CSB Baker Illustrated Study Bible

Famine Famine was the most devastating catastrophe to an agrarian society. Caused by drought, crop failure, or siege (Ru 1:1–2; 2 Kg 25), it often was accompanied by disease or war, which in turn brought adversity to many levels of society (Jr 14:12; Mt 24:7).

Dependence on rainfall caused some people to stockpile in anticipation of possible famine. In Egypt, Joseph implemented a grain ration that saved the people, supplied seed, and filled Pharaoh’s royal storehouses (Gn 41:33–36; 47:23–24). Israel’s own temple contained storerooms (1 Ch 26:15; Neh 10:38–39). God used famine to encourage obedience from the Israelites (Dt 11:17; 28:33) and as divine judgment upon them (Lv 26:14–20; Jr 29:17–18; Ezk 6:11–12), and God’s blessings on the nation included its being free from famine (Ezk 34:29; 36:29–30).

Famines are also mentioned in the NT (Lk 4:25; Ac 7:11 [historical]; 11:27–30 [contemporary]). Jesus taught that famines would be a sign of his coming. Yet, without ignoring physical food, Jesus highlighted the spiritual hunger and thirst of people (Mt 5:6; Jn 4:14, 34; 7:37–38). Because eating is part of fellowship, heaven will merely remove the desperation of hunger, not the use of food (Lk 22:15–16; Rv 19:9).

Fasting The only command to fast appears in the instructions regarding the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:29, 31; Nm 29:7), although “practice self-denial” here implies more than abstaining from food. Fasting, often linked with prayer, is one avenue of appeal to God in the face of crises, both national and personal. Moses ascends to Mount Sinai and is with God forty days and nights without eating bread or drinking water, both before and after the Israelites’ sin with the golden calf (Ex 34:28; Dt 9:8–18). David fasts when his son is dying (2 Sm 12:15–23). Esther calls all the Jews of Susa to fast for three days before she ventures before the king (Est 4:15–17). Joel calls the people to repentance and fasting as the land is devastated by a locust plague (Jl 1:13–14; 2:12). Forty days of fasting, an echo of Moses’s experience, prepare Jesus to face the devil’s temptations (Mt 4:1–11).

The Israelites, however, presume that their religious obligation is met simply by fasting (Is 58:2–5). When asked why his disciples do not fast and pray, Jesus indicates that sometimes fasting is inappropriate (Mt 9:14–17). Fasting is appropriate on special occasions (cf. Jl 1:13–14), but ceremonial or required fasts can become a burdensome ritual with no real spiritual motivation (Zch 7:1–7). God is pleased instead with mercy and justice (Zch 7:8–10; Is 58:6–8).

Fellowship Offering The fellowship offering (Hb shelamim; Lv 3:1–17; 7:11–36) has traditionally been called the “peace offering,” as the term shelamim is related to shalom, “peace, wholeness.” This offering most likely indicates that the worshiper is at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’s relationships are whole. Classified into three types, it could be used to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, or simply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God out of free will. Only those who make a vow are required to offer a fellowship offering; the other forms are optional. The worshiper brings a male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, lays a hand on its head, and slaughters it. The priest sprinkles its blood on the sides of the altar and burns the fat surrounding the major organs.

Firepan A container for burning incense. In ancient Israel, firepans (or censers) were bronze or gold vessels used to carry live coals to light fires for tabernacle and temple worship. Powdered incense was burned on the live coals. Their use (or misuse) sometimes signified holy or unholy behavior (Lv 10:1–7; 16:12; Nm 16).

Firstborn The first child born to a married couple. In the OT it most commonly refers to the first male child, upon whom special privileges are bestowed. The OT describes some of the privileges associated with being the firstborn son: he receives a double portion of the inheritance (a privilege codified in the law in Dt 21:17), the paternal blessing (Gn 27; 48:17–19), and other examples of favoritism (e.g., Gn 43:33). The importance ascribed to the firstborn is also attested in the legislative requirement that the firstborn—people, animals, and produce—belong to the Lord (Lv 27:26; Dt 15:19; and of people, note Nm 3:12–13), so stressing his primacy over Israel.

“Firstborn” language is also used figuratively in the OT. It is used of Israel as God’s firstborn in Ex 4:22–23, wherein Pharaoh’s failure to release God’s firstborn results in the destruction of Egypt’s firstborn. God also declares the Davidic king to be his firstborn son in Ps 89:27, highlighting the special favor that the king would enjoy. “Firstborn” language can also be used figuratively to describe anything that receives a greater share, such as “death’s firstborn” in Jb 18:13 and “the firstborn of the poor” in Is 14:30.

Somewhat surprisingly, God does not adhere to the significance of primogeniture (that is, the right of inheritance belonging to the eldest son), frequently bestowing his favor on those who are not firstborn: Abel over Cain, Isaac over Ishmael, Jacob over Esau, Joseph and Judah over Reuben, Ephraim over Manasseh, Moses over Aaron, David over his brothers, and Solomon over Adonijah.

The NT presupposes an understanding of the significance of the firstborn. Jesus is specifically identified as Mary’s firstborn (Lk 2:7, 23). However, the description extends beyond mere notions of human primogeniture when Jesus is described as “firstborn over all creation” (Col 1:15) and “firstborn from the dead” (Col 1:18; cf. Rv 1:5). These phrases, in line with figurative use of “firstborn” language in the OT, express Jesus’s privileged place in both creation and the new creation.

Firstfruits The earliest ripening produce of the harvest (Ex 23:16; Neh 10:35) or, more generally, the highest-quality portion of any produce or manufactured commodity (Nm 15:20).

The first fruit of the harvest is a symbol and harbinger of God’s blessing. Thus, God commands that sacrifices take place in which the “best firstfruits” are offered to him in thanksgiving and praise (Ex 34:26; cf. Lv 23:17; Nm 18:12–13; Dt 26:2). The same principle applies to manufactured goods (Dt 18:4). These offerings are accompanied by feasts and festivals (Ex 23:16). Such ceremonial worship takes on renewed importance in the return from the exile, where they are connected to God’s worldwide rule and his claim on the firstborn (Neh 10:35–37; cf. Ex 13:2–16).

Paul uses this OT background to metaphorically describe the resurrection, God’s final “harvest” of the earth. Jesus Christ, by virtue of his resurrection from the dead, is “the firstfruits of those who have fallen asleep” (1 Co 15:20; cf. Rm 8:29). The resurrection of Christ is the guarantee of an abundant harvest to come, in which those united to Jesus will be similarly raised into abundant life. There is therefore a two-part order to a single resurrection harvest: “Christ, the firstfruits; afterward, at his coming, those who belong to Christ” (1 Co 15:23).

Furthermore, since Jesus’s own resurrection has already taken place, believers, who are sealed with Christ through the firstfruits of the Spirit, enjoy now a foretaste of the abundant life to come (Rm 8:23; cf. 2 Co 1:22; 5:5). Believers are therefore encouraged to live as those who have been born again by faith, “that we would be a kind of firstfruits of his creatures” (Jms 1:18). Similarly, Paul sometimes uses the term “firstfruits” to describe the first converts in a region (1 Co 16:15; cf. Rm 16:5), symbolizing the expectation of fruitful ministry and the intimation of worldwide salvation.

Flood Recounted in Gn 6:5–9:17, the flood is the event whereby God destroys all creatures except for Noah, his family, and a gathering of animals. The account is highly literary and God centered. Noah’s obedience is highlighted (Gn 7:5, 9, 16). God is the protagonist, and Noah remains silent.

In Gn 6:5–22, God observes the grand scale of human wickedness, determines to destroy all life, and selects righteous Noah to build an ark. God’s “seeing” is judicial investigation (6:5, 11) that counters the sons of God who “saw” (Gn 6:2), just as his pained heart counters humankind’s wicked heart (Gn 6:5–6). God then pronounces a judicial sentence (Gn 6:7; cf. 3:15–19), affecting all life in the domain of human care (Gn 1:28; cf. Jb 38:41; Ps 36:6; Hs 4:3; Jl 1:20).

The earth’s corruption and violence (Gn 6:12–13) reflect a spectrum of evil that has despoiled a creation that was once “very good” (Gn 1:31; cf. 6:17; 7:21; 8:17; 9:11). God’s destruction responds to the moral corruption of the earth. The ark is a rectangular vessel designed for floating rather than sailing (Gn 6:14–15). Noah builds a microcosm of the earth to save its life. The boat’s window-like openings and three decks reflect the cosmology of Gn 1 (heavens, water, earth [cf. Gn 6:16]). God makes a promise that Noah will survive and receive a covenant from God (Gn 6:18), fulfilled in the Noahic covenant following the flood (Gn 9:9, 11, 14–17).

Genesis 7:1–24 recounts the boarding of the ark and then the rising waters. Two numbering systems are used by the narrator in the flood narrative: one for dates of Noah’s age (day, month, year) and one for periods between flood stages. Both systems number between 365 and 370 days. The flood is portrayed as a reversal of the second and third days of creation. Watery boundaries that God once separated collapse (cf. Gn 1:6–10). The rising flood is described in three phases: rising and lifting the ark (Gn 7:17), increasing greatly and floating the ark on the surface (Gn 7:18), and covering all the high mountains (Gn 7:19). Total destruction is amplified by reversing the order of creation—people, animals, birds (Gn 7:23)—with “all/every” occurring repeatedly in Gn 7:21–23.

Genesis 8:1–22 recounts the disembarking and Noah’s sacrifice. Genesis 8:1 is the structural and theological center, with God fulfilling (= “remembered”) his covenant promise for Noah’s safety. As the waters recede, the ark comes to rest on a mountain. The earth’s drying occurs as a process (Gn 8:3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 14), and echoes of creation reappear (e.g., “wind” [Gn 8:1; cf. Gn 1:2]). Although the old curse is not lifted (cf. Gn 5:29), God promises not to add to it (Gn 8:21). The flood has not reformed the human heart; it has only stopped the violence. God’s oath of restoration reaffirms the seamless rhythm of seasons that compose a full year (Gn 8:22).

Genesis 9:1–17 recounts the restoration of world order. Since murder was part of the preflood violence (Gn 6:11, 13), God’s law recalibrates earthly morality (Gn 9:5). God’s second postflood speech encodes his plan for the broader preservation of creation (Gn 9:8–17). “My bow” is God’s confirming sign (Gn 9:13). The meteorological phenomenon of the storm is now harnessed as an image of peace. The cosmic warrior “hangs up” his bow in divine disarmament. Humankind now shares the responsibility of justice with God, illustrated in Noah’s first speech of cursing and blessing (Gn 9:20–27).

Food Sacrificed to Idols Animal offerings to pagan deities. Consumption of this meat was prohibited for Gentile converts by the Jerusalem Council (Ac 15:29; 21:25) because it was linked to pagan worship, especially when combined with sexual immorality (cf. Ezk 18:5–6, 15; 22:9; Rv 2:14, 20). However, the ban eventually created problems for Christians (e.g., dining out), as most meat markets in the Greco-Roman world obtained their inventory from local temples (1 Co 8; 10:18–33; cf. Rm 14:21). Paul therefore modified the teaching by upholding the prohibition in cases where eating the meat violated one’s conscience, harmed Christian witness, or caused a weaker Christian to stumble, but relaxing it in cases where partaking was a social courtesy or otherwise separated from pagan practice.

Sea of Galilee A large, freshwater lake in the northern, Galilee region of Israel measuring 13 miles long, 8 miles wide, and between 80 and 150 feet deep. Because it is shaped like a harp, the OT refers to it as the “Sea of Chinnereth,” which comes from the Hebrew word for “harp” (Nm 34:11; Jos 13:27; cf. Dt 3:17; Jos 19:35). It is also called “Lake Gennesaret” (Lk 5:1) which derives from the lush Plain of Gennesaret nearby (Mt 14:34; Mk 6:53), and the “Sea of Tiberias,” which comes from the name of the most prominent city on its banks (Jn 6:1; 21:1).

The Sea of Galilee is located about sixty miles north of Jerusalem and is fed by the Jordan River. It is surrounded by mountain peaks and cliffs, except on the southern side, where the Jordan River flows out of it. These peaks form a valley and make for strong, frequent, and unexpected storms as the Mediterranean winds blow down the western slopes and swirl across the sea. Jesus demonstrates his power over nature as he calms such violent storms (Mt 14:22–33; Mk 6:45–51; Jn 6:16–21).

The Sea of Galilee boasted a large fishing industry, which provided the ideal location for Jesus to call his first disciples, who were fishermen (Mk 1:16–20). Much of Jesus’s ministry in the Synoptic Gospels takes place in the towns around the Sea of Galilee. The sea provides an abundance of fishing illustrations (Mt 13:48) and lessons on discipleship. Its shore provides a convenient location for the feeding of the five thousand (Mt 14:13–21; Mk 6:35–44; Lk 9:10–17; Jn 6:1–13). After Jesus’s resurrection, his disciples briefly return to fishing on this lake, resulting in a miraculous catch of fish (Jn 21:11).

Garden of Eden This primeval garden is the setting of the story of the creation in Gn 2 and the fall in Gn 3. Although numerous attempts have been made to identify its intended location (Turkey, North Africa, the Persian Gulf), the information we can glean from the references to Eden, the rivers that flow from it, and the regions they encompass is insufficient for locating Eden in relation to known geography. It is simply “in the east” (Gn 2:8).

The garden of Eden is portrayed as in a mountainous region (Ezk 28:13–14). Four rivers flow from it: the Pishon and the Gihon, which are unknown, and the Tigris and the Euphrates in Mesopotamia (Gn 2:10–14). This may be compared with other ancient Near Eastern portrayals of rivers flowing from the mountain dwelling of the gods.

The name Eden may be connected with a Hebrew word for “luxury, delight,” though another suggestion is that it derives from a Sumerian word meaning “steppe, plain.” The garden in Eden is also referred to as “the LORD’S garden” (Gn 13:10; Is 51:3) or the “garden of God” (Ezk 28:13; 31:8–9), or (in a visionary reappearance) as “paradise,” from a Persian word for “garden” (Rv 2:7).

The garden is depicted as a sanctuary or holy space (Ezk 28:14) into which humanity is invited on God’s terms to act as God’s agents. It contains the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the tree of life (Gn 2:9).

As a picture of fertility, Eden holds out the prospect of a reversal from a desolate state (Is 51:3).

Gehenna A Latin and Greek derivation of the Hebrew place name “Hinnom Valley” (Neh 11:30), the deep ravine on the southern end of the ancient city of Jerusalem. It was also called the “Ben Hinnom Valley” (Jr 19:2) and was the northern boundary of Judah from the time of the conquest (Jos 15:8; 18:16). It became a name of infamy because pagan cultic places were located there during the time of the later monarchy (2 Kg 23:10; 2 Ch 28:3; 33:6; Jr 7:31; 32:35), where children were sacrificed to Molek and Baal. Jeremiah renames it the “Valley of Slaughter” (Jr 7:32; 19:5–6).

In later Jewish writings, Gehenna became a metaphor for the fiery punishment that was the lot of the wicked on the day of judgment. This is reflected in NT usage (Mt 5:22, 29–30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33), where the term is often translated as “hell.” The fact that this word is repeatedly found on the lips of Jesus (cf. Mk 9:43, 45, 47; Lk 12:5) means that this teaching cannot be dismissed as inconsistent with loving concern for the sinner facing punishment. Outside the Synoptic Gospels, Gehenna appears in the NT only in Jms 3:6 as part of his teaching on controlling the tongue.

General Revelation God’s communication of himself to all peoples at all times and in all places by which they may know of his existence, some of his attributes, and something of his moral law. General revelation has four modes: the created order (Rm 1:18–25), the human conscience or internal moral sense (Rm 2:12–16), God’s providential care (Ac 14:8–18), and an innate sense of God (Ac 17:22–31). The intended response to general revelation is worship, thanksgiving, submission, and obedience to God. People actually respond with idolatry, disobedience, and self-reliance. This failed response results in God’s righteous judgment falling on rebellious people.

Gibeah A town located within the borders of the tribe of Benjamin. Gibeah is infamous as the setting where the men of the city rape and murder the concubine of a Levite who has lodged in the city for the night. In response to this brutal act, an army of Israelites from all the other tribes engage in battle against Gibeah and the Benjaminites, killing all but six hundred men and burning the city (Jdg 19–20). Hosea refers to these events when he compares the sins of Israel in his time to the depravity of Gibeah (Hs 9:9; 10:9).

Gibeah is the hometown of Saul (1 Sm 10:26; 15:34; Is 10:29), and as such it plays a central role during his reign (1 Sm 11:1–5; 13–14). Later, David hands over some of Saul’s sons and grandsons to the Gibeonites to be hanged in Gibeah in retaliation for Saul’s misdeeds (2 Sm 21:5–6). The final biblical references to Gibeah appear in Isaiah and Hosea in connection with the impending invasion of Assyria (Is 10:29; Hs 5:8).

Two additional towns in the Bible are named Gibeah: a town located within the borders of the tribe of Judah (Jos 15:57) and a town in the hill country of Ephraim that is given to Phinehas, the son of Eleazar and the grandson of Aaron (Jos 24:33).

Gibeon The town of Gibeon has been located at the site of el-Jib, about five and a half miles north of Jerusalem. Gibeon guarded an important crossroad between the main thoroughfare running east up into the hills from the coastal plain and the main road running north to Bethel and south to Jerusalem. The town lies within the territory of the tribe of Benjamin, although it likely did not become part of Benjamin until after the beginning of the monarchy. Because of its strategic location between Bethel and Jerusalem, Gibeon was the site of numerous battles between the northern and southern kingdoms.

Gibeon first appears in the Bible when the Gibeonites pretend to be foreigners from far away and trick Joshua into a peace treaty (Jos 9:3–10:15). Gibeon factors in several events during the lives of Saul, David, and Solomon. Gibeon is also the site of several events in Absalom’s revolt against David. Gibeon also is an important high place in the early monarchy. The tabernacle is situated in Gibeon for some time (1 Ch 16:39). God twice appears to Solomon at Gibeon (1 Kg 3:4–15 // 2 Ch 1:2–13; 1 Kg 9:2–9). Gibeon is recorded as one of the cities captured by Shishak during his campaign against Israel shortly after the death of Solomon.

Although Gibeon is rarely mentioned after the partition of the kingdom, the archaeological data suggest that the city was a vital economic asset during the entire monarchy. Gibeon is also the site of the assassination of Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed Jewish governor after the destruction of Jerusalem. Some Gibeonites who were taken to Babylon during the exile return with Nehemiah to help him build Jerusalem’s wall (Neh 3:7–8).

Gihon A spring located southeast of Jerusalem’s Old City. It lies on the eastern perimeter of the city of David in the modern village of Silwan. The Gihon spring was the primary source of water for Jerusalem in ancient times. Archaeological evidence suggests that the spring has been in use as far back as two thousand years before King David conquered Jerusalem (c. 1000 BC). Naturally connected to an underground cave, the Gihon siphons water once every few hours as the cave fills. This “gushing forth” (from which the name “Gihon” may have come) can occur as many as five times a day, producing up to three hundred thousand gallons of water in the rainy season.

Because of the Gihon’s importance, a series of underground water systems has been constructed to make use of its waters. One of these is King Hezekiah’s tunnel, which brings Gihon’s waters to the Pool of Siloam (2 Kg 20:20; 2 Ch 32:30). It is at the Gihon that David has Solomon anointed to be king over Israel (1 Kg 1:28–48). The spring is also mentioned in connection to the wall that King Manasseh rebuilds (2 Ch 33:14).

Gilead The southern section of the Transjordan, with the Jordan River to the west, Bashan to the north, Ammon to the east, and Moab to the south. The Jabbok River ran across it from east to west, and “Gilead” could be used either more widely to describe the whole area or more narrowly to describe the land either south or north of the Jabbok. It was a high, fertile region, famed for its healing balm and spices (Gn 37:25; Jr 8:22; 46:11) as well as its pastures and livestock (Nm 32:1; 1 Ch 5:9; Sg 4:1; 6:5).

Jacob names Gilead after the heap of stones that witness his covenant with Laban (Gn 31:21–55). “Gilead” also becomes a personal and clan name (Nm 26:29–30; 27:1) when the region is allotted to Reuben, Gad, and part of Manasseh (Nm 36:1; Dt 3:10–15). After the division of Solomon’s kingdom, Israel’s hold on the Transjordan becomes increasingly tenuous. Eventually, Pekah loses Gilead to Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria (2 Kg 15:29). Nevertheless, Gilead remains a prized possession of the Lord (Pss 60:7; 108:8; Jr 22:6). The prophets look forward to a day when Gilead’s conquerors will be punished (Am 1:3, 13) and its richness will be restored to Israel (Jr 50:19; Ob 1:19; Mc 7:14; Zch 10:10).

Gilgal “Gilgal” means “Stone Circle,” so there may have been several places of this name. The most famous place was not far from Jericho. Gilgal is Israel’s first camp after crossing the Jordan, marked by twelve stones from the riverbed (Jos 4:19–20). It is at this base camp that Israel settles the question of Caleb’s inheritance (Jos 14:6–14) and falls for the Gibeonites’ deception (Jos 9), and from which they set out on their southern campaign (Jos 10).

The prophet Samuel visits Gilgal regularly to judge the people (1 Sm 7:16), as well as to offer sacrifice (1 Sm 10:8) and to proclaim Saul as king (1 Sm 11:14–15). It is there that Saul forfeits his kingship by offering sacrifice himself (1 Sm 13) and by setting aside captured livestock rather than destroying them according to God’s instructions (1 Sm 15). David returns to his kingdom through Gilgal after Absalom’s death, effectively retracing Joshua’s steps (2 Sm 19:15, 40). Later, Elijah and Elisha pass through Gilgal (2 Kg 2:1–14). On his return, Elisha removes poison from stew and multiplies bread (2 Kg 4:38–44).

The stones at Gilgal are meant to be a perpetual reminder of God’s faithfulness in the conquest (Jos 4:21–24; Mc 6:5). However, when Ehud turns back at Gilgal to assassinate Ekron, they are already described as “the carved images [i.e., idols] near Gilgal” (Jdg 3:19). By the eighth century BC, Gilgal is one of the cult sites of the northern kingdom and is notorious for false worship (Hs 4:15; 9:15; 12:11; Am 4:4; 5:5).

Glory The infinite beauty that is God’s because of who he is in his perfections and that is put on display as he manifests himself as God through creation, redemption, and consummation. Furthermore, glory is the brilliant splendor that radiates from God’s revelation of his character and mighty acts (Ex 33:18–19). God created all things for his glory: the heavens and earth, the angelic realm, and people. When created beings encounter the splendor surrounding God’s being and activity, they are to engage in praising him, giving him honor, and exalting him—such adoration is what is meant by “giving God glory.”

Golgotha The name given to the site of Jesus’s crucifixion. The name comes from the Aramaic term meaning “skull,” which is translated in the Gospels as the “Place of the Skull.” The Latin Vulgate then translates this phrase as Calvariae locum (Mt 27:33; Mk 15:22; Lk 23:33; Jn 19:17–18), from which the English term “Calvary” derives. Golgotha could have been given its name because an outcropping of rock gave the place the appearance of a skull, but it seems more likely that Golgotha was a place habitually used for executions. The Bible specifies that Golgotha was outside Jerusalem, but not far from the city boundaries of Jesus’s day (Jn 19:20; Heb 13:12). If the northern courses of Herod’s walls have been correctly determined, then the traditional site of Jerusalem’s Church of the Holy Sepulchre can be accepted.

Goodness As an attribute of God, the benevolent kindness that characterizes him and his ways. God, who alone is good (Lk 18:19), is good in himself, and all that he does—creation, providence, salvation—is good (Pss 34:8; 119:68). The varieties of God’s goodness are (1) grace, which is his goodness expressed to those who deserve condemnation; (2) mercy, which is his goodness expressed to those who are afflicted; and (3) his patience, which is his goodness in withholding punishment. The response to God’s goodness is praise, trust rather than anxiety, receiving his gifts with thanksgiving, and imitation of his goodness.

Good Works The loving actions in which Christians are engaged to help others. While good works contribute nothing to salvation, they flow from salvation and are its necessary fruits. As the gospel changes people from self-absorption to self-giving, the good works they do are ordained by God and glorify him, benefit others, and secure future rewards. Good works are not restricted to “spiritual” activities like praying, fasting, and giving to the poor. They also encompass charging a reasonable fee, lending at a fair rate, and working hard to earn one’s paycheck (Lk 3:12–14)—for God’s glory and not one’s own.

Goshen A region in northeast Egypt along the eastern Nile Delta. The extent of the region is uncertain, but it is identified with the area around Wadi Tumilat up to Lake Timsah. Ramesses II built his capital on the ruins of the Hyksos capital Avaris and called it Pi-Ramesses, which is probably the same Rameses that the Israelite slaves built (Ex 1:11). In the Bible, Goshen is either roughly equated with the “land of Rameses” or a part of it (Gn 47:11). Joseph settles his family there because it is “the best of the land,” good for tending herds, and near him (Gn 45:10, 18; 46:34; 47:6, 11). Goshen later becomes the place of Israel’s enslavement. While Egypt faces the plagues, Goshen is spared (Ex 8:22).

Gospel The good news of Christ for the salvation of sinful people. It is a twofold announcement: (1) The Son of God became incarnate, lived a sinless life, suffered, was crucified and buried, rose again, and ascended into heaven. This is the accomplishment of salvation. (2) Sinful human beings who hear this good news are instructed to repent of their sins and believe in Christ. This is the appropriation of salvation. They are called by God, justified by grace, regenerated by the Spirit, united with Christ, adopted into God’s family, and baptized with the Spirit as application of the gospel.

Government The civil office that exercises authority over a people, state, or country. God establishes government for the maintenance of peace, the encouragement of upright behavior, and the punishment of evildoers. Because government functions as a divine servant, its citizens are to submit to its laws, pay their taxes, pray for their leaders, and honor them (Rm 13:1–7; 1 Tm 2:1–3). Some Christians believe that involvement in government should be avoided because it can exercise deadly force (in war and capital punishment), which violates the law of love. Others believe that such involvement is demanded by the mandate to build civilization (Gn 1:28).

Grace As an attribute of God, his goodness expressed to those who deserve condemnation. Highlighted by God himself when he reveals his name, grace is associated with mercy, patience, love, and faithfulness (Ex 34:6). Grace is God’s unmerited favor. This gift is not owed to people derelict in person and duty who engage in good works; rather, God is gracious to whom he will be gracious (Rm 9:15), and his gracious salvation is appropriated by faith (Eph 2:8–9). The favor that God grants to save, sanctify, and glorify believers is termed “saving grace.” This distinguishes from “common grace,” which is God’s favor shown to both believers and unbelievers alike that consists of the blessings of God given to all his image bearers.

Grain Offering The grain offering (Hb minhah; Lv 2:1–16; 6:14–23) is simply a gift or offering. The word minhah is often used for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler. A grain offering can, on occasion, include flesh or fat (Gn 4:4; Jdg 6:18–21). Considered “a pleasing aroma to the Lord” (Lv 2:2), it consists of unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and is presented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering is burned as a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to the priests (Lv 2:1–3). It usually is accompanied by a drink offering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offerings frequently complement burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. The Bread of the Presence may be considered a grain offering.

Guest One who receives hospitality at another’s home or table. Hospitality was a matter of honor in ancient times. It was shameful to mistreat a guest (Jdg 19:23). Guests abound in Jesus’s parables about banquets and weddings (Mt 22:10–11; Mk 2:19; Lk 14:16; 19:7). Jesus himself is often a guest (Lk 7:49; 14:7; 22:11; Jn 2:10). King Herod’s misguided concern for his dinner guests causes the death of John the Baptist (Mt 14:9; Mk 6:22, 26). The Letter of 3 John commends the hospitality of Gaius toward traveling “brothers and sisters” while criticizing Diotrephes for refusing to welcome such guests (3 Jn 5–10).

Guilt Offering The guilt offering (Hb asham; Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1–10) provides compensation for sins. A ram without blemish is sacrificed, its blood is sprinkled on the altar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver are burned. The rest is given to the priest. In addition, the value of what is misappropriated plus one-fifth of its value is given to the person wronged or to the priests.

Hamath A Hittite city strategically positioned on the Orontes River and the main trade route running south from Asia Minor. Located about halfway between Damascus and Aleppo, it is frequently mentioned with reference to Israel’s northern border—“the entrance to Hamath” or Lebo-hamath (Nm 13:21; 1 Kg 8:65; 2 Ch 7:8). David receives tribute from its king (2 Sm 8:9–10), and Solomon builds storage cities in the area (2 Ch 8:4). During the exile, some Israelites settle there (Is 11:11), and some of its inhabitants are similarly transported to Samaria (2 Kg 17:24).

Harvest The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar of ancient Israel’s agrarian society (Lv 25:11; Jdg 15:1; Ru 1:22; 2 Sm 21:9–10). Life was dependent on the harvest. As a result, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help the Israelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and every fiftieth year, the people are to give the land a rest (Ex 23:10; Lv 25:20–22). The people are to rest on the Sabbath, even during the harvesttime (Ex 34:21). Some portions of crops are to be left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lv 19:9; 23:22; Dt 24:21). The people are to acknowledge God as the source of the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lv 23:10). Celebrating the harvest is commanded (Ex 23:16; Dt 16:15; Is 9:3). Planning for the harvest is a mark of wisdom (Pr 6:8; 10:5; 20:4). Even as a good harvest is the blessing of God (Ps 67:6; Is 62:9), so a bad harvest is a curse from God and the plight of a fool (1 Sm 12:17; Jb 5:5; Pr 26:1; Is 18:4–5; Jr 8:13, 20; Jl 3:12; Mc 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for the harvest is a sin (Jr 5:24).

Heaven The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly—the sky (Gn 1:8, 20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2 Co 12:2–4. This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gn 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Hebron A city located in the Judean hills eighteen miles south-southeast of Jerusalem, identified with modern El-Khalil in the West Bank, in an area well supplied with water from nearby wells and springs.

Hebron (also known as Kiriath-arba) plays a significant role in OT narratives. After Lot chooses to dwell in Sodom, Abram settles in Hebron (Gn 13:18). When Sarah dies, Abraham purchases land in Hebron for her burial (Gn 23). Both Isaac and Jacob live in Hebron (Gn 35:27; 37:14). When Moses sends twelve men to scout the promised land, their glimpse of the large inhabitants of Hebron significantly influences their negative report about the prospects for invasion (Nm 13:22, 33).

Hell The place where the lost are assigned by God to eternal punishment of both body and soul (Mt 10:28). This agony of eternal torment in hell is the greatest of all possible tragedies.

This topic of the afterlife unfolds only gradually in Scripture. “Gehenna” originally referred to the Hinnom Valley near Jerusalem, the location of the sacrificial offerings of children by fire to the god Molech by Ahaz (2 Ch 28:3) and Manasseh (2 Ch 33:6). Later, the meaning of this term was extended to the place of fiery punishment in general. Still later, the geographic location of this place of punishment was shifted to under the earth, but the idea of fiery torment continued. By NT times, the Pharisees clearly believed in the punishment of the wicked in the afterlife.

In the teachings of Jesus the reality of a place of eternal punishment comes into focus. Jesus describes hell as involving unquenchable fire (Mt 18:8–9; Mk 9:42–43, 48), a place where the worm does not die (Mk 9:48). Jesus also pictures the extreme anguish of those who suffer the ultimate punishment of being cast out where there is gnashing of teeth (Mt 8:12).

The idea of a severe eternal punishment for the lost is also taught by the apostles. At the return of Christ, those living outside a proper relationship with God will experience sudden destruction (1 Th 5:3) when the angels will come to bring fiery judgment (2 Th 1:6–9). The author of Hebrews speaks of the “terrifying expectation of judgment and the fury of a fire about to consume the adversaries” (Heb 10:27). Revelation describes how their torment is eternal (Rv 14:11) and how the ungodly will be cast into a lake of fire (Rv 21:8).

Heman A descendant of Judah through Zerah (1 Ch 2:6) whose name appears in the inscription of Ps 88 as “Heman the Ezrahite.” He was known for his wisdom (1 Kg 4:31). Some have suggested that he is the same person as in 1 Ch 6:33; 16:42; 25:1, 4–5, a descendant of Levi through Kohath and Joel who was a worship leader during the time of King David and one of David’s seers.

Herald A messenger commissioned to deliver a proclamation on behalf of a royal personage or God. King Nebuchadnezzar’s herald announces that all subjects must worship a golden statue or else be thrown into a blazing furnace (Dn 3:4). The prophets refer to a herald on the mountains announcing peace and good news to God’s people (Is 40:9; 41:27; 52:7; Nah 1:15). Paul is appointed as an apostle and a herald of the gospel to the Gentiles (1 Tm 2:7; 2 Tm 1:11).

Mount Hermon The highest mountain in ancient Israel, reaching over 9,200 feet. Its peak is snow covered year-round, causing abundant dew in comparison to the arid land in that region, with its melting ice serving as a major source of the Jordan River. The Canaanites referred to Hermon as Sirion or Senir (Dt 3:9; cf. 1 Ch 5:23). It is located above the Valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17) and above Mizpah (Jos 11:3). Hermon is identified with the modern Jebel es-Sheik, about thirty miles southwest of Damascus.

In the Bible, Hermon is known for its lions and leopards (Sg 4:8) and pine trees (Ezk 27:5). It is praised for its dew (Ps 133:3) and mentioned in reference to other mountains (Ps 89:12), the Jordan River (Ps 42:6), and the power of God (Ps 29:6). Hermon is not mentioned in the NT, but due to its proximity to Caesarea Philippi, some have suggested it was the location for Jesus’s transfiguration, which Mk 9:2 locates on a “high mountain.”

Herodians The Herodians are mentioned three times in the Gospels. They are reported to have plotted, along with the Pharisees, to kill Jesus after he has healed a man with a withered hand (Mk 3:6). They are also described, along with the Pharisees, as trying to trap Jesus concerning the lawfulness of paying taxes to Caesar (Mt 22:16; Mk 12:13).

The Herodians were aristocrats who supported the Herodian dynasty and the Romans, whose support made that dynasty possible. There seems to be some overlap between the Herodians and the Sadducees; Mk 8:15 has Jesus warning his disciples concerning the leaven of the Pharisees and the leaven of Herod, whereas the parallel in Mt 16:6, 11 has Jesus warning his disciples concerning the Pharisees and the Sadducees. The Herodians’ religious beliefs may have been similar to those of the Sadducees.

Herod’s Palace Herod the Great (73–4 BC) built a number of palaces throughout his kingdom, including those in Jerusalem, Caesarea, Jericho, the Herodium, and Masada, but two play an important role in the NT. The only explicit NT mention of “Herod’s palace” (Ac 23:35) refers to the palace (or praetorium) built by Herod in Caesarea Maritima, which was used during the period of Acts as the headquarters of Roman governors in Judea. When Paul is rescued from a group of his Jewish opponents plotting to kill him (Ac 23:12–22), the governor Felix holds Paul in Herod’s palace until his Jewish accusers arrived from Jerusalem to charge him face to face (Ac 23:35).

Another of Herod’s palaces was the magnificent residence built to provide protection for the Upper City of Jerusalem. This palace consisted of two main buildings, each with banquet halls, baths, and accommodation for hundreds of guests. It was surrounded by groves, canals, ponds, and fountains. This palace became the official residence of the Roman governors who came to Jerusalem during the major Jewish festivals, and it is likely that Jesus’s Roman trial before Pilate took place here in the palace’s courtyard, or praetorium (Mk 15:16; cf. Jn 18:28, 33; 19:9). This is more likely than the traditional location at the Antonia Fortress overlooking the temple, since Pilate is unlikely to have been staying in the somewhat spartan barracks of Antonia.

Heshbon A Moabite city that Sihon the Amorite king captured and made his royal capital (Nm 21:26–30). When Israel requests permission to pass through his territory, Sihon refuses and instead attacks the Israelites. However, under the leadership of Moses, Israel defeats Sihon and captures Heshbon (Nm 21:21–31; Dt 1:4; 2:24; Jos 12:2; Jdg 11:19–26).

The city appears to have changed hands many times throughout biblical history. Initially, the city is distributed to the tribe of Reuben, which “rebuilds” the city (Nm 32:37). Subsequently, Heshbon is passed over to the tribe of Gad (Jos 13:27), which then assigns it to the Levites (Jos 21:39). Judges 11:26 notes that Israel occupied Heshbon and surrounding settlements for several centuries. However, Jdg 3:14–30; 11:13–28 assert that the kingdoms of Ammon and Moab controlled the region (though not mentioning Heshbon particularly) at different times. By the time of Isaiah (and later, in the time of Jeremiah), Moab has recaptured Heshbon (e.g., Is 15:4; Jr 48:2), possibly under King Mesha during the height of Moabite prosperity. The region of Heshbon is noted for its vineyards, wells, grasslands, and pools (Nm 21:22; Is 16:8–9; Sg 7:4).

Higgaion In Ps 9:16 the word “Higgaion” appears to be a technical musical term. The same Hebrew word elsewhere in the Psalms is translated as “meditation” (Ps 19:14) and “music” (Ps 92:3). It may refer to a reflection set to meditative music.

High Places In the OT, “high places” are places of worship, probably so named because hilltops were the preferred sites for such shrines (though alternative explanations are offered). They do not imply the presence of a temple building but rather might consist simply of outdoor altars and can be associated with other religious objects such as sacred stones and fertility symbols (1 Kg 14:23). In the only description we have of the appearance of high places, they are disparaged as being gaudy (Ezk 16:16).

Before Israel entered the land of Canaan, such shrines were centers of pagan fertility religion, the worship of the Baals. The Israelites are instructed that, on entering the land, they are to destroy all such shrines (Nm 33:52; Dt 33:29). This they fail to do, and although not every Israelite high place has Canaanite origins (e.g., 1 Sm 9:12–25), it appears that many do. Perhaps because of their Canaanite background and the continued presence of some Canaanite worshipers in Israel’s midst, the high places, while notionally becoming places of Yahweh worship for Israel (2 Kg 17:32; 18:22; 2 Ch 33:17), are places where this worship is debased by pagan associations and practices, even to the extent of child sacrifice (Jr 7:31) and prostitution (if this is to be taken literally in Ezk 16:16; 43:7). The worship of Yahweh at these shrines becomes indistinguishable from Baal worship (2 Kg 17:11; 23:5), and some are specifically erected to foreign gods (1 Kg 11:7; Jr 32:35). While perhaps deliberately not called a “high place,” the altar that Elijah repairs on Mount Carmel becomes a focal point for calling for an end to such syncretism (1 Kg 18).

Hivites A people descended from Ham, one of Noah’s sons, through the Canaanites (Gn 10:17). They are indigenous inhabitants of the promised land, usually referred to along with others (e.g., Amorites, Hethites, Perizzites, Jebusites) who are to be dispossessed by Israel (e.g., Ex 3:8; 23:23; Dt 7:1). They live primarily near the Lebanese mountains (Jdg 3:3) and Mount Hermon (Jos 11:3). Despite God’s command to drive the Hivites out, they continue to inhabit these regions in the time of David (2 Sm 24:7).

Holy Holiness is an attribute of God and of all that is fit for association with him (e.g., Lk 1:49; Jn 17:11; Ac 3:14; Rv 15:4). With reference to God himself, holiness may indicate something like his uniqueness, and it is associated with his glory (Is 6:3), righteousness (Is 5:16), and proper concern for his reputation (Jos 24:19). God’s dwelling place is in heaven (Ps 20:6), and “holy” is sometimes a virtual equivalent for “heavenly” (Ps 11:4). God’s throne is holy (Ps 47:8), and the angels who surround it are “holy ones” (Ps 89:5; cf. Mk 8:38). God must be treated as holy (Lv 22:32)—that is, honored (Lv 10:3), worshiped (Ps 96:9), and feared (Is 8:13).

While “holy” sometimes means “set apart,” this is not its core meaning, though it is an associated notion (Lv 20:26; Heb 7:26). Holiness, as applied to people and things, is relational. They are holy “to the Lord” (Ex 28:36), never “from” something.

The representation of God’s heavenly palace, the tabernacle (Ex 40:9), and later the temple (1 Ch 29:3), and everything associated with them, are holy and the means whereby God’s people in the OT may be brought near to God. For God to share his presence with anything or anyone else, these too must be holy (Lv 11:44–45; Heb 12:14). The OT system of worship involved the distinction between unclean and clean, and between common and holy (Lv 10:10). People, places, and items may be made holy by a process of consecration or sanctification (Ex 3:5; 19:10; 29:36).

God’s faithful people are described as holy (Ex 19:6; 1 Pt 2:9). In the OT, this is true of the whole people of God at one level, and of particular individuals at another. In the NT, the language of symbolic holiness from the OT is appropriated to explain what true holiness entails in the lives of God’s people (Rm 12:1; Eph 2:21). All Christians are holy (“saints” [Gk hagioi] means “holy ones” [e.g., Rom. 1:7]) by virtue of the saving work of Christ (Heb 13:12). The Holy Spirit empowers the saints for holy and righteous living (Rm 6:19; 1 Th 4:7–8). The objective of Christian discipline is thus to share God’s holiness (Heb 12:10).

Holy Place One of two major sections in Israel’s tabernacle, the holy place housed several sacred objects, including the lampstand, the table of consecrated bread, and the altar of incense (Ex 25:23–39; 30:1–10; Heb 9:2–3). A special curtain in the holy place separated this chamber from the most holy place, which contained the ark of the covenant, thereby protecting the latter from defilement (Ex 26:33).

Holy Spirit God’s Spirit is seen throughout the OT as God’s agent in creation (Gn 1) and in establishing God’s people as a nation and a people of his own (Is 63:10–14). Leaders of Israel are chosen and filled by the Spirit to assist in leading the people into God’s will (Dt 34:9; Jdg 6:34; 15:14; 1 Sm 11:6; 16:23). Typically, the moment the Spirit of God descends on an individual, miraculous fortitude, wisdom, or power results. The Spirit also provides whatever is needed for God’s prophets—courage, inspiration, and miracles (Nm 11:25; 1 Sm 10:10; Is 11:2; Ezk 2:2; Dn 4:8; Jl 2:28).

In the Synoptic Gospels, the Holy Spirit functions in much the same way as in the OT. In Luke’s birth narrative, the virgin Mary is told, “The Holy Spirit will come upon you” (Lk 1:35), and Elizabeth and Zechariah are filled with the Spirit (Lk 1:41, 67). The evangelists record the Spirit descending on Jesus at the time of his baptism (Mt 3:16; Mk 1:10; Lk 3:22; Jn 1:32–34) and describe him as full of the Spirit when he is led by the Spirit into the desert (Lk 4:1). In John’s Gospel the Spirit is the promised comforter whom Jesus will give to his followers. He will testify about Christ (Jn 15:26).

In the new covenant, believers receive the Spirit at conversion. In Acts the Holy Spirit is instrumental in carrying out the mission of the church, providing power and signs as well as moving and motivating missionaries. The apostle Paul says the Holy Spirit imbues believers and the church with an assortment of virtues (Gl 5:22), gifts (Rm 12:7–8; 1 Co 12:1–11), and ministers (Eph 4:7–13). He contrasts life in the Spirit with life in the flesh (e.g., Rm 8). In John’s letters the Spirit is described as providing discernment of truth (1 Jn 4:6).

Hope At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps 62:5–8; Jr 14:8; 17:13; Rm 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gl 5:5; Heb 11:1).

In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph 1:12; Col 1:5; 1 Pt 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is our only hope (1 Tm 1:1), and his future appearing is the expected hope (Ti 2:13). Thus, “hope” refers to eschatological glory (2 Co 3:11–12; Eph 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Ac 23:6; cf. Ac 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1 Jn 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1 Co 9:10, 13; Php 2:19, 23; 2 Tm 2:25; 2 Jn 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rm 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1 Co 13:13).

Hophra Known as Apries in Greek historical texts, he was an Egyptian pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty (r. 589–570 BC). In 587 BC, during a period of Egyptian-Babylonian competition in Syria-Palestine, Hophra sent his army north and temporarily drove away the Babylonian army that was besieging Jerusalem (Jr 37:5 [Hophra is the unnamed pharaoh]). He is named once in the Bible (Jr 44:30), where Jeremiah predicts that Hophra would be vanquished by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, just like the rebellious Judahite king Zedekiah. Those Judeans who had fled from Nebuchadnezzar to Hophra’s Egypt had misplaced their trust. Hophra later was assassinated.

Horn A bony protrusion on an animal’s head, like those belonging to the ram (Gn 22:13), ox (Dt 33:17), and goat (Dn 8:5). In the OT, horns are emblematic of vitality and strength. David praises the Lord as a mighty deliverer (“horn of my salvation,” 2 Sm 22:3 = Ps 18:2). The appellation evokes God’s special commitment to uphold the king’s horn (see 1 Sm 2:10; Pss 89:24; 132:17). The king is similarly identified as the horn of his people (Pss 89:17–18; 148:14), denoting both his role as protector and his duty to uphold justice. In the NT, Jesus is “a horn of salvation” for all Israel (Lk 1:69).

Horns also have symbolic meaning, especially in visions. In Daniel’s visions, horns designate rulers (Dn 7:8, 24; 8:8–12, 21) and kingdoms (Dn 8:22), which figure in the schematized portrayal of history. In Zechariah’s vision (Zch 1:18–21), “horn” generally indicates nations that oppress Judah. In Revelation, “horn” symbolizes the power of the Lamb or of the red dragon (Rv 5:6; 12:3) or designates eschatological rulers (Rv 17:12).

Horse Horses first appear in the Bible in Gn 47:17 as a part of the livestock traded for grain under Joseph’s supervision during a time of famine. Due to the military role of horses and the need to depend on God alone, the king of Israel is forbidden to hold great numbers of horses (Dt 17:16), and the people are commanded not to obtain horses from the principal supplier of the time, Egypt, which happens despite the prohibition (2 Ch 1:16). King David first introduces chariots to the armies of Israel when he keeps one hundred chariot horses out of a large number he has captured from the kingdom of Zobah (2 Sm 8:3–4). The use of chariots expands under Solomon, and he may own as many as twelve thousand chariot horses (1 Kg 4:26). This move is deeply unfaithful, however, and is denounced by the prophets as an indulgence in pagan luxury and sinful self-reliance.

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The acquisition of horses and chariots expands under Solomon.

Hosanna The crowds at Jesus’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem cry, “Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord!” (Mk 11:9–10; cf. Mt 21:9; Jn 12:13), quoting from Ps 118:25–26. In using “Hosanna” (from Hb, meaning “Save, now”), the people are identifying Jesus as the Messiah.

Hospitality The practice of receiving strangers in order to offer provision and protection was an important concept in many of the cultures throughout the time period of both Testaments.

Hospitality first appears in Abraham’s care of the strangers who visit him in Gn 18. The strangers in turn reveal God’s imminent fulfillment of his promise to provide a child to Abraham and Sarah. Thus, they return the good favor and kindness that they have received, which is the expected pattern of mutual goodwill that characterizes hospitality.

Part of the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah is that the men violate hospitality norms by demanding that the visiting angels have sex with them, which is in deep contrast to Lot’s attempt to welcome and protect the visitors (Gn 19:1–9; see also Ezk 16:49–50). The unusual hospitality of Rebekah in offering water for Abraham’s servant’s camels distinguishes her as the wife whom God has appointed for Isaac (Gn 24:1–49). A conviction of the people of Israel is that God is their host in the promised land (Lv 25:23).

Jesus frequently is the beneficiary of the hospitality of others in the Gospels, and he sends out his disciples relying on it (Lk 9:1–4; 10:1–9). The messianic banquet is a theme of Jesus’s teaching on the kingdom of God (Mt 8:11; 22:1–14; Lk 14:16–24). Hospitality is also commanded to be an aspect of early Christian communities, and it is a spiritual gift (Rm 12:8, 13; Heb 13:2; 1 Pt 4:9).

Household Idols Household idols, or teraphim, varied in size and purpose. Rachel hides them from Laban by sitting on them (Gn 31:19–35). It is clear that Laban values them highly, possibly because of their perceived powers of divination (Gn 30:27). When David flees from Saul’s men, Michal puts household idols in his bed with goat’s hair at the head (1 Sm 19:11–16), indicating substantial size and raising the question as to why David possesses household idols. The details of both incidents suggest that these objects were viewed by the authors with contempt.

Household idols are associated with false worship and divination (2 Kg 23:24; Ezk 21:21; Zch 10:2). When Samuel condemns Saul’s disobedience, he likens the idolatry of having household idols to the sin of divination (1 Sm 15:23). The Ephraimite Micah’s shrine includes an ephod and household idols (Jdg 17:5; 18:14–31). Hosea also links household idols with the ephod (Hs 3:4) in the list of cultic and national icons of which Israel will be deprived.

Humility In the OT, “humble” sometimes refer to people of low social status, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression and poverty. Scripture sometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethical dimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to a subjective spiritual quality (Pss 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9; Zph 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does not necessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances in the OT, the two remain distinct.

In its subjective quality, humility involves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Ex 10:3; Dt 8:2–3, 16; Ps 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasions humility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zph 2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,” humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submission before God (Pr 15:31–33; 22:4). Such is the case with Moses, who is described as more humble than anyone on earth (Nm 12:3) because of his intimate relationship with, and his submissive attitude toward, God (12:4–9).

In the NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Mt 11:29; Php 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians to humble themselves before God (Jms 4:10; 1 Pt 5:5–6) as well as others, including their enemies (Rm 12:14–21; Php 2:3).

Hymn A song of worship and praise to God. The Hebrew word behind this phrase is elsewhere translated simply as “praise,” especially in the psalms. Such “hymns of praise” to God were common and involve thanksgiving, gratitude, or generally giving God due recognition for who he is (e.g., Ps 66:2) and what he has done (e.g., Ps 106:2, 12).

In the NT, the word “hymn” occurs only a handful of times, and there is very little indication what these hymns were about. In Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26, the hymn that Jesus and the disciples sing at the conclusion of the Lord’s Supper is likely one or more of the Hallel psalms (Pss 111–18), which were sung at Passover. In Ac 16:25 Paul and Silas sing hymns at midnight while in prison.

In 1 Co 14:26 Paul is instructing his readers about orderly worship. One of the elements of worship includes hymns (cf. Lk 20:42; 24:44; Ac 1:20; 13:30). There is certainly significant overlap between hymns and psalms, since both involve praising God, but evidently there is some distinction too, since Paul distinguishes between “psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs” (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). Perhaps these terms do not reflect clearly marked categories in Paul’s mind.

Hyrax A small animal designated as unclean for the Israelites (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). The hyrax in some ways resembles and is about the size of a rabbit. Although the hyrax does not actually chew the cud, its constant chewing may have led to its identification as a cud-chewing animal. The hyrax is extremely agile in rocky areas and makes its home there (Ps 104:18; Pr 30:26).

Hyssop Although there is some question regarding the identity of the hyssop plant, it clearly is small, in contrast to the cedar of Lebanon (1 Kg 4:33). When branches of hyssop are bundled together, the leaf structure holds liquids. Hyssop is used to sprinkle the blood of the Passover lamb on the lintels and doorposts of the Israelite houses (Ex 12:22). Hyssop holds symbolic significance; it represents cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7) and humility.

At the crucifixion, in response to Jesus’s cry “I’m thirsty,” a sponge soaked in vinegar is lifted on a branch of hyssop to Jesus (Jn 19:29). John, who is the only evangelist to mention the hyssop, may be emphasizing the symbolic aspects of hyssop and the connection to Passover with the death of Jesus, the Passover Lamb. The author of Hebrews enhances the description of the covenant ratification ceremony (Ex 24:1–8) by including the ritual elements of scarlet wool and hyssop from Nm 19 and Lv 14 along with water and the blood of sacrificial animals (Heb 9:19).

Iddo The author of a chronicle or book of prophecies known to the author of Chronicles (2 Ch 9:29; 12:15; 13:22). This Iddo is described as a “seer” or a “prophet” and is cited in connection with the late tenth-century kings Solomon, Jeroboam, Rehoboam, and Abijah (Abijam). His literary work is described as “visions,” “events,” and a “writing.” He may have collaborated with Shemaiah (2 Ch 12:15).

Image of God Humankind has been created in the image of God, indicating its unique status above the animals because of a special similarity with God. This status authorizes humankind to rule the earth and requires respect toward people.

The phrase “image of God,” or “likeness of God,” is rather rare. It first appears in Gn 1:26–27, and similar phrases occur in five more verses (Gn 5:1, 3; 9:6; 1 Co 11:7; Jms 3:9) that refer back to it. These passages emphasize honor and respect for human individuals. The NT also refers to Christ as the image of God and to believers becoming like the image of Christ (2 Co 4:4; Col 1:15). Especially in the context of Col 1:15, the emphasis is on Christ’s deity. Two verses that refer to the likeness of God and the image of the Creator (Col 3:10; Eph 4:24) deal with moral behavior and the sanctification of the believer (cf. Rm 8:29; 2 Co 3:18). Although they do not directly refer to Gn 1, they do address the common metaphor that humankind, by sinning, marred its imaging of God. To be conformed to the image of Christ restores how humanity images God in the world.

Immanuel A transliteration of the Hebrew phrase ’immanu ’el, which means “God is with us.” This name is a reminder of God’s presence, and although the name “Immanuel” appears in the Bible only a few times (Is 7:14; 8:8; Mt 1:23; cf. Is 8:10), the theme of God’s presence is one of the most prevalent in Scripture.

Immortality The OT cryptically mentions Enoch (Gn 5:24) and Elijah (2 Kg 2:1–12) ascending into heaven without passing through death or Sheol. Otherwise, mortality is presented as part of the universal human condition, a result of Adam and Eve’s disobedience (Gn 2:17; 5:1–32).

In the creation story, God warns Adam that if he eats from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, he will die that very day (Gn 2:17). But despite eating from the tree, Adam lives on physically for almost a millennium (Gn 5:5), and so this sin-begotten death describes separation from God. Jesus will overcome this separation at the cross (Lk 23:43; cf. Mt 10:28). For those who trust this work—believe in his name—death is already overcome because they are reconciled with God. Life is no longer bound, as it were, to brain activity but rather is unbound in the immortal being of God. By reconciling others to God, Jesus is able to promise eternal life (Jn 3:15, 36; 5:24). Indeed, John writes his Gospel to advance this promise (Jn 20:31).

Three NT assertions need to be taken into account in ascertaining biblical perspectives on immortality: (1) God is immortal (Rm 1:23; 1 Tm 1:17); (2) God alone is immortal (1 Tm 6:16); (3) God grants immortality to those who seek him (Rm 2:7; 1 Co 15:53–54; 2 Tm 1:10). These assertions are important in distinguishing immortality from the idea of the continued existence of some part of the human makeup after the death of the body. The word “immortality” should be reserved to refer to the existence of body and soul together for eternity. Human beings, therefore, do not intrinsically possess immortality; it must be granted by God.

Imperishability The property or state of not being subject to decay or deterioration, and thus heavenly. “Imperishability” (Gk aphtharsia) and immortality are closely linked. Often the Bible contrasts the imperishable with the perishable. Thus, Paul contrasts the perishable earthly body with the imperishable resurrection body (1 Co 15:42, 50–55) and an imperishable reward with a perishable reward (1 Co 9:25). Peter explains that the believer’s new birth, of “imperishable seed,” comes through God’s word (1 Pt 1:23).

Imputation The word “impute” means “to think of, regard, reckon, or credit something to someone that comes from another.” The language comes from the business world, where records are kept indicating credits and debits to a person’s account.

In the NT, the clearest passages teaching imputation are found in Paul’s writings. Drawing upon Gn 15:6 and Ps 32:1–2, he asserts that God imputes righteousness to the believer apart from works (Rm 4:1–8). Because of Adam’s rebellion, sin and guilt were imputed to all humankind, while at the same time Christ’s obedience is imputed to all his people (Rm 5:12–21). Imputation makes it clear that salvation is entirely the work of God. It is only on the basis of Christ’s righteousness that the believer can be justified in God’s court of law. Far from being an abstract theological concept, it is the very basis upon which the believer relates to God.

Incense A compound of aromatic spices closely related to the daily life of Israel. It became synonymous with “frankincense” at a later time. Aromatic spices were used in Israel for cosmetics (Pr 7:17; Sg 5:5) and for medical purposes (Jr 8:22; 46:11; 51:8) but occupied a special place in Israelite worship when used as incense. Incense was professionally compounded (Ex 30:34–35) and was offered on the golden altar by the high priest twice a day (Ex 30:7–8; cf. Lk 1:8–11) and on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:12–13; cf. 10:1–2). Prayers offered with the smoke of the incense guarantee acceptance by God (Dt 33:10; cf. Gn 8:21; Ex 29:18; Ezk 20:41). In Ps 141:2, prayers are said to ascend to God like incense, providing a background to the book of Revelation, where incense represents the prayers of the saints (Rv 5:8; 8:3–4).

Infinite The infinite God is limitlessness with respect to time, space, and knowledge. In relation to time, he is eternal, having no beginning, end, or time sequencing in his being (Ps 90:2). He is not bound by time, though he does act in time. God’s infinity with respect to space means he is omnipresent, existing everywhere with his entire being at the same time. He is not limited by space, though he manifests his presence differently in different places. In relation to knowledge, God is omniscient, knowing all things past, present, and future, and all possible and actual things.

Inheritance In ancient Israel special provisions were made for inheriting land upon the death of the father. The firstborn son received a double portion; the rest was divided equally among the remaining sons. If a man lacked sons, priority went to the following in order: daughters, brothers, father’s brothers, next of kin (Nm 27:1–11). The OT provides guidance for additional circumstances (Gn 38:8–9; Lv 25:23–24; Nm 36:6; Dt 21:15–17; 25:5–10; Ru 2:20; 3:9–13; 4:1–12), with an overriding concern for the stability of the family and the retention of the land within a tribe. Under Roman law during the NT period, an heir had legal standing even while the father was still alive; the heir’s status was based on birth or adoption rather than the father’s death.

Even more prominent than family inheritance is the assertion that God gave the land of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants as an inheritance (Gn 12:7; 15:18–21; 17:8; Nm 34:1–29; Dt 12:10). In some texts the language of inheritance moves beyond the land of Canaan to an international scope (e.g., Ps 2:8). This expansion prepares the way for a similar expansion in the NT (see Rm 4:13). God’s relationship with Israel is also described in terms of inheritance: Israel is God’s inheritance (Dt 32:9; 1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kg 8:51–53), and God is Israel’s inheritance (Pss 16:5; 73:26; Jr 10:16; 51:19).

Inheritance language is taken up and expanded in the NT. First and foremost, Jesus Christ is the “heir of all things” (Heb 1:2–5), the Son to whom the Father has given all authority in heaven and on earth (Mt 28:18–20). Through their union with Christ, believers share in Christ’s inheritance (Rm 8:17; Col 1:12). Believers also possess the Spirit as an inheritance in fulfillment of the promise to Abraham (Gl 3:14; cf. Is 44:3–5).

Inspiration With respect to the doctrine of Scripture, the attribute regarding its divine origin. Scripture is the product of the creative breath of God. “Inspiration” describes the superintending work of the Spirit bearing along the biblical authors as they wrote. Taken as a description of “all Scripture” (as in 2 Tm 3:16), inspiration encompasses the diversity of material contained in Scripture: words audibly spoken or dictated by God and written down by humans, words spoken by angels, occasional letters (e.g., the letters of Paul), prayers directed to God by humans, the results of historical research, and anthological texts collected and edited over a long period of time.

Intercession The act of advocating before the powerful on someone’s behalf (Gn 23:8–9), especially turning to God in prayer to seek God’s favor for others in crisis (2 Sm 12:16). While it is a prerogative of prophets (Gn 20:7; Nm 12; Ezk 9:8; Am 7:1–6), priests (Ezr 6:9–10), and kings (1 Ch 21:17; 2 Ch 30:18; Jr 26:19), intercession is a ministry that belongs to all the people of God (Ac 12:5; Eph 6:18; 1 Tm 2:1; Jms 5:16).

Interest The practice of loaning money with interest was common in the ancient Near East. Under the Mosaic covenant, however, Israelites are prohibited from charging interest to their kinfolk. Lending with interest is permissible in commercial transactions with foreigners but is forbidden in all cases among Israelites (Dt 23:19–20). This ban on interest protects the poor from being exploited by creditors. Leviticus 25:36–37 stresses the moral responsibility of Israelites to fear God and help their poor kinfolk rather than take advantage of them by exacting interest or profit (cf. Ex 22:25; Neh 5:7).

Ivory Ivory objects were luxury items and symbols of wealth (1 Kg 22:39; Am 3:15; 6:4) and were considered to be of great beauty (cf. Sg 5:14; 7:4). Ivory artifacts were formed from African and Asian elephant tusk and hippopotamus tusk or teeth from Egypt. Ivory was also brought from other locales (2 Ch 9:17, 21). Bone was also a medium for some fine objects, but more often for utilitarian items such as awls, pins, spindle whorls, and handles.

Jabesh-gilead The exact location of the town Jabesh-gilead is unknown, but biblical descriptions place it in the northwest Gilead region. It may have been located near the Wadi Yabis. Both Tell el-Maqlub and Tell Abu Kharaz have been suggested as possible sites. Jabesh-gilead plays prominent, if tragic, roles in three biblical events. Judges 19–20 records how the gross immorality of some men from Benjamin results in the other Israelite tribes attacking and nearly destroying the tribe of Benjamin. Because the people of Jabesh-gilead fail to assemble with the Israelite tribes at Mizpah (Jdg 21:8), all of its people are killed except for four hundred virgins, who are given as wives to the surviving Benjaminites. Years later, Saul, a Benjaminite, saves Jabesh-gilead from the Ammonites (1 Sm 11). When the people of Jabesh-gilead hear that the Philistines have hung the corpses of Saul and his sons on the wall of Beth-shan, their warriors travel all night to retrieve them and give them an honorable burial at Jabesh (1 Sm 31:11–12). David blesses them for their bravery and kindness to Saul (2 Sm 2:4–6).

Jealousy The divine attribute by which God is protective of his honor. Because God alone is worthy of ultimate allegiance, when his people give themselves to something or someone else, God, who is “a jealous God” (Ex 20:5; 34:14; Dt 4:24; 5:9; 6:15; Jos 24:19), is provoked to jealousy. The divine attribute is not like the sinful form of jealousy, which is akin to covetousness or envy. But human jealousy may reflect its divine counterpart when, for example, a spouse acts righteously to impede another person from disrupting the marriage covenant. Similarly God’s people should be jealous for his honor, standing against those who mock or dishonor God.

Jebusites A people group that dwells in the land of Canaan. They are descended from Canaan (Gn 10:15–16). They are one of the people groups that God wishes to destroy when Israel invades the land (Ex 23:23). They occupy the hills and Jerusalem, also called Jebus, in the central region of Canaan (Jos 15:63; Jdg 1:21). Their king, Adoni-zedek, organizes a coalition of kings to attack Gibeon and Israel (Jos 10). Though victorious, the Israelites are never able to drive out the Jebusites. They remain in control of Jerusalem until it is conquered by David’s men (2 Sm 5:6–9). Araunah, a Jebusite, sells David his threshing floor so that David can build an altar there (2 Sm 24:18). The Jebusites are made slave laborers by Solomon (1 Kg 9:20–21).

Jeduthun A Levite musician stationed at the tent where the ark of the covenant is placed during David’s reign (1 Ch 16:38–41; 25:1–6). He also plays instruments at the temple dedication (2 Ch 5:12). His son Obed-edom is one of the gatekeepers for the tent. Jeduthun is an ancestor of Levites who help Hezekiah purify the temple (2 Ch 29:14), of Levites present during Josiah’s rededication of the temple (where he is listed as David’s seer [2 Ch 35:15]), and of some of those who resettle in Judah after the exile (1 Ch 9:16; Neh 11:16). The superscriptions of Pss 39; 62; and 77 mention a Jeduthun who is the director of music, likely this same person.

Jericho Known as “the City of Palms” (Dt 34:3; Jdg 3:13; 2 Ch 28:15), Jericho is located about four miles west of the Jordan River and about ten miles north of the Dead Sea. It is about 850 feet below sea level on a narrow plain across from one of the major Jordan River crossings. In biblical times, its location was crucial to protect this important east–west route. Immediately behind the city the land rises quickly into a mountainous region known as the Judean Wilderness.

Jericho is possibly the earliest continuously inhabited city in the world, with archaeological finds going back perhaps as early as 9000 BC. Jericho is most famous for being the first city defeated by the Israelites during the conquest under Joshua (Jos 5:13–6:27).

Jerusalem The central city and capital of ancient Israel. Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.

Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city has expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied in biblical times, since the only water source is the Gihon spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.

Jerusalem is first mentioned in the Bible during the conquest of Canaan. After Joshua makes a treaty with the Gibeonites, the king of Jerusalem, Adoni-Zedek, forms a coalition of five kings to attack Gibeon. Joshua defeats this coalition and kills the kings (Jos 10). The Canaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem are referred to as Amorites (Jos 10:5) and as Jebusites (Jdg 1:21; 1 Ch 11:4).

When David becomes king over both Israel and Judah, he makes Jerusalem the administrative and religious center of his kingdom, which it remains during the united monarchy. Solomon greatly expands the city by building fortifications, the temple, and the royal palace (1 Kg 7–9). During the divided monarchy, Jerusalem serves as the capital of the southern kingdom. As such, it is attacked by a number of foreign forces, including Shishak of Egypt (1 Kg 14:25–26), Syria and northern Israel (2 Kg 12:17; 15:37), and Sennacherib of Assyria (2 Kg 18:13). Several Judean kings undertake building projects, in particular Uzziah (2 Ch 26:9), Jotham (2 Ch 27:3), Hezekiah (2 Kg 20:20; 2 Ch 32:2–4, 30; Is 22:11), and Manasseh (2 Ch 33:14). When Jehoiakim rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, Jerusalem is invaded by Babylon and finally destroyed (in 586 BC; see 2 Kg 24–25). Prophets during the divided monarchy speak of the destruction of Jerusalem, but also of its exaltation in later times (e.g., Is 2:2–4; 24:23, Jr 7:14; Mc 3:12). After the Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC), Cyrus II allows the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple (Ezr 1–2).

Between the rebuilding of Jerusalem featured in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and the birth of Jesus, Jerusalem and Palestine underwent several political and cultural changes. In 332 BC Alexander the Great captured Jerusalem, which marked the end of Persian rule and the beginning of hellenization. Following Alexander’s death, his empire was divided between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. Ptolemy I captured Jerusalem in 320 BC, and then the Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and annexed Palestine around 201–198 BC. During this period the Jews were struggling to accept Hellenistic culture. The Maccabeans revolted, and Antiochus IV destroyed the walls of Jerusalem and desecrated the temple (cf. Dn 9:27; 11:31; 12:11). Judas Maccabbeus liberated Jerusalem in 164 BC, and the temple was purified and rededicated. Hasmonean rule lasted from 142 to 63 BC. The Romans conquered Jerusalem in 63 BC under the rule of Pompey and ended Hasmonean rule. During the time of Jesus, Jerusalem was largely the product of the policies and building programs of Herod the Great, who served as a Roman vassal.

In the NT, most of Jesus’s ministry is spent in Galilee, but he would come to Jerusalem at least three times each year to attend the major festivals. Of the Gospel writers, Luke most often refers to Jerusalem and the temple as he frames his account of the deeds and teachings of Jesus. The events of Passion Week in particular take place in Jerusalem and its environs.

The early church starts in Jerusalem with the events of Pentecost (Ac 2). Jerusalem is the origin and the center of the early church under the leadership of James (e.g., Ac 15). It seems to serve as the center of the apostles’ authority, but the missionary zeal soon shifts the ministry and focus of the church to the eastern Mediterranean.

After the events directly narrated in the NT, Jerusalem and its temple were destroyed in AD 70 by the Romans under the direction of Titus. Jerusalem played a major role throughout history and has always been a center of pilgrimage for Christians.

Jerusalem also serves symbolic and metaphorical functions throughout the Bible. The OT prophets use the city as a symbol of God’s dealings with his people and his plan for them. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jr 7:1–15; 26:18–19; Mc 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Is 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jr 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezk 5:5; Hg 2:6–8; Zch 8:3–8). The NT authors also speak of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul uses Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gl 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews uses it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rv 3:12; 21:1–22:5).

Jeshurun A poetic term from Hebrew yashar meaning “The Upright One” that appears in the Song of Moses (Dt 32:15), the Blessing of Moses (Dt 33:5, 26), and a prophecy of Isaiah (Is 44:2). Used in parallel with “Jacob” and “Israel,” it refers poetically to the people of Israel.

Joppa A seaport along the Mediterranean coast just south of the modern city of Tel Aviv that served the Israelites and others during the periods covered by both Testaments. Egyptian and Assyrian texts describe the city’s conquest in the fifteenth and eighth centuries BC, respectively. Joppa was located within the tribal allotment of Dan (Jos 19:46) but probably did not come under Israelite control at least until the conquests of David.

David’s son Solomon uses Joppa to import materials from Phoenicia for the temple (2 Ch 2:16). Jonah (Jnh 1:3) boards a ship at Joppa apparently heading to the western Mediterranean. The returnees from exile import building materials through Joppa to rebuild the temple (Ezr 3:7).

Joshua Joshua the son of Nun is the successor of Moses and the leader of the Israelites during their conquest of the promised land. Joshua first appears in Exodus, where as a military commander he fights the Amalekites (Ex 17:8–13). He becomes an assistant to Moses and accompanies him up and then down the mountain of God (Ex 24:13; 32:17). Joshua also keeps watch over the tent of meeting (Ex 33:11).

Moses sends Joshua, along with Caleb and ten others, to scout out the land of Canaan (Nm 13). At this point, Moses also changes his name from Hoshea to Joshua (Nm 13:8, 16). Because Joshua and Caleb trust that God will help Israel conquer Canaan, God vows that only these two of this rebellious generation will enter the promised land (Nm 14:30). God also commands Moses to commission Joshua as his successor (Nm 27:15–23).

In Deuteronomy, God commands Moses to strengthen and encourage Joshua (Dt 1:38; 3:28). Moses eventually charges Joshua with the task of bringing the people into the promised land (Dt 31:7, 23). Since Moses has laid his hands on him and therefore Joshua is filled with the spirit of wisdom, the children of Israel agree to obey Joshua (Dt 34:9).

Joshua’s character as a leader is demonstrated throughout the book that bears his name. Among other things, Joshua serves as a brilliant military leader (Jos 1–12), an administrator (Jos 13–21), and a religious leader (Jos 24). He leads the Israelites across the Jordan and presides at the allotment of land. In all of this, Joshua is “strong and courageous” (Jos 1:6), just as God and the people encourage him to be (Jos 1:6–7, 9, 18). At the end of his life he is called, like Moses, “the Lord’s servant” (Jos 24:29). The people serve God throughout the lifetime of Joshua (Jdg 2:7).

Kingdom of Judah Also known as the southern kingdom, the kingdom of Judah begins when the northern tribes of Israel secede from David’s kingdom due to the continuation of Solomon’s economic policies by his son Rehoboam (1 Kg 12:1–24; 14:21–31).

In the tenth and ninth centuries BC, Judah is marked by its ongoing conflicts with Israel to its north. In the eighth century BC, Israel’s Omride dynasty exerts considerable influence on Judah, to the extent that around 845 BC Athaliah, daughter of Israel’s King Ahab, becomes the disputed queen of Judah (2 Kg 8:26; 11:1–16). With the rise of the Assyrian Empire in the late eighth century BC, Israel is destroyed (resulting in a large influx of refugees from the north), and Judah becomes little more than a vassal state of Assyria, with large tributes due the Assyrians. Soon afterward, King Hezekiah revolts against the Assyrians (2 Kg 18–19). This brings major repercussions against Judah, including the destruction of the Lachish fortress and the decimation of most of the population outside Jerusalem, but the kingdom is still left intact (by keeping a king on the throne).

As the Assyrian Empire succumbs to the rising power of the Babylonians, Josiah is able, for a short time, to initiate a reformation in Judah, extending his political power and the boundaries of Judah (2 Kg 22–23). When Josiah attempts to stop an advancing Egyptian army from joining the Assyrians in a bid to defeat the Babylonians, the Egyptians gain control of the kingdom of Judah. The Egyptians appoint Jehoiakim king, who later revolts against the Babylonians, believing that the Egyptians will come to his rescue. The Babylonians come, but the Egyptians do not, and as a result the Babylonians destroy the city of Jerusalem (in 586 BC; 2 Kg 24).

The destruction of Jerusalem effectively ends the kingdom of Judah, which becomes a province of Babylon. After the Persians defeat the Babylonians, Judah becomes the Persian province of Yehud (see, e.g., Ezr 1:8) and remains so for two hundred more years.

Tribe of Judah Descendants of Judah, the fourth son of Jacob (1 Ch 2:3–4:23). The tribe of Judah has special prominence throughout the OT and is often a political and military leader among the tribes. Joshua 15 describes the geographic territory of the tribe as the land between the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. In 2 Kg 23:8, Judah is described as encompassing the area from Geba (about 8 miles north of Jerusalem) to Beer-sheba (about 40 miles south of Jerusalem). As a premonarchical tribe, Judah never realizes its borders but rather occupies the hill country in the eastern part of the described area. The Philistines control the coastal plains areas and hamper Judah’s expansion. They are not subdued until the time of David.

Judah remains politically independent from the other tribes, such as during the reign of Saul. Contributing to this independent nature is the hilly geography of the area, which naturally isolates it from the rest of Israel. The tribe of Judah has a relatively short history because even before the time of David’s consolidation of the tribes, the distinction between the tribe of Judah and the area that will later become the kingdom of Judah is beginning to be blurred. This is further exacerbated with the revolt of Absalom, which further divides the kingdom ideologically between the northern tribes and Judah. Finally, with the death of Solomon, the tribe’s distinction is essentially lost, as the new kingdom of Judah—which encompasses the tribal areas of Judah along with much of Benjamin, Simeon, parts of the old Jebusite kingdom (including Jerusalem), and some of the Philistine kingdom—is formed.

Judaizers Judaizers continued to observe the Jewish practices of circumcision, the food laws, the Sabbath, and the other feasts and festivals alongside their new faith in Jesus as the Messiah. In particular, they believed that salvation was for the Jews and that anyone who wanted to experience salvation needed to become aligned with all the OT Jewish practices. Paul, more than anyone else, saw the dangers in this movement and rightly condemned even Peter himself when he saw that Peter and others “were deviating from the truth of the gospel” (Gl 2:14). Judaizers suffered a significant defeat at the Jerusalem Council, when James and the Jerusalem church ruled that Gentiles did not have to be circumcised in order to be saved (Ac 15).

Judge The Hebrew term shopet, often translated “judge,” refers to officials granted various forms of authority over the people. In many instances it is judicial authority employed to arbitrate in legal disputes (e.g., Ex 2:14; Dt 17:9, 12; Is 3:2). However, the Hebrew word also refers to those whose function expands beyond the dispensation of justice to more full-fledged roles as governors or rulers over the people (e.g., Am 2:3; Mc 5:1; and in particular throughout the book of Judges).

As the ultimate judge (Gn 18:25; Is 33:22; Jms 4:12) God delegates the administration of justice to the appointed leader of his people—initially Moses (Ex 18:13–16); then, during the monarchy, the ruling king (e.g., 1 Kg 3:16–28); and later, Ezra. However, the task of adjudicating every matter is too onerous for a single leader, and thus a judicial hierarchy is established to alleviate the ruler’s burden (Ex 18:21–23; cf. Nm 11:16–17; Dt 1:12–17; 16:18–20; Ezr 7:25). Surprisingly, the rulers (or “judges”) who govern Israel during the period recounted in the book of Judges are almost never shown as passing judgment in disputes (the one exception is Jdg 4:4). Rather, they are generally depicted as overcoming foreign threats (Jdg 2:16).

Judgment God by attribute is just (Gn 18:25). In the OT, God is known for showing justice toward the orphan and the widow (Dt 10:18) and bringing judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps 25:9). The prophets warn of God’s judgment on Israel and other nations for their disobedience (e.g., Ezk 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezk 5:7–8) and worshiping false gods (Jr 1:16). Ultimately, God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Ec 11:9).

God’s people also are to be just. In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lv 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lv 19:35; Pr 16:11). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Jdg 4:5), and those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Nm 35:12).

In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Mt 5:21–22; 12:36). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (Jms 3:1). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Mt 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2 Th 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb 9:27; 10:27; 2 Pt 2:9; 3:7; 1 Jn 4:17; Jd 15; Rv 14:7). Paul also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rm 2:2–3; 5:16; cf. 2 Pt 2:3; Jd 4). Jesus himself will be the judge (Jn 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (Jn 5:24).

Junia Paul mentions Junia (along with Andronicus) as “noteworthy in the eyes of the apostles” (Rm 16:7). Throughout church history, debate has surrounded both her name and Paul’s description of her. Some argue that the name is properly “Junias” and thus masculine. However, it is likely that the name is “Junia,” a feminine name. There are also varying understandings of what her position or role may have been in the early church (see CSB footnote for Rm 16:7). But it is clear that she was highly esteemed.

Justice The biblical concept of justice is an embodiment of two contemporary concepts: righteousness and justice. The former designates compliance with the divine norm, while the latter emphasizes conformity to a societal standard of what is right and equitable. Focusing exclusively on the latter hinders the correct understanding of justice in the biblical sense.

The source of justice is God himself. It flows from his essential character as one who is both just and righteous, whose actions are flawless, perfect, upright, and just (Dt 32:4; 1 Sm 12:7; Jb 37:23; Ps 89:14). God is the righteous lawgiver, hence the one who establishes the norm for right conduct (Dt 4:4–8; Ps 19:7–9). He requires justice of all his creatures (cf. Gn 9:5–6; Ex 21:28–29). God also judges righteously (Gn 18:25; 1 Kg 8:32; Ps 9:4; Jr 9:24) and defends and vindicates the weak and oppressed (Dt 10:18; Ps 103:6). The responsibility of maintaining justice in the human community, however, he delegates to its leaders, such as civil magistrates or political officials, and he requires them to execute this responsibility with integrity, equity, and impartiality (Dt 1:16–17; Ps 82:2–4; Jn 7:24; 1 Pt 2:13–14). God’s requirement of justice in the human community is not limited to its leaders only; it is incumbent upon everyone therein (Ps 15:1–5; Mc 6:8; Zch 7:9; Mt 23:23).

Justification Justification is often related to a legal setting in both Jewish and Greco-Roman contexts, which is a good word picture and a fine starting point for understanding the doctrine of justification. The idea of justification was utilized in legal proceedings in pronouncing someone innocent of the charges brought against him or her. In Paul’s twenty-two uses of the term in the NT, it has the effect of affirming that someone is not to be condemned (see Rm 3:26; 8:1–4) and declaring that a person is viewed as righteous in God’s sight (Rm 3:24), releasing them from the power of sin (Rm 6:7).

Paul’s synagogue sermon in Pisidian Antioch concludes with a brief overview of extraordinary justification (Ac 13:38–39). Paul proclaims that forgiveness of sins is available through Jesus. The forgiveness of sins leads to the verdict “innocent,” even though sinners apart from Christ are guilty before God of their unrighteous deeds.

Justification and righteousness are important themes in Paul’s Letter to the Romans. Paul declares that he is not ashamed of the gospel; in the gospel the righteousness of God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith (Rm 1:16–17). All humanity, Gentile and Jew, is under the power of sin (Rm 3:10)—no one is righteous (e.g., Rm 3:10–18). No human will be justified before God by works of the law; the law provides knowledge of sin (Rm 3:20).

The state resulting from this unrighteousness and sin is God’s wrath (e.g., Rm 1:18). It is into this situation that the righteousness of God is revealed in the person and work of Jesus Christ (Rm 3:21; 10:3). This righteousness is not related to human fulfillment of Mosaic law or righteousness of one’s own (Rm 3:21; 9:31–32; 10:4; Php 3:6, 9; cf. Eph 2:8–9). This righteousness comes from God by trust in Christ (Rm 3:22; 5:1; 9:30; 10:10; Php 3:9). By trust in Christ, God justifies each human in his freely given grace, whereby the human is redeemed from unrighteousness and sin (Rm 3:24).

Kadesh The name Kadesh means “holy” or “sacred.” This city, also known as Kadesh-barnea, was located between the Wilderness of Paran and the Wilderness of Zin in the northeast of Sinai (Nm 20:1; 33:36–37). It is first mentioned by the name En-mishpat (“spring of judgment”) as the area where Chedorlaomer and his allies defeat the Amalekites. Abraham joins in this conflict to rescue Lot from being taken captive (Gn 14:1–16).

Hagar, the Egyptian servant of Sarai, flees to a spring in the wilderness between Kadesh and Bered after she is found to have conceived a child by Abram. It was here that she receives the promise of Ishmael’s birth (Gn 16:11–14).

Moses sends the twelve spies out from Kadesh to survey the promised land of Canaan. The negative report of ten of those spies causes the people to hesitate to take the land (Nm 13:26). For this lack of faith, the Israelites are required to wander in the wilderness for forty years, spending thirty-eight of those years at Kadesh (Dt 2:14). It is here that Moses’s sister Miriam dies and is buried (Nm 20:1).

At Kadesh the Israelites complain about their lack of water (Nm 20:2–5). Moses is instructed by God to take his staff and to tell the rock to yield water (20:6–8). But instead, Moses strikes the rock with his staff twice. The water flows out abundantly, but Moses is punished for his disobedience by not being allowed to bring the Israelites into the land (20:11–12).

The Israelites are encamped at Kadesh when the king of Edom denies them passage through his land (Nm 20:14–21). The site eventually becomes the southern border of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah (Jos 15:1–3).

Kenites A clan whose name likely is related to an Aramaic word meaning “smith,” they were a nomadic group probably skilled as blacksmiths. The land of the Kenites is included in the covenantal promise of God to Abraham (Gn 15:19). Moses’s father-in-law is a Kenite (Jdg 1:16) and a priest of Midian (Ex 3:1), suggesting some kind of relationship between the two. The Kenites played a role as allies of Israel from the Mosaic period through the time of the judges and into the monarchy. The non-Israelite Balaam prophesies the downfall and captivity of the Kenites (Nm 24:21–22). Jael, the woman who kills Sisera by driving a tent peg into his temple, is the wife of a Kenite who has separated from the Kenites (Jdg 4:11, 17). The widespread geographical area of the Kenites’ habitations and the individual Kenites who separated and were associated with various peoples support the suggestion that these people were itinerant smiths who maintained their separate identity and were not completely absorbed by other peoples.

Kidron Valley This deep ravine (and the brook running through it during heavy rains) is located between Jerusalem to the west and the Mount of Olives to the east. David crosses the brook as he flees Jerusalem to escape the rebellion of his son Absalom (2 Sm 15:23). Solomon warns Shimei not to cross the brook or he will die (1 Kg 2:37). Reformer kings destroy idols here (Asa [1 Kg 15:13]; Hezekiah [2 Ch 29:16; 30:14]; Josiah [2 Kg 23:4–6]). Jesus crosses the Kidron Valley after the Last Supper on his way to the garden of Gethsemane (Mt 26:36; Jn 18:1).

Kingdom A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gn 10:10; 20:9; Nm 32:33; 2 Kg 20:13; Est 1:22). Some kingdoms are relatively small; others are concerted attempts to gain the whole world. A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings have only as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dn 3).

A kingdom may be visualized as a series of concentric circles, beginning with the throne, which is the seat of a king’s rule and judgment, then the court and “retainer class” of bureaucrats and aides (e.g., scribes, tax collectors), and then radiating out to the subjects, animals, and landholdings (see Dt 17:18; Est 1:14; Mt 2:3). The king typically enters into a partnership with the upper classes: he provides peace and protection, and they in turn offer loyalty and a portion of their wealth. Dividing up agricultural property into large estates enables kings to reward political supporters and punish their enemies (Mt 14:1–12). The powerless and marginalized often find themselves outside this comfortable agreement, without property. When they threaten to change the political order, they may be violently crushed (see Mt 11:7–12). The primary capital of a kingdom is the ownership of land and revenues from taxation. Kings also take censuses of the people for taxation purposes. They are generally free to tax anything in or passing through their realm.

God originally intends Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gn 17:6; Dt 17:14–20). Israel is to be a “kingdom of priests” (Ex 19:6), but the people demand a king (1 Sm 8:1–22). However, even when God grants their request, God remains King over the king and even retains ownership of the land (Lv 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king is nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah are corrupted by authority and wealth and forget God (1 Sm 13:13–14; 15:28; Mt 14:6–11). But God makes a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants will become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2 Sm 7:1–29; Pss 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king will return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zch 9:9; cf. Is 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Mt 21:1–9), as he comes proclaiming the arrival of the kingdom of God (Mk 1:15).

King’s Highway This major ancient Near Eastern trade route began in Heliopolis, Egypt, and cut across the Sinai Peninsula to Aqaba (on the shores of the Red Sea). It then headed straight north to Damascus (on the Transjordan side), ending at Resafa on the upper Euphrates River. It was crucial to the trade of Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Syria. Some of the more important cities along this trade route were Heliopolis (Egypt), Clysma (modern Suez), Eilat, Aqaba, Medeba (modern Madaba), Rabbah/Philadelphia (modern Amman), Gerasa, Bozrah, Damascus, and Tadmor. It is mentioned three times in the Bible (Nm 20:17, 19; 21:22), generally referring to the major route through Moab and Ammon.

Kir-hareseth Also referred to as Kir-heres (Is 16:11; Jr 48:31, 36). Some scholars also identify Kir in Moab (Is 15:1) with this city. This was a major fortified stronghold of Moab, possibly the capital. The city is associated with modern Kerak, about fifty miles southeast of Jerusalem and eleven miles east of the Dead Sea, situated on a strategic hill surrounded by steep valleys.

When King Jehoram of Israel, King Jehoshaphat of Judah, and the king of Edom join forces to combat King Mesha of Moab, they overthrow the Moabite cities and finally corner Mesha in Kir-hareseth. Mesha fails to break through the besiegers and offers up his oldest son, his heir, as a burnt offering on the wall of the city. Because of this, a great wrath comes against Israel, and they withdraw from pursuing Mesha (2 Kg 3:4–27). Later, the Babylonian destruction of Kir-hareseth is prophesied as punishment from the hand of God (Is 15:1; 16:7, 11; Jr 48:31, 36).

Kohathites Descendants of the Levite Kohath (Nm 26:58–59; 1 Ch 23:12–20). During the wilderness journey, they are responsible for transporting the tabernacle and its contents and also for its maintenance (Nm 3–4). Chronicles reports that some of the Kohathites participate in the purification of the temple under Hezekiah (2 Ch 20:19) and lead musical services at the sanctuary during the monarchic period (1 Ch 6:33; 2 Ch 20:19; 34:12). But there are no biblical psalms ascribed to this group as there are for their relatives the Korahites. Like the Korahites, the Kohathites are bakers of the sacred bread during the postexilic period (1 Ch 9:32).

Korahites The descendants of the Levite Korah, grandson of Kohath (Ex 6:24; Nm 16:1; 26:11, 58), not the Edomite Korah (Gn 36:5, 16). They were a guild of temple singers during the monarchic period, residing certainly in the southern kingdom but also possibly in the northern kingdom. They appear in the superscriptions of Pss 42–49; 84–85; 87–88, which focus on the themes of Zion, rescue from trials and estrangement from God, and God’s faithfulness as a refuge for his people. In postexilic times they were gatekeepers at the temple and bakers of the sacred bread (1 Ch 9:19, 31).

Lachish Lachish was in the foothills of the Shephelah, thirty miles to the southwest of Jerusalem, and it controlled the road that ran from the north to the south hill country. We first hear of Lachish in the OT at the time of the conquest when, under its king Japhia, it forms part of a coalition of five Amorite city-states that Joshua defeats and destroys (Jos 10:1–35; 12:11). After the conquest, Lachish is allotted to the tribe of Judah (Jos 15:39), but there is no archaeological evidence of Israelite occupation until the time of the monarchy.

During the monarchy, Lachish is the most important of a double line of fortified cities guarding the western approaches to Jerusalem. It probably is one of Solomon’s chariot cities (1 Kg 9:19; 10:26) and certainly is fortified by Rehoboam (2 Ch 11:9). When Sennacherib of Assyria invades Judah in Hezekiah’s reign, he besieges and captures Lachish, making it his headquarters for further threats against Jerusalem (2 Kg 18:13–19:37; 2 Ch 32:1–22; Is 36–37). Archaeological evidence suggests that after the Babylonians destroyed and burned the city, it lay abandoned for some time. Nehemiah reports that it is resettled after the return from exile (Neh 11:30).

Lamb of God A title of Jesus used in the Gospel of John, the Letters of John, and the book of Revelation.

The phrase first appears in Jn 1:29, where John recognizes Jesus as the one “who takes away the sin of the world,” and then again in Jn 1:36, when John’s outcry causes two of his disciples to become the first followers of Jesus.

The main reference is to the Passover feast, during which John places the passion narrative, at which a lamb is slaughtered and eaten. This is a celebration and an echo of the original Passover, in which the Hebrew people smeared lamb’s blood on the frames of their doors so that the judgment on Egypt’s firstborn would not strike the Hebrews (Ex 12:1–15). The salvation that John envisions, however, is different from the exodus narrative in many respects. The enemy from which God’s people are saved is no longer a geopolitical oppressor but rather sin itself. Israel has now been expanded to contain the entire human race. The “lamb” is now to be identified with the Messiah and even God himself. For NT believers, Jesus’s death and resurrection are a completion of the Passover. Rather than saving one people from one specific danger, God’s salvation reaches universal efficacy in Jesus Christ, taking away the sin of the world.

The other figure that feeds meaning into “Lamb of God” is the Suffering Servant of Is 53. Isaiah says, “He was oppressed and afflicted, yet he did not open his mouth. Like a lamb to the slaughter and like a sheep silent before her shearers, he did not open his mouth” (53:7). John perhaps means to fulfill this verse specifically in Jn 19:9. Lambs were also a part of the worship and sacrificial system of Israel (e.g., Lv 3:7; 4:32; 5:6).

Lamp In ancient Israel, besides being found in family dwellings (2 Kg 4:10; cf. Mt 5:15), lamps also played an important role in the tabernacle and temple (Ex 25:31–39; 1 Kg 7:49), where they not only illuminated the interiors but also, having the shape of a tree, symbolically evoked memories of Eden. Lamps could be carried or placed on a shelf or stand. Since they could hold only enough olive oil to burn for several hours, a woman who ensured that “her lamp never goes out at night” would have been particularly diligent (Pr 31:18).

The Bible frequently uses lamp or light metaphorically. It can symbolize life (Jb 18:6; 21:17; Pr 13:9; 20:20; 24:20) or the continuation of the Davidic line (2 Sm 21:17; 1 Kg 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kg 8:19). Jesus is the light of the world, who gives spiritual life (Jn 8:12; 9:5; 12:46; cf. 1:9; 3:19). John the Baptist is a lamp illuminating the way to the Messiah (Jn 5:35). Jesus’s followers should shine as lights so that the world can see their good works and praise God (Mt 5:14–16). God’s word is a lamp to guide one’s way (Ps 119:105; Pr 6:23). God himself is a light who enables people to live in difficult times (2 Sm 22:29; Jb 29:3). In one of Jesus’s parables, the foolish virgins who did not bring enough oil to keep their lamps burning serve as a warning for people to be ready for Christ’s return (Mt 25:1–13). In Revelation, the seven lampstands are symbolic of the seven churches to whom John writes (Rv 1:12–13, 20).

Lampstand A seven-branched lampstand (Hb menorah) made of hammered gold, built for use in the tabernacle (Ex 25:31–39; Nm 8:1–4), is placed in front of the inner curtain that shields the ark of the covenant (Ex 27:21). The lampstand has the decorations of an almond tree and, as a tree in the midst of the place where God makes his presence known to humans, is to remind Israel of the garden of Eden. The lamps are to stay lit twenty-four hours a day (Lv 24:1–4). The lampstand, or menorah, is the central symbol of Hanukkah, the Jewish festival of lights.

Law In the Bible, the law (Hb torah) is the body of instructions or teachings that serve to govern and maintain the covenant relationship between God and Israel. Although Israelite law was in some ways influenced by the legal codes of other ancient Near Eastern cultures, biblical law retained a distinct identity centered on the relationship between Yahweh and his chosen people. Law in the OT is presented not as secular instruction but rather as divine pronouncement, receiving its authority as an expression of the divine will.

In general, law may be subdivided into three categories: judicial, ceremonial, and moral (each of these may influence or overlap with the others). The OT associates the giving of the law with Moses’s first divine encounter at Mount Sinai (Ex 19–23) following the Israelites’ deliverance from Egypt, though some body of customary legislation existed before this time (Ex 18). These instructions find expansion and elucidation in other texts, such as Leviticus and Dt 12–24, indicating that God’s teachings were intended as the code of conduct and worship for Israel not only during its wilderness wanderings but also when it settled in the land of Canaan following the conquest.

In the NT, the contemporary significance of the law is recognized by Jesus’s declaration that his incarnation has served to fulfill the law (Mt 5:17). He affirms the continued legitimacy of the law as governing proper practice and behavior (Mt 5:19; 12:6, 42; Lk 4:1–11; Mk 7:9–12; 10:17–19; cf. Rm 13:8–10; Gl 5:14; Jms 2:8–13). Paul in his letters, especially Romans and Galatians, addresses the relationship between law and the Spirit and the Christian’s freedom from slavery to the law—freedom to live by the Spirit.

Laying On of Hands Laying hands on someone/something has both literal uses and symbolic significance. Literally, to “lay hands on” someone can mean to make an arrest (e.g., Lk 20:19; 21:12; 22:53; Jn 7:30, 44) or to hurt or destroy them (e.g., Gn 22:12; 37:22; Jb 1:12; 9:33; Ezk 39:21). Symbolically, the gesture of laying hands on someone indicates the transfer of something from one person to another, such as the transfer of representative identity in sacrificing (e.g., Ex 29:10–19; Lv 1:4; 16:21; 2 Ch 29:23–24), of authority in commissioning (ordination) (e.g., Nm 27:18–23; Dt 34:9; Ac 6:6; 13:3), of blessing (e.g., Gn 48:13–20; Mt 19:13–15), of life and health (e.g., Mt 9:18; Mk 6:5; 7:32–33; Lk 4:40; 13:13; Ac 28:8), or of the Holy Spirit and spiritual gifting (Ac 8:17–19; 19:6; 1 Tm 4:14; 2 Tm 1:6).

Leaven In biblical Israel, leaven used for making bread was a fermented lump of dough saved from an earlier batch. Like sourdough starter, it was added to a new batch of bread, which rose due to the fermentation process. Although the word “yeast” is found in English translations of the Bible (e.g., Ex 13:7; Lv 6:17; 23:17; Dt 16:4), there is no clear evidence that ancient Israel was familiar with it.

Biblical teaching often views leaven as something to avoid. This may be because fermentation was linked with corruption, which to Israel implied uncleanness. Leaven is prohibited during Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread to remind the people of Israel that they left Egypt in haste, with no time for bread to rise (Ex 12:15–20, 39). Leavened bread is forbidden in burnt offerings (Lv 2:11). It is allowed, however, when brought as firstfruits, a thank offering, a peace offering, or as a presentation offering during the Festival of Weeks (Lv 2:12; 7:13; 23:17). This is possibly because it would be eaten by the worshipers and priests and not burned on the altar.

In the NT, leaven usually retains its negative connotations. Jesus instructs his disciples to beware the leaven—the teaching—of the Pharisees and the Sadducees (Mt 16:6–12). Paul teaches that, just as a little leaven works through a whole batch of dough, the sin of one can corrupt the many (1 Co 5:6–8) and legalism perverts the gospel (Gl 5:9). Positively, Jesus compares the growth of God’s kingdom to leaven, which invisibly spreads through a large quantity of dough (Mt 13:33).

Lebanon Biblical Lebanon consists of two parallel mountain ranges north of Israel, whose boundaries are very similar to modern-day Lebanon. The south-southwest range is called “Lebanon,” and the north-northeast range “Anti-Lebanon” (i.e., “all Lebanon east” [cf. Jos 13:5]). Between the two ranges is the Valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 12:7), and at the southern end is Mount Hermon (Jr 18:14).

The term “Lebanon” is also used metaphorically in the OT (the name does not appear in the NT). First, associated with the mountainous range in the region, the name Lebanon evokes images of glory, fertility, and abundance. The high elevation gives Lebanon the sense of majesty and glory (Is 35:2; 60:13; cf. 2 Kg 19:23), which is further equated with the glory of Jerusalem (Is 60:13; Ezk 17:3, 22; cf. Is 10:34; Zch 11:1) and the restored Israel (Zch 10:10–11; cf. Jr 22:6). The melting snows, plus the annual rainfall, ensure abundance and fertility (Ps 104:16; Sg 4:15; Jr 18:14; cf. Ps 72:16). The glory of Lebanon is linked with Sharon, Bashan, and Carmel in the territory of Israel (Is 2:13; 35:2; cf. Is 33:9; Nah 1:4).

Second, cedars from the forest of Lebanon have been regularly used to indicate stature and beauty. Their sweet smell describes the desirability of renewed Israel (Sg 4:11; Hs 14:7), and their magnificence reminds one of Eden (Ps 104:16; Ezk 31:9, 16). Righteous people are compared to a cedar of Lebanon (Ps 92:12–15), as are kings (Is 10:34; 14:8; Ezk 17:3; 31:3–18), as well as their subjects (Jdg 9:15). Quite often, they are symbols of political entities (Is 2:13; 40:16; Ezk 17:3; 27:5; 31:3). Lebanon, together with its forest, is also used to depict negative images. The cutting down or withering of the choicest trees is spoken of as judgment (Is 2:13; 33:9; Jr 22:6–7; Ezk 27:1–9; 31:15; Nah 1:4).