered remnant of Israel and Judah from the nations in a “second” exodus (11:11). They will freely come from Egypt (Upper = Pathros and Lower), Cush (Nubia/Ethiopia, the Upper Nile region), Elam (east of Babylonia), Shinar (Babylonia), Hamath (region north of Damascus), and the Mediterranean coastlands. He will join together the twelve tribes and rule over a restored Israel (11:12–14). Nothing can stand in the way of God’s purpose. He will even divide the Gulf of Suez, make the Euphrates passable, and make a highway from Assyria to Israel (11:15–16). The restoration from exile will be more glorious and more extensive than the first exodus. The fulfillment of this prophecy began in the restoration from exile and extends to the fullness of time, when Christ came to gather both Jews and Gentiles into his flock (Jn 10:16).

I. Songs of praise (12:1–6). Chapter 12 forms a transition between chapters 1–11 (God’s judgment on Judah) and chapters 13–23 (God’s judgment on the world). The focus of chapter 12 grants us an insight into the plan of God by revealing that, while God is angry with this world (including the Jews), he still holds out his arms to all who will exalt his name, whether they are Jews or Gentiles.

Two songs focus on two aspects of deliverance: God’s comfort of his people (12:1–2) and the proclamation of his acts of salvation to the nations (12:4–6).

12:1–3. The prophet renews the promise of full and free salvation and calls on the godly to join him in confident trust in God. As the “strength” of his people (12:2), God is able to accomplish all that Isaiah has predicted: universal peace, the presence of God, the restoration of the remnant, the Messiah’s rule, and the universal knowledge and fear of God.

The people who were restored to the land of Judah after the exile had reason to celebrate and give thanks to God for the redemption they had experienced. The fullness of that redemption, however, was not yet theirs. The day to which the prophet refers (12:1) extends from the restoration after the exile all the way to the return of the Messiah.

12:4–6. The day of judgment is against all flesh, and God alone will be “exalted” (12:4). The righteous have been delivered from the finality of judgment and know the Lord as the exalted, Holy One of Israel (12:6). The era of restoration is marked by redemption, proclamation, rejoicing, and the renewal of God’s presence among his people.

Isaiah calls on the nations to exalt the Lord’s name because of what he does on behalf of his own (12:4–5). This expression of hope by God’s own will result in responses of faith and praise by the nations. The expression of hope takes the form of thanks and songs of praise. Therefore, Isaiah calls on the remnant to drown out their sorrows in songs of joy in and expectation of their deliverance by the Holy One of Israel (12:6). If God’s own people can live in joyful expectation of the final redemption, the world will take notice.

2. ORACLES AGAINST THE NATIONS (13:1–23:18)

These messages are called “pronouncements” or “oracles.” The Hebrew word translated “pronouncement” is a technical term and occurs in the heading of Isaiah’s speech against each nation (13:1, Babylon; 17:1, Damascus; 19:1, Egypt; 23:1, Tyre; see also 21:1, 11, 13; 22:1; 30:6). Similar collections are found in Jr 46–51 and Ezk 25–32. This collection of oracles forms the second major division of Isaiah and prepares the reader for the so-called Apocalypse of Isaiah (chaps. 24–27).

A. Babylon (13:1–14:23). 13:1–16. Isaiah views the Lord’s judgment on Babylon as an expression of his rule over the earth. He commands the armed forces of the nations (13:1–2). The “consecrated ones” are the warriors mustered and consecrated for battle (13:3). The Lord sovereignly rules over the nations, who serve him without knowledge of their being the instruments of the establishment of his kingdom. The descriptions of the ensuing battle and the day of the Lord take on universal proportions. The nations of the earth are involved (13:4–5). The day of the Lord as a time of great destruction on earth is near (13:6). Humanity is totally helpless (13:7–8). Heaven and earth heave when God expresses his anger with sinful man (13:9–13). Few survive, and even those who escape will come to a painful end (13:14–16). [Babylon in Prophecy]

13:17–22. The cosmic description of the day of the Lord is applied to Babylon’s fall. As an expression of his sovereignty, God will also turn against mighty Babylon. The fall of Babylon will be great. In colorful language Isaiah portrays the devastation caused by her enemies. The enemies are the Medes (13:17), who together with the Persians conquered Babylon under the leadership of Cyrus the Persian (539 BC). They will have no pity (13:18). Its doom is that of a deserted city. The desolation of Babylon is graphically portrayed by its becoming the haunt of wild animals, like Sodom and Gomorrah (13:19–22).

This prophecy was not completely fulfilled when Cyrus entered Babylon; the transfer of power was rather quiet. It seems that the prophet extends the perimeter of application to all world kingdoms and empires. Babylon is symbolic of all evil, pride, oppression, or power that exalts itself against the Lord. This power will be broken (cf. Rv 18:2–24). Thus the Lord deals with any kingdom that exalts itself against him and his anointed people.

14:1–4a. In the midst of a description of the world in flames, Isaiah encourages God’s people with a message of comfort. When Babylon comes to its end, the Lord will restore the exiled people to the land. There is a hint of the cosmic effect of Israel’s restoration in that the nations, too, will join in Israel’s future either as converts (14:1) or as servants (14:2). The era of restoration marks the freedom of God’s people. As an expression of joy, God’s people take up a dirge (a traditional funerary song) mocking the end of the oppressors. It is a taunt (14:4a)—to be taken not literally but as a hyperbolic statement of the end of the aggressor. This explains the mythological allusions, as Isaiah portrays the end of Babylon in its own religious language.

14:4b–8. The king of Babylon typifies world power. When the aggression of the oppressor comes to an end, the whole earth is at rest (14:4b–7). The nations, likened to trees, rejoice that Babylon no longer cuts down nations and kingdoms like a woodsman (14:8).

Owls are among the creatures that will inhabit Babylon after it is overthrown (Is 13:21).

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the British Museum, London, England.

14:9–10. The mortality of Babylon is poetically set forth in the mythological language of Babylon’s own religious conceptions. Babylon considered itself ruler over life and death. Kings, leaders, and people died in the many campaigns and battles waged by the Babylonians. They found rest in the netherworld. But with the end of Babylon, spirits in the netherworld stir themselves up as the king of Babylon knocks and desires to enter (14:9). There is a sudden commotion, as the news of Babylon’s fall is announced. Babylon the great has fallen. It too is subject to powers greater than itself (14:10).

14:11–15. Babylon’s fall is great (14:11). The king is compared to the “shining morning star” (14:12). As the morning star is not the sun, which distinguishes day from night, the king of Babylon is not God. However, in Babylon’s drive to rule the world, its pride was unlimited (Dn 4:30), and it acted as God on earth (14:13–14). In its imperial ambitions it acted no differently than the ancient people who built a city to make a name for themselves (Gn 11:1–9). Likewise, Babylon’s goal was to reach into heaven and to take the place of the Most High. But it too will be cast down (14:15). The greater the aspirations, the worse the fall. Isaiah uses this dramatic interlude to build up suspense. Will the spirits of the netherworld welcome the king of Babylon?

14:16–20a. The spirits first gaze with amazement at the beggarly and weak king, covered with maggots (14:11). They respond with unbelief, mocking the mortality of Babylon (14:16–17). At this, they cast him out of the netherworld. There will never be any rest for the king of Babylon and his offspring (14:18–20a). He does not get the burial of a hero but is like a soldier missing in action. The spirit of Babylon is doomed to roam.

14:20b–21. God has reserved a time of judgment for all evildoers (14:20b). They may flourish and thrive, but then they are suddenly cut off. In OT language the king and his sons, representative of the spirit of Babylon, will be cut off forever (14:21). Their memory will be forgotten. Thus the Lord will do to all evildoers. In the biblical conception of Babylon, as we have seen, Babylon represents the spirit of humanity without God, the spirit of autonomy, the spirit of secularization, and the spirit of antichrist. For God’s kingdom to be established, the Lord must deal with any manifestation of evil.

14:22–23. The application is clear. Babylon must fall by the will of the Lord. Its judgment is sealed, and in its final state it is likened to a swamp, good only for animals.

B. Assyria (14:24–27). God is angry not only with Babylon but also with Assyria (cf. 10:5–34). Regardless of the question of which nation is guilty of the greater sin, all nations are under God’s condemnation. The counsel of the nations will be frustrated, but his counsel will stand. These words are God’s solemn assurance to his people that he will establish his kingdom on earth.

C. Philistia (14:28–32). The oracle against Philistia is dated by the year in which Ahaz died (14:28). The historical background is far from certain. It may be that Philistia made an effort to lead Judah, Edom, and Moab in an insurrection against Assyria (ca. 715 BC) that was put down by Sargon II in 711 BC. The Philistines have hoped for the end of Assyria’s dominance, but Isaiah warns them that they will be put down several times (711, 701, 586 BC) until they are finally no more.

The metaphors of the viper, snake, and flying serpent (14:29) have been variously interpreted. They possibly refer to the several Assyrian and Babylonian campaigns, each one growing in severity. The word “root” denotes the offspring of the snake. The Philistines are thus assured that the danger is far from over. Their own offspring (“root,” 14:30) will come to an end by famine and subsequently by the sword.

The enemy from the north (14:31) is Assyria and Babylonia. Philistia, the archenemy of God’s people, will also come to an end. The Lord, however, has established his kingdom on earth, and only the humble who seek him will find refuge in it (14:32). Regardless of the political changes and the message of the emissaries of the nations, God’s people must seek the Lord and his kingdom.

D. Moab (15:1–16:14). The oracle concerning Moab is largely in the form of a lament and is partially repeated in Jr 48:29–38. The judgment on Moab is marked by severity and utter frustration.

15:1–9. An enemy will come from the north and free the refugees to migrate southward along the King’s Highway into Edom. Isaiah movingly and sympathetically pictures the fall of Moab’s cities: Ar, Kir, Dibon, Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Elealeh, and Jahaz (15:1–4). With the fall of these cities, ranging from the far north to the south, Moab has come to an end. The refugees clutch in their hands whatever they can carry and move southward, wailing over their misfortunes (15:5–8). Isaiah joins in the lament and evokes sympathy for the Moabites. They were, after all, Israel’s relatives through Lot (Gn 19:36–37), and David was a descendant of Ruth the Moabitess (Ru 4:17). The brooks have dried up, and the waters of Dibon are filled with blood (15:9). Thus, they cross the “Wadi of the Willows” (Wadi Zered) into Edom (15:7).

16:1–5. From Edom (Sela; cf. 2 Kg 14:7) the Moabites send emissaries requesting asylum (16:1–4a). They come with lambs as tribute, thus recognizing Judah’s supremacy (16:1). The prophet explains why it is important to seek sanctuary in Judah (16:4b–5). First, oppression will cease from the world. Second, the messianic kingdom will be established, when a king will rule on David’s throne with faithfulness, justice, and righteousness.

16:6–12. Moab is insincere in their request for sanctuary with God’s people. They desire refuge from the enemy but not in the Lord and his Messiah. The heart of pride, conceit, and empty boasts has not changed (16:6). Therefore, judgment has overtaken them. Still, Isaiah laments the fall of Moab. He grieves over the ruined vineyards, fields, and orchards (16:7–12). The songs of joy at harvest time have been changed into songs of mourning. The produce once exported to other nations has ceased. Moab’s gods are unable to rescue her.

16:13–14. The date of Moab’s doom is given: “in three years.” The beginning of Moab’s disasters may have come in the Assyrian campaigns. Moab came to an end.

E. Damascus and Israel (17:1–14). The oracle against Damascus (a major city in Syria) is brief in comparison to the other oracles. This oracle is intimately connected with the judgment of Israel and the judgment on the nations. The structure of the chapter is far from simple. The prophet three times employs the introductory formula “on that day” (17:4, 7, 9), and the last section is introduced with the word “ah!” (17:12). There are two major motifs in verses 1–3 (destruction and the disappearance of glory), which recur in verses 4–6, but in the reverse order. Verses 7 and 8 contain an invitation to repent, whereas verses 9–11 explain the reason for the destruction of the northern kingdom. Finally, the last three verses (17:12–14) give God’s judgment on the nations involved in the judgment of Israel and Damascus.

The historical background of the oracle against Damascus can best be understood in the context of the Syro-Ephraimite alliance (ca. 734 BC). Ephraim and Damascus thought they could free themselves from the yoke of Tiglath-pileser III. The prophet has forewarned the nations that their alliance will not undo the Davidic dynasty in Judah, nor will they succeed in destabilizing Assyria (chap. 7). Instead, both nations will shortly come to an end, which happened to Damascus in 732 and to Samaria in 722.

17:1–3. The oracle against Damascus is addressed to the Aramean nation, against which the prophet has already spoken (chaps. 7–8). He portrays the city of Damascus in ruins and utter desolation (17:1). The flourishing city traces its ancestry back to a desert oasis. It developed from a caravansary to a major commercial center. The judgment reverses the progress of Damascus; it will again be a place where flocks are pastured (17:2). Since Ephraim and Aram have consolidated their strength, both nations will come to an end, and their glory will be wasted (17:3).

17:4–6. Isaiah compares Israel’s future to a grain harvest in the Valley of Rephaim (17:4–5). Twice David fought there and defeated the Philistines (2 Sm 5:17–25). The valley was important for the cultivation of grain needed for Jerusalem. The law of gleaning allowed for the poor to pick any ears of grain left after a harvest (Lv 19:9–10; 23:22; Dt 24:20–22). The future of Israel is likened to the scanty remains left to the poor for gleaning. Israel is also likened to the few olives left on an olive tree that has been shaken thoroughly during the harvest (17:6).

17:7–8. Verses 7–8 constitute a beautiful interlude in which Isaiah describes the future conversion of the remnant. The verb for their conversion is not the usual verb (“to repent” / “to return”) but rather it is “to look.” The people must recognize that the Lord is “their Maker” and “the Holy One of Israel” (17:7). Therefore, they must refrain from looking to their illegitimate altars as the source of deliverance (17:8).

17:9–11. The fall of Israel results in exile so that the countryside will be characterized by depopulation (17:9). The reason for the judgment is given in 17:10a. The people have forgotten the God of their salvation, their Rock, who could provide a refuge. As 17:10b may imply, they have instead given themselves to pagan nature cults. However, these people who would do anything to appease other deities, including cultivating ceremonial gardens, are assured that they will not be able to reap the benefits of their worship; rather, they will reap sickness and pain (17:11).

17:12–14. Isaiah uses alliterative devices to impress on his hearers that God’s judgment will affect a great multitude of the nations, which are described in terms of the raging sea and “the roaring of the seas” (17:12). It is as if the nations are going beyond the bounds set by God as they storm and foam, but God comes with a rebuke set in the language of a theophany. The Lord’s coming is associated with a wind and a gale (17:13). The power of God is so great that the nations suddenly appear like chaff or tumbleweeds. Thus it will be with the nations: one moment they are terrifying but the next moment they are no more (17:14a). Isaiah adds one final phrase to encourage the godly remnant that God will deal justly with those who have oppressed his own (17:14b).

F. Cush (18:1–7). Whereas 17:12 introduces a general prophecy to the nations, this chapter focuses on a more specific geographic region. As far as the time reference is concerned, it may be that the prophecy against Cush (Ethiopia) came some twenty years after the prophecy against Damascus (ca. 734 BC). In chapters 29–30 the prophet charges the people of Judah with independence from God and reliance on Ethiopia.

In 705 BC Hezekiah sought an alliance with Ethiopia. This was because the Ethiopian king Shabaka controlled Upper Egypt as far as the Nile Delta. Apparently the Ethiopians had taken Egypt (715 BC) and negotiated an alliance with Hezekiah. From Isaiah’s description of the Ethiopians, it would seem that the Judeans stood in amazement of them because they were able to subdue the great power of Egypt. However, chapter 18 brings out God’s judgment on this powerful people while intimating that God has a place reserved for them in his overall kingdom purposes.

18:1–2a. The literary imagery is very artistic, creating a mental picture of this distant nation. The land of Ethiopia was known as a place from whence the locusts came; Isaiah thus describes it as “the land of buzzing insect wings” (18:1). The reference also depicts the Ethiopians as being able to cover and dominate an area very rapidly. The Ethiopians are described as people who send their ambassadors across the water by means of reed vessels (18:2a). “The water” probably is a reference to the Nile River, but it is unlikely that the reed vessels were used on as grand a scale as is suggested in verse 2. If we keep in mind Isaiah’s artistic purposes, however, we have before us a picture of a people who hasten to send their emissaries in light vessels to wherever their mission takes them.

18:2b–6. There is a certain ironic twist because the Lord has his own mission to the Ethiopians. He calls on his “swift messengers” to declare his word to the Ethiopians, who are further described as tall and “smooth-skinned” (18:2b)—an awe-inspiring people who have been able to expand their territory by trampling down their adversaries. Isaiah keeps us in suspense as to the nature of God’s message by turning his attention to the inhabitants of the world (18:3). They must wait for the “banner” to be raised and the trumpet to be blown. God also waits, withholding judgment, as he looks at the plotting of the nations. He hovers over them from his dwelling place like the shimmering heat or an isolated cloud (18:4).

Suddenly, the Lord seizes the moment and cuts down the nations like the branches of a grapevine (18:5–6). A vinedresser prunes the vines over the summer for cosmetic purposes and to increase the grape harvest. Once pollinated, the flower bears fruit, but the fruit takes three to four months to mature. God is likened to a vinedresser who, instead of waiting for the fruit to mature, comes in the heat of the summer to his vineyard and cuts off the shoots and the spreading branches, leaving these for the animals or for the birds of the air.

Nations and Cities Prophesied against in Isaiah

18:7. The people so carefully described in verse 2 are described in the same way in verse 7. They are still tall and awe-inspiring, but this time they are coming not as messengers of war but as worshipers of God. They are bringing gifts to him in Jerusalem. Instead of Judah bringing gifts to Ethiopia to placate her king and to join in her cause of rebellion against the Assyrians, the Ethiopians come to Mount Zion to placate the king of Judah. In this way Isaiah moves from the historical circumstances and context in which the prophecy has been written to an eschatological description. The eschatological hope of the psalms is that the people of Ethiopia might also experience the salvation of the Lord and that they too might be inhabitants of the new Jerusalem.

G. Egypt (19:1–20:6). 19:1–4. The Lord comes on a cloud in judgment on Egypt, especially on its religious system (19:1). With the collapse of its religion, Egypt’s social order falls apart. Egyptian will turn against Egyptian, city against city, and province against province (19:2). The hegemony of Pharaoh’s rule will be impotent in the face of these forces, and he must submit. The religious and political establishment thus abdicates to foreign rule and religious expressions (19:3–4).

19:5–10. In the second stanza, Isaiah portrays the end of Egypt’s economy. The Nile River and its many canals form the essential system of economic support in Egypt. Because of lack of water, the reeds, flax, and fish languish, and agriculture becomes impossible (19:5–7). Reeds were used for the production of papyrus, baskets, and simple artifacts. Flax was the raw product used in Egypt’s extensive production of linen. Egypt exported both her papyrus and linen and was economically dependent on these products. Another basis of her economic support came from the fish industry, but that too is devastated by drought. All people will mourn over the great depression (19:8–10).

19:11–15. The third stanza points out the folly of Egypt’s counselors and princes. The intellectual elite are unable to avert the disaster. All are affected by God’s judgment. The one who caused all Egypt to cry out on the night of the tenth plague (Ex 12:29) will bring Egypt to her knees again.

19:16–18. In 19:16–25, the prophet repeats the phrase “on that day” six times (19:16, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24). He speaks about the day in which great “fear” will overtake the Egyptians (19:16). The terror will be similar to the time when Israel came out of Egypt after God demonstrated his power in the ten plagues.

In Egypt itself five cities will speak the language of Judah (19:18). Because Jews settled in Egypt during the exile, Isaiah may be referring to the great Jewish centers in Migdol, Tahpanhes, Noph (Memphis), Pathros, and Alexandria. It is not clear what is meant by the “City of the Sun” (19:18), which commentators identify with Heliopolis. The Greek Septuagint suggests the reading “The City of Righteousness” (see the CSB footnote). The issue also remains whether one can be certain about the identification of these five cities. To a large extent, the identification rests on our knowledge of Jewish communities in Egypt. Perhaps we should see “five” as symbolic for “many.”

19:19–25. In addition to cultural assimilation, the Egyptians will also assimilate religiously with the people of Judah. There will be an “altar” dedicated to the Lord in the midst of Egypt and a “pillar” as a memorial to his redemptive power (19:19). The Egyptians will come with voluntary sacrifices in order to keep the vows that they have made to Yahweh, the God of Israel (19:20–21). They were struck with plagues in the past, but now they will experience healing from God himself (19:22).

The last verses speak about a highway extending from Egypt to Assyria, following the Fertile Crescent (19:23). The highway is symbolic of universal salvation, as it extends from west to east. The nations will join Israel in the worship of the Lord, and Israel and the nations together will be known as the blessed of the Lord (19:24–25).

20:1–6. The occasion of the prophecy of Egypt’s fall is the conquest of the city of Ashdod by Tartan, the supreme commander of the forces of Sargon II (20:1). At this time the Lord commands Isaiah to walk about “stripped and barefoot” for three years (20:2). The period of three years need not be exactly thirty-six months, because in ancient Near Eastern fashion, any portion of a year is considered a year.

The behavior of the prophet has a calculated effect. The Lord requires this of his servant because it will be “a sign and omen” against Egypt and Ethiopia to symbolize the way in which they will be carried off as exiles by the Assyrians (20:3–4). This prophetic word was partially fulfilled in 671 BC, when Esarhaddon conquered Lower Egypt, including the city of Memphis, and in 665 BC, when Ashurbanipal conquered Thebes, in Upper Egypt.

Apparently Judah and Philistia continued to look to Egypt for help (20:5–6) both in the rebellion of 705–701 BC and during the last days of Judah, when Zedekiah was looking for Egypt to help the weak state of Judah against the rising power of Nebuchadnezzar.

H. Babylon, Edom, and Arabia (21:1–17). These oracles are linked by the theme of the prophet’s office of watchman (21:6, 8, 11–12). Isaiah is waiting to see what the Lord is doing and proclaims what he sees as an oracle.

21:1–10. In the oracle concerning Babylon, the meaning of “desert by the sea” (21:1a) is not exactly clear. It may possibly be the territory of Babylon north of the Persian Gulf. Isaiah compares the attack of Elam and Media on Babylon to storms coming from the desert (21:1b–2). The prophet experiences great anguish when he understands the dire vision. He feels like a woman in labor and like a man who staggers (21:3–4a). Anguish and fear fill his heart and incapacitate him. He sees the prepared tables, the banquets, and the drinking of the Babylonians, but he cannot reach the officers to warn them. They are unprepared; their shields have not even been oiled for battle (21:5). The prophet dramatizes his empathy to portray the sudden fall of Babylon. The picture fits in well with the feast of Belshazzar in Dn 5. Though Isaiah expresses a longing for a “glimmer of hope” of deliverance from Babylon (21:4b), his empathy keeps him from rejoicing. It is a day full of horror.

Next, the Lord commands him to serve as a watchman and to report on any movement (21:6–8). A man in a chariot gives him the awaited report: “Babylon has fallen” (21:9; cf. Rv 18:2). This is God’s word of deliverance to his people (21:10).

21:11–12. The meaning of “Dumah” (21:11a) is uncertain. It may be a corruption of the word “Edom” (see the CSB footnote). This fits well with the reference to Seir (21:11b), where the Edomites settled. Twice an Edomite calls on the watchman (Isaiah) to predict the end of “the night” of distress. Isaiah responds that the morning of hope will come but can say no more (21:12).

21:13–15. The Dedanites (21:13) were an Arabian tribe of caravanners and traders located close to Edom. The caravanners are coming to Tema not for commercial purposes but to hide away in the forest of Arabia as refugees from slaughter (21:14). They come south to Tema for food and water. They have encountered a strong enemy (Assyrians?), who has put them to flight with sword and bow (21:15).

21:16–17. The people of Kedar were also known as caravanners and were respected for their prowess with bows and arrows. These warlike archers were able to protect the caravans as they migrated across the Arabian desert, but they are not able to defend themselves. In a prosaic statement, the prophet concludes the oracles by saying that disaster will also come on Kedar.

I. Jerusalem (22:1–25). 22:1–14. “The Valley of Vision” (22:1, 5) is an obscure reference to Jerusalem. The context of this oracle is best set in the events of 701 BC, when Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem was lifted. Judah lay in ruins, and Jerusalem had paid a dear price for freedom. The leaders had not been loyal, and the soldiers were butchered without honor (22:2b–3). While the people rejoice in their freedom (22:2a), Isaiah is disconcerted. He must weep bitterly over what has happened to his people (22:4). The prophet speaks of another day, a day determined for the destruction of Jerusalem (22:5). The recent events, catastrophic as they were, are a picture of the Valley of Vision that God is preparing for all those who do not respond appropriately.

Isaiah looks out at “the Valley of Vision,” which was occupied shortly before by foreign troops (represented here by Elam and Kir, 22:6–7). The ravages of war are all around. Isaiah reminds the people of their anguish and nervous industry as they set out to repair the walls with stones taken from their houses and to store water for the long siege (22:8–10). But they have not looked to the Lord for help. They respond to crisis situations but do not respond to their sovereign God (22:11).

With the lifting of the siege, the people care even less for God. They are filled with a self-congratulatory spirit as they celebrate mock victory (22:12–13). The Lord will not forgive their callousness. His judgment on Jerusalem stands firm (22:14).

22:15–25. The arrogance of Jerusalem is symbolized in Shebna’s desire for power and recognition (22:15). The precise circumstances of Isaiah’s outburst against Shebna are not stated, but Isaiah characterizes him as too ambitious (22:16). He will be disgraced (22:17–19), and Eliakim will take over his office with suitable honor (22:20–24).

Eliakim did succeed Shebna in office (see 36:3; 37:2), while Shebna maintained a prominent position as secretary (36:3). However, even Eliakim’s position was not permanent. In a sense, Shebna and Eliakim represent the attitude of the people of Judah: arrogant and filled with selfish ambition. The fall of these men symbolizes, therefore, the ultimate fall of Jerusalem (22:25).

J. Tyre (23:1–18). The prophetic word against Tyre is singularly difficult. There are three main difficulties: the change of addressees (Sidon, 23:2–4, 12; Tyre, 23:1, 6–9, 15–18; Phoenicia, 23:10–12), textual problems, and the historical fulfillment of the prophetic word. The cities of Phoenicia were subjugated by Assyria (701 BC), Nebuchadnezzar, and Alexander the Great (332 BC).

23:1–5. The prophet begins the oracle with a reference to the ships of Tarshish, the large vessels that plied the seas (23:1a). The rumor of Tyre’s destruction is spread all around the Mediterranean area (23:1b–2). From Larnaka, the port of Cyprus, to the ports around the Mediterranean, it is known that “the merchant among the nations” (23:3) has ceased doing business. Egypt too will hear and be in anguish (23:5).

23:6–9. Isaiah calls on the people of Tyre to flee to Tarshish on the Atlantic coast southwest of Spain (23:6). The city of Tyre had enjoyed great prosperity. It was an ancient commercial center where tycoons ruled like princes (23:7–8). From Tyre these “princes” ruled over colonies and commercial empires. Because of its natural harbor, the history of Tyre goes back well into the third millennium BC.

The exultation of Tyre, however, has turned to lamentation. The ancient city has come to an end, and the glory of Tyre has been defiled. The prophet assures the people of God that whatever happens to the great cities of Phoenicia (Tyre and Sidon) is the Lord’s doing (23:9).

23:10–14. The people of Phoenicia can no longer depend on the trade advantages of Tyre. They will have to build up their own land. The Lord will judge Tyre, and his judgment is inescapable (23:11–12). The Babylonians/Assyrians (23:13) are the instruments of his judgment. The ruin of Tyre, Sidon, and Phoenicia affects all maritime trade (23:14).

23:15–18. Tyre is compared to an old prostitute unable to attract interest (23:16). Its abandonment will last “seventy years” (23:15; cf. Jr 25:12; 29:10). The round number is symbolic of judgment and restoration. After a period of time the people will be restored, but they must also recognize that a portion of their income must be dedicated to the Lord of Armies (23:17–18; cf. Is 60:4–14). “Dedicated” is related to the word “holy,” and the prophet purposely uses this phraseology to indicate that the silver and the gold once used for secular purposes would be consecrated for God’s kingdom.

The prophecy, while it reflects historical events, has eschatological overtones. It is difficult to find a precise fulfillment for the restoration of Tyre except that in the middle of the third century BC Tyre again became a trading city. However, Tyre did not send a portion of its revenues to support the temple worship in Jerusalem. Tyre, representing all of the port cities and trading capitals of the world, is symbolic of God’s judgment on national wealth if that wealth is not used for the kingdom of God.

3. THE APOCALYPSE OF ISAIAH (24:1–27:13)

These four chapters are known as Isaiah’s “apocalypse” because in them the prophet Isaiah introduces God’s universal judgment, the renewal of the earth, the removal of death and the effects of sin, the deliverance of his people, and the victorious and universal rule of God. The chapters do not possess the usual characteristics of apocalyptic literature (visions, symbolic numbers, animals), but Isaiah gives a glimpse of the future deliverance of God’s people and the establishment of his kingdom on earth after the judgment. The revelation is a witness to the power of God to keep his people, even in the face of all the turmoil they may experience on this earth. Likewise, Is 24–27 stands as a witness of God’s power to judge this present world order and to create a new people for himself.

A. God’s judgment (24:1–23). 24:1–13. In a couple of brief strokes Isaiah presents the extent of devastation effected by God’s judgment on the earth. The whole earth lies contorted or twisted, as by an earthquake (24:1). The devastation is nondiscriminatory and complete, in accordance with the word of the Lord (24:2–3). This destruction is the result of humanity’s grievous sin against God and his covenant of preservation (24:5; cf. Gn 9:9–17). His curse rests on all of creation (24:6). Humanity has transgressed against God’s holy ordinances governing the family, morality, preservation of life, and true worship. Therefore, God’s judgment must come upon all. All have sinned; all are covenant breakers, without exception. Yet God is faithful to his promises in the Noahic and Abrahamic covenants by preserving a remnant.

The earth is compared to a city after the ravages of fire, war, and earthquake. It lies in ruins. The people left in it are the survivors of the “joy” of the past (24:11), symbolized by wine (24:7, 9). The songs of the revelers have come to an abrupt end (24:8), but a new song is being raised.

24:14–16a. The joy of the redeemed remnant is like that of redeemed Israel, just as they joined Moses in a song celebrating the glory of the Lord as king over his people (Ex 15:1–18). From one end of the earth to the other, the redeemed of Israel praise the Righteous One. Jews and Gentiles together constitute the blessed remnant.

24:16b–23. Isaiah returns again to the theme of universal judgment. The prophet represents all God’s children, yearning for the day of redemption and yet fearing the momentary expression of God’s great wrath on earth (24:16b). It is a day full of “panic, pit, and trap” (24:17), from which no one can escape. It is like a violent earthquake and a universal flood similar to Noah’s flood (24:18–20). All powers, spirits, demons, and forces of evil will be cast out of heaven and imprisoned in a “dungeon” (24:21–22; cf. 2 Pt 2:4; Rv 19:20–21; 20:10). Then the kingdom of God will be established with great triumph (24:23). The ultimate purpose of the judgment is that God alone may reign over this earth. [Zion]

The picture of the Lord reigning from Mount Zion and sharing his glory with all of his elders in Is 24:23 anticipates the visions of the apostle John, as he describes the glory of the Lamb on his throne, surrounded by the elders (Rv 4:10; 5:8–14).

B. The redemption of God’s people (25:1–26:6). 25:1–5. The prophet’s song of thanksgiving celebrates God’s victory over the enemies of his people as if it has already taken place (25:1). He is a refuge for his needy people in any age (25:5). Regardless of the exigencies of the present and the uncertainty of the future, the godly hold fast to their faithful God (25:3). The righteous are exhorted to look forward to the downfall of the capitals of the kingdoms of this world, namely, the centers of political and economic power, where ruthless tyrants rule (25:2). Isaiah provides a glimpse into God’s perspective of history as an assurance to the godly that the Lord protects his people regardless of the intensity of their adversities. He will bring down evil and provoke their enemies to jealousy.

25:6–8. The Lord invites all obedient nations (24:14–16; 25:3) together with the Jews to a banquet on Mount Zion (25:6; cf. 24:23). God himself has prepared a rich banquet of the finest food and drink in order to celebrate his goodness. Since it is the godly who have been the helpless and needy (25:4), the eschatological banquet is described in the language of comfort and assurance. The Lord will take care of his people by providing for all their needs, a fact symbolized by the choice food and drink. He will also remove “the shroud” of mourning as he deals with “death” and its causes. The heavenly Father himself will comfort his children by wiping away their tears (25:7–8; cf. Rv 7:17; 21:4).

25:9–10a. Then God’s children will respond with thanksgiving and confidence in God’s saving power. True to character, Isaiah suddenly bursts out in hymns as he reflects on the great salvation and permanent establishment of God’s kingdom (24:21–23; 25:6–8; 26:1–6). God’s children wait for divine deliverance (25:9).

25:10b–12. Moab is symbolic of all of the nations. This may be inferred from the connection between this section and the section that described the ruthless nations and the palaces of the strangers (25:1–5). Though Moab has not been Israel’s greatest enemy, it too will be brought down. It will be trampled like straw being trampled down in manure (25:10b). Though its inhabitants will try to save themselves, they will fail. God has purposed to bring down Moab’s pride (25:11).

26:1–6. The song of the redeemed is not merely a song of thanksgiving but a celebration of trust in God, whose “city” of salvation will be glorious (26:1; cf. Ps 46). The godly community awaits the moment of their redemption. In this section Isaiah addresses those who trust in the Lord (26:4), encouraging them to wait in hiding for a little while until the Lord completes his judgment on the wicked.

The new song on the lips of the godly is a song of trust in the Lord, who protects his people as if they were in “a strong city” surrounded by “walls and ramparts” (26:1). God saves the inhabitants of his city, and Isaiah here describes those inhabitants as “righteous” and “faithful” (26:2). The humble will be raised, while the proud and the oppressors will be brought low (26:5–6). The “old” people had a history of faithlessness and apostasy; the inhabitants of the “strong city” must be a people of integrity and loyalty. God will reward these people with his peace (26:3–4).

C. A prayer for God’s people (26:7–21). Isaiah further describes the nature of the people of God. He is aware that it may be a long time before God’s purposes are fully realized on earth. In order to encourage the godly community to persevere in righteousness and faithfulness, he offers a prayer of wisdom, confidence, and petition.

26:7–10. Isaiah prays that God’s people may be wise. Wisdom is the mark of godliness in the OT, as it expresses dependency on God and his word. At the same time, however, it is not a slavish dependency in which the godly wait for the Lord to approve every decision they make. They walk in accordance with his judgments with a constant desire for God and with the hope that the nations will do God’s will on earth (26:8–9). Isaiah prays that godly wisdom may triumph over evildoers (26:10).

26:11–15. Isaiah also expresses confidence in the Lord, who will show his zeal for his people when he establishes peace for them (26:11–12). He will punish the wicked, who have no share in God’s redemption, but will “expand” his people and extend their borders (26:14–15). He raises up his own people and will rule over them exclusively.

26:16–19. Isaiah prays that the time of distress will soon pass and that, out of the suffering, the Lord may raise up a new people. God alone can initiate the era of restoration, and those who share in it will “awake and sing” (26:19).

26:20–21. The Lord responds to the prayer with the assurance that he will avenge Israel’s enemies because of their sins. Even though the bloodshed has seemingly been covered up, justice will prevail (26:21). The Lord will reveal everything that has been hidden. He encourages the godly to wait until his purposes for this present world have been fulfilled (26:20).

D. Deliverance of Israel (27:1–13). 27:1. God will finally give a death blow to “Leviathan” (27:1), symbolic of the rebellious heavenly host (27:1–13; cf. 24:21). The OT uses the language of Canaanite mythology in order to express God’s control over evil, chaos, and rebellion. The NT also employs this symbolic language (Rv 12:7–10). Leviathan is the master of the sea, whose punishment marks the end of rebellion in heaven and on earth.

27:2–6. Isaiah develops his vineyard poem (5:1–7) into an eschatological picture (27:2). Though the vineyard has been destroyed because of its utter worthlessness, God remains faithful to his people. Because the leaders were responsible for the ruined vineyard (3:14), the Lord himself assumes responsibility for its care. He watches, waters, and protects it (27:3). He will make war against anyone (“thorns and briers,” 27:4) who opposes his people. He prevents those conditions he has previously permitted to ruin the vineyard (5:6). He is not angry but desires reconciliation with even hostile opponents (27:5).

His purpose for the vineyard is success on a grand scale. The root must be well established before the blossoms will produce their fruit in “the whole world” (27:6). The kingdom of God gradually extends as God’s new people are grafted in. These new people are expected to conform to God’s justice and righteousness.

27:7–11. These verses, which are obscure and intrusive, are best regarded as a reflection on suffering. The Lord cleanses his people by exile and judgment (27:8). They must abandon idolatry and return to the Lord (27:9). Even so, God does not kill off his people as he did his opponents, whose “fortified city will be desolate” (27:10). Outside the walls, their farms are so devastated by drought that tree branches are used to kindle fires (27:11).

27:12–13. Nothing can hinder the return of the tribes of Israel from Egypt and Assyria, because the Lord himself has ordained it. This is his harvest (27:12; cf. Rv 14:15). The “great trumpet” (ram’s horn) ushers in the eschatological kingdom, when the restoration takes place (27:13). The prophet uses the language of inclusion and welcome as he refers to the borders from the Euphrates to the Wadi of Egypt (Wadi El Arish, fifty miles southwest of Gaza), from where people will come to worship the Lord on Mount Zion.

This word found partial fulfillment in the restoration from exile (539 BC). The NT extends the symbolism to God’s worldwide harvest, when Jesus returns (Mt 24:31; 1 Co 15:52; 1 Th 4:16). The trumpet blast marks the end of humanity’s rule and the introduction of the full reign of God on earth.

4. ORACLES OF WOE (28:1–33:24)

The material in these chapters is loosely connected by the repetition of “woe” (28:1; 29:1, 15; 30:1; 31:1; 33:1) and seems to date to the period of Judah’s troubles with Assyria, during the reign of Hezekiah.

A. Ephraim (28:1–29). 28:1–4. This section comes from a time before the fall of Samaria when the enemy of Israel was already on the horizon. Assyria is likened to a storm (28:2). Imagery of overflowing water is also found in Is 8, where the prophet describes the coming judgment on Israel and Aram. The northern kingdom is likened to a “fading flower” (28:1) because the beautiful and fertile valleys characteristic of Ephraim would soon be overrun by Assyrian troops.

The agricultural advantages of the northern kingdom were significant. It had excellent soil, large valleys, and finely terraced hills on which the people were able to farm and enjoy their olive groves. With all these advantages, the people had become independent and proud. Even as the wind and rain had given economic prosperity to the northern kingdom, God’s judgment, likened to wind and rain, would destroy Ephraim. The freely given covenant blessings did not elicit an appropriate response from Ephraim. The beauty of Ephraim, like a ripe fig, will be enjoyed by foreigners (28:4).

28:5–6. In contrast to the self-exalting pride of Ephraim, the Lord will establish his glorious kingdom of justice and strength. The nobles of Ephraim cannot protect the people because of their drunken stupor (28:3), but the Lord will protect and strengthen the remnant that survives in Judah. The enemy will be stopped, and kingship and theocracy will continue there by divine decree.

28:7–10. Judah’s status was no better than Ephraim’s. Even though Judah existed another 150 years after the fall of Samaria, the situation in the southern kingdom was generally no better than that in the northern kingdom. For this reason Isaiah strongly condemns Judah. He accuses Judah’s leaders of drunkenness, an unteachable spirit, scoffing, and self-confidence. Jerusalem’s leaders are completely insensitive to God’s law and to the covenant. They have broken away from the Lord and are unable to lead his people back to righteousness.

Isaiah compares the beauty of Ephraim to “a ripe fig before the summer harvest” (Is 28:4).

Though the Lord is gracious in sparing Judah, the religious leaders are incapable of rendering decisions and of proclaiming the visions of God because of their drunken stupor (28:7). The prophets of whom Isaiah speaks are the false prophets called to share visions and give judgments but are unable to do so because they are prostrate in their own vomit (28:8). The leaders of God’s people are unteachable, and for this reason they have little to teach others. While sitting by their filth, they mock the prophet by asking a rhetorical question (28:9a). They think he is nothing more than a repetitious schoolteacher, speaking like a babbler who is explaining his message to babes and infants (28:9b–10). The religious leaders use repetition of sounds in verse 10 to evoke such babble, expressing the intensity of their hatred for God’s word.

28:11–13. To this mockery, Isaiah responds with God’s word of judgment, which is directly related to chief accusations the prophet has made. First, foreign enemies will come into the country and take it. As the foreign forces will be using foreign languages (28:11), the people themselves will feel like uncomprehending children. Whereas God has encouraged the people to find rest and repose for their souls (28:12), they instead will be taken into exile by the enemy. The people who have rejected the warnings of approaching judgment as unintelligible and irrelevant will hear the same message from these foreign invaders (28:13). Then, however, it will be too late, because they will be taken captive.

28:14–18. The political leaders also scoffed at the prophet. They did not believe that trust in the Lord (28:16) was the answer to Judah’s political woes. Instead, they had relied on a covenant with Egypt. The prophet facetiously calls this treaty “a covenant with Death” (28:15, 18). They firmly believed that they had power to avert the judgment, which is likened to a flood.

Set over against the false security of political alliances is the Lord, who provides a solid foundation for all who trust in him (28:16) and order their lives in accordance with his absolute standards of justice and righteousness (28:17). He, however, will not provide any refuge to those who have made foreign alliances. The confidence and scoffing of the people will turn to terror. The people put their confidence in the security of Jerusalem, their leaders, the temple of the Lord, and the priests. However, on the day of God’s judgment, they will not be able to stand, because Jerusalem will be trampled down (28:18).

28:19–22. The people themselves will go from terror by day to terror by night (28:19). That day will bring no peace or comfort. The prophet likens this to a time when the bed is too short and the blanket too small (28:20). The Lord will do a work, not to save, as he did at Mount Perazim in David’s day (28:21; cf. 2 Sm 5:20–25), but to destroy. Isaiah further exhorts the people to cease their scoffing lest the judgment of God be intensified (28:22). The decree has gone forth from the Lord God of Armies.

In 1 Pt 2:6 Jesus is identified as the cornerstone from Is 28:16, linking this verse with the cornerstone from Ps 118:22 and the stone from Is 8:14.

28:23–29. The wise farmer does not plow continuously but organizes his operation so as to have a time and place for plowing, sowing, and harvesting. Even in the process of harvesting, the farmer knows exactly which tools will obtain the desired harvest (28:23–28). So it is with God. He sovereignly and wisely administers his rule (28:29).

B. Ariel (29:1–24). The background of the prophecy against Ariel may best be found in the years preceding 701 BC. A power struggle had taken place between Sennacherib and the eastern nations, making it possible for the western nations to rebel. During these years, Hezekiah turned to Egypt for help (30:1–2; 31:1). Sennacherib was busy on the eastern front, but the alliance between Aram, Phoenicia, Judah, and Egypt made it imperative for Sennacherib to deal quickly with his eastern problems and then turn his attention to the west. During the intervening years, the people of Judah felt less threatened and were hoping for a strong political and economic resurgence. Yet Isaiah had already prophesied that Assyria was to be the instrument of God’s judgment—even on Judah (8:7–8; 10:5). But the people viewed the prophet’s words with skepticism. The future of Judah would be determined by the people and their political skills rather than by the word of God.

29:1–4. The prophet preaches the word of the Lord in these optimistic times. He addresses Jerusalem as Ariel (“Lion of God,” 29:1; see the CSB footnote), though it is uncertain why. Some scholars have proposed this may be an ancient Canaanite name for Jerusalem; others have suggested that the gates of Jerusalem may have had lions as a part of their decoration.

Isaiah first brings a woe on Jerusalem, the city where David lived and where the temple stands (29:1). In spite of its ties with the temple and David’s dynasty, God plans to bring down Jerusalem. The future of Jerusalem will be filled with distress, lament, and mourning, because God has turned against the people and surrounded them like an enemy surrounds a city (29:2–3). Isaiah describes Jerusalem in a state of humiliation, likening it to a conquered city whose inhabitants are pushed down into the dust begging for mercy from their conquerors (29:4). The voices of the dead also cry out from the dust.

29:5–8. Jerusalem will be covered by the multitude of her enemies, which are compared to fine dust or chaff (29:5). The future of Jerusalem looks bleak because God himself comes against his people, who have been enjoying security but are relying on Egypt for their survival.

The devastation, compared to thunder, loud noise, winds, tempest, and fire, is reminiscent of the Lord’s revelation on Mount Sinai (29:6; cf. Ex 19:16–19). This is a prophetic proclamation of the judgment to come on the day of the Lord.

Though God has given up Ariel to the nations, he protects the remnant of his people. The nations who rise against Judah and Jerusalem will leave empty. The prophet likens the reaction of the nations to that of a hungry or thirsty man who has dreamed of being satisfied but in the morning wakens to find he has not actually eaten or drunk (29:7–8). This will be the experience of any nation that fights against the people of God. They will have a measure of victory, but it will not last.

29:9–14. There are some who believe that the prophet’s words are meant not for them but possibly for others in another time. They are blind to the revelation of God and are like those who stagger in a drunken stupor and those who have fallen into a deep sleep that renders them unable to hear and respond to the warning of imminent judgment (29:9–10). There is a real danger in not applying the word of God to one’s own time or in lacking interest in how the word of God may be applied. [Obedience]

Assyria’s siege of Jerusalem was imminent. In 701 BC they surrounded Jerusalem after devastating the countryside of Judah and leveling her fortified cities. It was only then that the people began to see; it was too late, however. They had not responded appropriately to the prophetic message.

Isaiah concludes with a warning to the people at large (29:13–14). He again accuses them of hypocrisy (cf. chap. 1). The people come into the courts of the temple to pray and sacrifice, but their real love is not for the Lord. Their wisdom is the wisdom of this world, and at that time the wisdom of the world dictated that Jerusalem ally herself with Egypt. The wisdom of that time perished, as subsequent events have shown. God, however, calls his people to a wisdom that comes from on high. He will stun them with his wonders of judgment and devastation. The future of the people lies, therefore, not in their own scheming and planning, nor in self-confidence, but in God himself.

29:15–24. The prophet renews his proclamation of “woe” on the people who plan and scheme as if God does not know or see (29:15). The people are the clay and the Lord is the potter, but the clay is skeptical and critical of the potter’s abilities (29:16).

Thus far Isaiah has portrayed a number of the people’s reactions: apathy (29:9–10), disbelief in the relevance of the prophetic word for their time (29:11–12), formalism and hypocrisy (29:13–14), and dependence on human scheming and planning apart from God (29:15–16). Yet, however dark the day may be, God still has a message of salvation for his people. Isaiah now calls to spiritually sensitive people—those known as deaf, blind, poor, humble, and needy (29:17–19). The deaf and the blind are those who have suffered the judgment of God and now respond to his revelation. The humble and the needy are those who have experienced God’s judgment and whose hearts search for the living God. The spiritual remnant will hear the word of God, see the salvation of the Lord, and rejoice in God himself.

The focus of this section is on the work of the Lord in history. The Holy One of Israel, who destroys cruel people and oppressors (29:20–21), gives cause for joy to people who have faith in him. The promise is to the “redeemed” children of Abraham, his spiritual seed (29:22). The promises concern the work of final restoration begun in history. The Lord will transform them into a holy people who will serve him from the heart.

C. Foreign alliances (30:1–33). The background of chapters 30 and 31 lies in the diplomatic mission to the Ethiopian ruler Shabaka, who extended his rule as far as the Nile Delta. Because of the increase in Shabaka’s power, the Judean aristocracy considered the possibility of an alliance between Shabaka, Hezekiah, the Philistines, and the Phoenicians against the Assyrian king Sennacherib (705–701 BC).

30:1–7. The leadership of Judah relied on political solutions to political problems. They made every attempt to solve their problems creatively, without consulting the Lord (30:1). Instead of finding “protection” and “refuge” (30:2) in the Lord, they looked to Egypt for help against Assyria. Ultimately, however, their plan failed; Egypt used Judah to its own advantage, and Judah was disgraced (30:3–5).

The stubbornness and folly of Judah’s leaders are highlighted by the description of the desert and the caravans that traverse the desert from Judah through the Negev and the Sinai to Egypt (30:6). Isaiah describes the desert as a place filled with anguish and loneliness, a desolate area to travel. Apparently the Via Maris (or Way of the Sea), which was the usual route between Judah and Egypt, was not open because the delta was controlled by the Egyptian Saite dynasty. Thus, the best road was not available for the Judean caravans, and they had to take the more difficult desert route to Egypt, a torturous terrain filled with difficulties.

The leaders of Judah go to great pains to have a caravan laden with precious objects sent to Egypt to obtain the favor of the Egyptians for their own political purposes. But Egypt is not able to help (30:7). As it turned out, the Egyptians were defeated by Sennacherib at Eltekeh. The areas of Phoenicia, Philistia, and Judah were taken, and Jerusalem was surrounded by Sennacherib in 701 BC.

30:8–14. In 30:8–17 Isaiah returns to the theme of rebelliousness. Judah has been rebellious against God for some time, rejecting both his law and his prophet. In order to remind the future generations, Isaiah is commanded to write on a tablet the testimony of God against Israel and Judah (30:8). The history of Israel and Judah is incriminating evidence against the people. They have been called to be the Lord’s people, but in essence they are false sons who have not responded appropriately (30:9).

Isaiah’s words are a testimony to those who hate the word of God and thereby the Holy One of Israel (30:10–11). God’s word becomes for them a word of judgment. If they persist in their self-reliance, they will suffer a sudden fall. They are like a wall that has been standing for a long time but already shows evidence of weakness by a protrusion. The wall may stand for many years but will suddenly cave in; so will Judah (30:12–13).

Israel is also like a piece of pottery (30:14). A potter’s jar may be beautiful and may function very well. When shattered, however, it is of no use. One cannot even use the sherds to take coals of fire from the hearth or to dip water from a pool.

30:15–17. Before destruction comes upon Judah, Isaiah calls on the people to return to the Holy One of Israel (30:15). Salvation lies not in heroic acts but rather in repentance and trust in God. Faith and repentance are requisites for true salvation. Instead of turning to God, Judah has shown a history of unwillingness to return, responding instead by relying on horses and military power (30:16). Since they are intent on rejecting the Lord’s gracious invitation, he deals with the people accordingly. They rely on horses; in their haste they will have to flee as though they are on horses.

Instead of experiencing God’s blessing, whereby a thousand enemy troops are routed by one Israelite, they will experience the opposite—the entire nation fleeing from a handful of enemy troops (30:17). The grace of God is still evident in the remnant that will remain. They will be like a small military outpost—a flagstaff on a mountaintop or a banner on a hill. Few will be left, but there will still be some to whom the Lord will continue to show his grace.

30:18–26. The first effect of God’s grace is that the sorrow of the people will be removed (30:18). Those who have been weeping and crying because of their great distress are assured that God will answer their prayers and will heal all their hurts (30:19). The Lord comes to heal the wounds of his people and to assure their well-being—physical as well as spiritual (30:20). Another way Isaiah describes the grace of God on his people is by delineating his blessings. The grace of God is free. How different is God’s guidance (30:21); he leads his people into the way that leads to blessing! In the land God blesses, there will no longer be any evidence of idolatry (30:22).

Isaiah poetically describes the blessings of rain and sun (30:23–26). This combination makes it possible for crops to grow and produce abundantly, for animals to roam and be satisfied, and for people to have plenty of bread and water.

30:27–33. Isaiah returns to the theme of God’s justice with respect to his enemies. The enemies of whom he is speaking are the Assyrians in particular, but Isaiah’s words may be applied to all the enemies of God’s people.

First, Isaiah describes the greatness of God’s wrath. He comes in burning anger, symbolized by smoke and fire, in order to completely wipe out the enemy. Fire, wind, and flood (30:27–28a, 30–31) are the prophet’s favorite metaphors for the wrath of the Lord. The nations are put into a sieve and shaken back and forth so that the wicked might be removed (30:28b). Isaiah also likens God’s judgment to “a bridle” that leads the people to their destiny. None of the wicked will remain. The destiny of the nations is also described as the destruction of the wicked in the Valley of Topheth, south of Jerusalem (30:33). Here the Lord will set up piles of wood on which the bodies of the enemies of his people will be placed, and with the breath of his mouth he will set these stacks of wood aflame.

The destruction of the wicked is cause for joy among the people of God, who have been suffering under the ruthless power of their enemies. They are portrayed as singing in the night as during the days of a festival. They will be glad, and not afraid, because their faith is in the Rock of Israel (30:29). There will be ritual rejoicing as they make music with their tambourines, lyres, and other instruments. They cannot help God in his war against the enemies; it is his war. Instead, they must wait quietly with assurance that when God is finished with his enemies, the victory will also belong to them.

D. Judgment and hope (31:1–32:20). 31:1–3. Isaiah charges Judah’s leaders with seeking autonomy by depending on Egypt’s military superiority (31:1). In the ancient world, superiority generally belonged to those kings who had a great number of horses and chariots. In order to fight military power with military power, Judah relied on the force Egypt would be able to provide against the great power of Assyria. It became proverbial in Judah that the opposite of reliance on the Lord was the reliance on horses and chariots (cf. Ps 20:7).

Isaiah calls on the people to look to the Holy One of Israel for wisdom and help. If they do not, his wisdom will turn against them, and his hand will destroy both his enemies and all who do not lean on him (31:2–3). The people must remember that all who do not look to God for their protection have abandoned the Holy One of Israel, who is powerful to put down human inventiveness and all the powers that oppose him.

31:4–9. The Lord can protect his people! The prophet likens him to a lion, intent on getting his prey even when many shepherds make a loud noise to scare him off, and to fluttering birds, intent on scaring away a would-be intruder to protect their young in the nest (31:4–5). The Lord is strong like a lion as he destroys the enemies and caring like a bird as he protects Judah.

In order to assure themselves of God’s protection, the people must respond with willing submission and repentance (31:6). The future belongs to those who repent by returning to the Lord in faith and turning from paganism (31:7).

Isaiah describes the effect of God’s anger on the Assyrians (31:8). They will fall by God’s decree and not by the sword of man, and the young men will become forced laborers. The Lord’s wrath, symbolized by “fire” and “furnace” (31:9), is in Jerusalem. He has a purpose for Jerusalem and will not permit it to fall.

Isaiah pronounces woe on those who trust in horses and chariots (Is 31:1). The acquisition of horses and chariots expanded under Solomon, even though Dt 17:16 forbids the king to hold great numbers of horses.

© Petr Fryba.

32:1–8. The future age will be characterized by righteousness and justice (32:1). The king, leaders, and people will be concerned with the pursuit of wisdom from above. The wise man is blessed in that he represents God’s blessedness (32:2). No longer will God’s people be characterized by deafness and blindness, but all will hear, see, and act in accordance with the word of God (32:3–4). They will hasten to do his will on the earth in contrast to the past, when they hastened to do their own will.

In their pursuit of godly wisdom, they will hate folly and wickedness (32:5–8). The wise person pursues what is noble (i.e., godly wisdom). The wise people of God will no longer take their counsel in accordance with earthly standards and be primarily concerned with earthly matters, but rather they will have new standards and concern about the things that pertain to God himself.

32:9–14. The “complacent women” are characterized by being overconfident in the future (32:9). They seem to be happy with the way things are, when they should be beating their breasts, trembling, dressed in sackcloth, and troubled because of the thorns and briers that rob the land of productivity (32:10–13). The women of Jerusalem are sitting back in ease while sin destroys the fruit of righteousness and bankrupts the city, leaving her abandoned and forsaken (32:14).

32:15–20. Isaiah now returns to the description of the era of righteousness. The only way in which folly will change to wisdom and the devastation of the land to blessedness is by a divinely ordered transformation. Restoration is the work of the Spirit, bringing about a return of the blessings of God on his people and on the earth (32:15a). The creation will be renewed, wisdom enthroned, righteousness established, and peace restored to the people of God (32:15b–18). The wise will experience the blessings of God in every area of their lives (32:20).

E. Distress and help (33:1–24). 33:1–6. God’s judgment rests on those who have enjoyed absolute power in this world (33:1). Because they have caused great devastation on this earth, they must answer to the Lord. When he comes he will sound a loud battle cry to avenge himself on the nations (33:3).

This judgment on the ungodly is in response to the prayer of the godly. The godly have been asking for God’s grace to appear to them (33:2) because they have been suffering while ruthless hordes were controlling the world. Their hope has been that God’s strength might be revealed to them in salvation. The Lord comes as King (33:5), seated on his throne of judgment to dispense justice and righteousness. The benefits of God’s rule for his people are many: salvation, a firm foundation, and wisdom (33:6). The godly experience salvation and practice wisdom and knowledge in the fear of the Lord.

33:7–16. Isaiah shows that the benefits of the messianic kingdom will be limited to the godly. The enemies of the kingdom from both within and without will be destroyed. For this reason, the prophet addresses the men of Ariel (33:7).

The proud cry because their plots have been frustrated. They have not been able to avert the very thing that they feared. The highways will become desolate, the judicial processes will be interrupted, and the land will be devastated by enemies (33:8–9).

The Lord will arise in judgment (33:10). The works of the godless will consist of little more than “chaff” and “stubble” (33:11). All their selfish efforts within the covenant community will be burned up (33:12). Who, then, can come through the consuming fire (33:14)? Only those who have walked righteously and have spoken uprightly and have hated bribery and oppression (33:15; cf. Pss 15:1–5; 24:3–5). The godly will receive protection and provision from the Lord (33:16).

33:17–24. The godly will see not only the Lord’s coming in great vengeance and fury to judge the wicked but also the glory of God in its full and radiant beauty (33:17). The realm of God’s rule will be extended, but there will be no place for the wicked in his kingdom (33:18–19). Zion, the city of God, will be full of peace like a river where no hostile ships can sail (33:20–21).

The Lord, the majestic one, will be for his people and will provide for them a river of life (33:21; cf. Rv 22:1). The songs of Zion celebrate the glory, beauty, and rivers (or springs) found in the city of Zion. God will be present as the King, Judge, and Lawgiver of his people (33:22). He will rule, guide, and teach his people so they will know how to live in his presence. The new age will bring renewal and a deep awareness of forgiveness (33:24).

5. CATACLYSMIC JUDGMENT (34:1–17)

Again Isaiah returns to the theme of God’s anger against the world. God’s judgment will effect complete destruction, leaving the world uninhabited.

34:1–4. In powerful language Isaiah calls on all nations, who are the object of the Lord’s anger, to hear the word of God (34:1). The judgment is likened to a great slaughter or sacrifice (34:2). On the earth, the slain will be everywhere; corpses will stink and blood will cover the mountains (34:3). In the heavens, constellations will disappear (34:4).

34:5–17. Isaiah focuses on Edom as representative of the nations. The Lord’s judgment on Edom will be similar to what he will do to the whole world. Edom is under what is often referred to as the “ban” of the Lord (34:5). The term “ban” (Hb herem) expresses God’s decree to destroy a people for his own purposes (“set apart for destruction”) (see comments on Dt 2:31–37 and the article “Holy War in the Old Testament” later in Deuteronomy). The sword will pierce Edom and fill the country with blood, as though a great sacrifice has taken place (34:6–7). The day of God’s judgment is the day of vengeance on his enemies and of the vindication of his people (34:8).

After the destruction of its people and animals, the land itself will become worthless and desolate forever because of the brimstone and pitch that will cover it (34:9–10). It will revert to a wilderness with thorns and nettles, a place fit only for wild animals (34:11–15).

All things will be subject to God’s judgment. When the Lord comes in judgment, there will be no way of escaping. Yet there is the promise that those who belong to the Lord are heirs of the new age.