1 Corinthians
1. EPISTOLARY INTRODUCTION (1:1–9)
1:1–3. As was customary for personal letters written during the Greco-Roman era, Paul opens his letter with a greeting (1:1–3). The greeting routinely contained the name of the sender(s), sometimes with a short self-description; the name of the intended recipient(s), sometimes with a short descriptive comment; and a word of greeting.
In 1 Corinthians the senders are Paul, who describes himself as an apostle sent out by Christ Jesus and by the will of God (see also Rm 1:1; 2 Co 1:1; Gl 1:1), and Sosthenes (see Ac 18:17) (1:1). The letter is addressed to the church at Corinth (that Paul addresses the church as a whole is significant; see 1:10–12), with a threefold description: the church has been set apart or sanctified to be in relationship to Christ, called within that relationship to the pursuit of holiness as saints, and united in these distinctives with all believers who call on the name of Jesus Christ (1:2). The normal Greek word of greeting, chairein, is, as in Paul’s other letters, transformed into the Christian greeting charis (“grace”) and is joined with the Hebrew greeting shalom (Gk eirēnē, “peace”) (1:3).
1:4–9. Next Paul gives thanks to God for the whole of the church at Corinth. This is similar to other letters of this era, which often began by showing deference to the god/gods of the sender or recipient of the letter. Paul’s thanksgiving is warranted, he says, first and foremost because the grace of God—his unmerited love—has been given to them all in Christ Jesus (1:4). Furthermore, God’s initial gift of grace has led to an enrichment of the community in speaking and in knowledge, which has confirmed the apostolic testimony about Christ (1:5–6). Thus, at present, the church does “not lack any spiritual gift” as it eagerly waits with Paul for the revelation of Jesus Christ at his return (1:7).
The words that follow contain one of the strongest statements within Paul’s Letters of his conviction that his converts would be enabled to persevere in their faith until the time of our Lord’s return (1:8–9). Paul does not base his confidence on the strength of his converts’ faith or on his own ability to pastorally maintain them in the faith. Rather, his confidence is based on the sustaining and atoning power of Christ and the faithfulness of God, both of which are constantly available to those who have been called into fellowship with the Son.
2. PAUL’S RESPONSE TO REPORTS ABOUT THE COMMUNITY AT CORINTH (1:10–6:20)
A. A report of factions within the community (1:10–4:21). 1:10–11. Paul now appeals (1:10–17) to the church so “that there be no divisions” (none having apparently taken place to this point, though the danger is clearly present) and so that they may be completely “united with the same understanding and the same conviction” (1:10). Paul’s appeal is more than a mere formality. The verses that follow demonstrate the need for the appeal by referring to a report Paul has received from members of Chloe’s “people” about conditions at Corinth. These people, sent probably on business by Chloe (a woman of apparent importance), had brought to Paul a report that disputes had broken out among various groups within the community (1:11).
The disputes seem to have revolved around two interrelated issues: (1) the search for wisdom (i.e., guidance about how one should live the Christian life after conversion), and (2) comparisons that were being made between teachers with respect to their ability to impart such wisdom.
1:12. Three and perhaps four groups are mentioned. The first group has identified itself with Paul (though Paul does not reciprocate and identify himself with them, or distinguish them from the other parties). The second has aligned itself with Apollos (cf. Ac 18:24–19:1). The third group looked to Cephas (the Aramaic name for Peter; cf. Jn 1:42) for leadership, or to teachers who used his name (though it is possible that Peter himself had been at Corinth, this is not the only way a group associated with Peter’s Jewish Christian views may have come into existence at Corinth). The final slogan, “I belong to Christ,” has always proved difficult to interpret. Although it seems to designate a fourth group (whose apparent claim was allegiance to Christ’s teaching alone), it could denote the common claim of each of the three groups or Paul’s own retort to all.
Acts 18:24–19:1 reports a visit by Apollos, a Hellenized Jewish Christian, to Corinth and characterizes his teaching as eloquent, based on the OT Scriptures, bold, and powerful. As a result of his teaching, some believers in Corinth claim, “I belong to Apollos” (1 Co 1:12).
1:13–16. With a series of rhetorical questions issuing out of passion and conviction, Paul responds to these misplaced allegiances (1:13). Do the Corinthians really suppose that the presence of Christ is somehow divided among them? Do they really mean to suggest that their allegiance is due to someone other than the one who has been crucified for them? Have they really forgotten that they were all baptized in one name? The last question leads Paul to recall (though he admits his recollection is not complete, 1:16b) that he did baptize Crispus (cf. Ac 18:8) and Gaius (probably the Corinthian who together with Paul sends greetings in Rm 16:23) (1:14), as well as the household of Stephanas (1:16a; one of the Corinthians with Paul as he was writing, 1 Co 16:17). But neither these nor anyone else “can say you were baptized in my name” (1:15).
1:17. The last verse of this section provides a bridge to the next (which criticizes the wisdom of the Corinthians and commends a different kind of wisdom). The transition is accomplished through the denial that “eloquent wisdom” has ever played a role in the preaching of the gospel. Indeed, such words and wisdom are the antithesis of preaching that concentrates on the cross of Christ and its power.
1:18–25. Paul’s criticism of the search for wisdom at Corinth (1:18–2:5) may be divided into three parts, in terms of its focus (1:18–25), its effects (1:26–31), and its claim to inspiration (2:1–5).
Paul begins with a corollary of the point made in the last verse. Those who are perishing because of their lack of perception may indeed regard the “word of the cross” as “foolishness” rather than wisdom (1:18a). But for those who are being saved, the proclamation of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ with the cross as its focus is recognized as the central manifestation of God’s power and wisdom (1:18b; cf. 1:24). The implication is that the “word of the cross” has been neglected in the Corinthians’ search for wisdom in favor of a different focus. This focus Paul now begins to criticize. In its original context of a prophetic critique of wisdom, Is 29:14 promises to “hide” and in that sense destroy or do away with the wisdom of the wise and understanding (1:19). These words appear to look to a time beyond their historical setting when the wisdom of the OT law will be superseded by God’s new action among his people. Paul’s point is that this time has come.
The wisdom of this age—whether it be the wisdom of the teacher of the law or the pagan philosopher (1:20), the wisdom of the Jews (which seeks confirming signs of one’s knowledge of the Torah and of God’s plan), or the wisdom of the Greeks (which searches for truth in the abstract) (1:22)—has been superseded. In its attempt to grasp God’s plan, it has been frustrated by the revelation of a new part of the wisdom of God displayed in the life, death, and resurrection of Christ, and set forth in Paul’s preaching (1:23). Thus, paradoxically, while the events proclaimed in the gospel may seem to be manifestations of foolishness and weakness when evaluated with the wisdom of Jews or Greeks, it is only through belief in the saving wisdom of such apparent foolishness and weakness that any shall be saved (1:21, 24–25).
1:26–31. In criticizing the effects of the Corinthian search for wisdom, Paul next urges his readers to consider the circumstances surrounding their conversion. God’s call came not because they possessed wisdom, influence, or noble birth (1:26). (Paul’s statement implies that one effect of the search for wisdom has been that some at Corinth do indeed lay claim to these attributes either literally or figuratively. Jewish wisdom writings often ascribed to the wise man all the attributes mentioned here and others like them.) It came, instead, on the basis of their willingness to identify with things considered foolish, weak, lowly, and despised in this world (1:27–28), things that characterize the life and death of “Christ Jesus, who became wisdom from God for us” (1:30a). This took place so that “the one who boasts, boast[s] in the Lord” (i.e., in Christ), who is the focus of the wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption that have come to us from God (1:30b–31; cf. Jr 9:23–24). It is illegitimate, therefore, to search for wisdom and then to use it to boast before God and distinguish ourselves at the expense of our brothers or sisters.
2:1–5. Finally, Paul concludes his critique of wisdom by referring to the way in which he initially announced “the mystery of God” (i.e., God’s activity in and through Jesus Christ and him crucified) among the Corinthians (2:1a). Once more Paul draws a contrast, this time between, on the one hand, the “demonstration of the Spirit’s power” (2:4) evident in Paul’s preaching despite his weakness, fear, and trembling (2:3), and on the other hand, eloquence, “persuasive words,” and wisdom (2:1b, 4).
The contrast implies that those searching for wisdom at Corinth have begun to view eloquence and persuasive words as authenticating signs of divine inspiration, perhaps even, on these criteria, judging Paul’s teaching as inferior to that of others (see 1:12, 17). Paul, however, makes plain that the definitive “demonstration” (the word is a technical term used by both Jews and Greeks to denote a conclusive or compelling proof, 2:4) of inspired speech lies not in its form but rather in its power to convince and convert (2:5; see 1 Th 1:5).
2:6–9. Paul now turns to a wisdom he can commend. It is a wisdom that is different in focus (2:6–9), that differently authenticates itself and its possessors (2:10–3:4), and that is different in its purpose and effect within the Christian community (3:5–17). On the basis of these contrasts, Paul clearly differentiates the Christian wisdom he commends from the wisdom that he has criticized in the preceding section.
Paul begins by claiming to “speak a wisdom among the mature” (2:6). But he firmly asserts that such wisdom belongs to neither this age nor the rulers of this age who, in reliance on an obsolete understanding of God’s wisdom and will, crucified the Lord of glory (2:6, 8). By “rulers of this age” Paul most likely is referring to the human religious and political authorities (e.g., Lk 23:35; Ac 3:17; 4:26; 13:27), both Roman and Jewish, who are responsible for the crucifixion. In contrast to the wisdom that guided their actions, Paul characterizes Christian wisdom as being God’s wisdom (i.e., it comes from and belongs to God) (2:7). Christian wisdom finds its focus in the meaning of the Christ-event as proclaimed in the gospel. Indeed, that event, properly and fully understood, does something that the law alone or Greek philosophy cannot; it points to the direction of God’s plan past, present, and future, to what God has prepared for those who love him.
2:10–13. Over against the demonstrated ignorance of the rulers with respect to true wisdom stands Paul’s assertion that “God has revealed these things to us” (2:10). The Spirit of God is an adequate guide to such wisdom, for the Spirit is able to understand all aspects of the wise plan of God, just as the same capacity to understand our own plans and intentions belongs only to the spirit within us (2:10–11). Paul describes the process by which the Spirit’s knowledge is communicated. As persons called into fellowship with God through faith in Christ, we have received the Spirit so that we may “understand what has been freely given to us by God,” namely, a knowledge of the divine intent, God’s “thoughts” and plan for salvation, past, present, and future (2:12). This wisdom is what we speak, and even the words in which it is conveyed are a product of the Spirit’s inspiration (2:13; cf. 2:4).
2:14–16. The last and largest part of this section (2:14–3:4) carefully restricts Christian wisdom to the spiritual person, for the person without the Spirit cannot understand its importance or accept its validity, because it is spiritually discerned (2:14–15a). However, the spiritual person’s grasp of Christian wisdom “cannot be evaluated by anyone” (2:15b); since no one has fully known the mind of the Lord, judgment can belong only to the Lord himself (2:16a; cf. 4:3–4). Nonetheless, as recipients of God’s Spirit, we have the assurance that we know at the very least the mind of Christ (2:16b).
3:1–4. Yet even the possession of the Spirit and the mind of Christ does not necessarily ensure growth in our understanding of divine wisdom; for the Corinthians, still much as they were when Paul left them, are “babies in Christ” (3:1), unready for any wisdom that passes beyond milk (the proclamation of the gospel) to solid food (the attempt to explore the implications of God’s act in Christ for our present behavior, 3:2; cf. Heb 5:12–14; 1 Pt 2:2). Their “envy” and “strife” demonstrate that they are still under the influence of wisdom that is “worldly” (3:3–4).
Paul spoke to the Corinthians “not in words taught by human wisdom, but in those taught by the Spirit” (1 Co 2:13). Paul’s words were not like those of the orators of the first century AD, whose focus was on being eloquent, persuasive, and clever. Content became secondary. Shown here is the odeum in ancient Corinth, a venue for oratory, music, and poetry events.
3:5–9. Paul now uses three metaphors designed to illustrate the purpose and the effects of authentic Christian wisdom. In the first metaphor (3:5–9), using a familiar OT image of the community as God’s field or vineyard, Paul compares his own ministry at Corinth (in which he “planted” the seed of wisdom through the proclamation of the gospel) and the ministry of Apollos (who watered it through further preaching and teaching [cf. Ac 18:27–28]) to the work of God (who made it grow) (3:5–6). Such a comparison clearly shows that neither the one who plants nor the one who waters is anything, as over against God, “who gives the growth” (3:7). It also shows that the one who plants and the one who waters “are one” (3:8). They should not, therefore, be compared with one another by the community (though each will receive their own reward by God’s ultimate judgment). They should be regarded in the same way, as “God’s coworkers,” at work side by side in God’s field, or on God’s building (3:9).
3:10–15. The last phrase of 3:9 leads to the second image, the community as God’s building (3:10–15). This metaphor further defines the Christian community that is growing in wisdom: it has learned not only to value its teachers equally but also to see the need for continuity between the foundational proclamation of the gospel (laid, in this case, by Paul as a “skilled master builder”) and the subsequent teaching of others (who seek to build on Paul’s initial preaching) (3:10). There can be no attempt to lay a new foundation (3:11). Instead, the superstructure must always be evaluated to see if its materials conform in kind to the original foundation (3:12–13a). For on the “day” (a reference to the OT day of the Lord), the quality of every builder’s work will be revealed with fire, and the builder either rewarded or singed with the flames that consume his or her work (3:13b–15).
3:16–17. The final two verses of this section reveal the reason for this severe judgment in a third vivid image. The building on which Paul and others are at work, the church at Corinth, is God’s temple (see 1 Pt 2:5), for God’s Spirit is alive in its midst (3:16). In a solemn statement of lex talionis (the law of punishment in kind), destruction is promised to anyone who brings about the destruction of God’s temple by breaking it away from its foundation (3:17).
3:18–20. Paul’s criticism of the inadequacies of the “wisdom of this world” (3:19) and his definition and commendation of the wisdom of God are now drawn together and the teaching applied to the tendencies of some at Corinth toward self-deception, self-centered comparisons, and self-aggrandizement. Paul clarifies the kind of self-deception that imperils the Christians at Corinth. His concern is the possibility of self-deception with respect to wisdom because some at Corinth tend to define wisdom and designate those who are wise “in this age” (3:18). In response, alluding to 1:18–31 and applying the contrast developed there between the wisdom of the world and the “foolishness” of the gospel, Paul advises all who are wise by such standards to throw away their “wisdom” and embrace what wisdom “in this age” regards as “foolishness”; for in reality, “the wisdom of this world [has become] foolishness with God” (3:19a). This development, surprising as it may be to those who trust in the continuity of wisdom, was nonetheless anticipated in the OT Scriptures (3:19b–20; see Jb 5:13; Ps 94:11). [Contextualizing the Message]
God’s dwelling place is no longer the temple in Jerusalem but the temple of his church, people indwelt by the Spirit of God (1 Co 3:16).
3:21–4:1. Paul then turns to the situation that gave rise to his remarks on wisdom, the tendency of some at Corinth to make comparisons between their teachers, to boost their favorite above the others, and to boast of their allegiances (3:21–22a; cf. 1:12–17). Alluding to 3:5–9, Paul again asks the Corinthians to recognize that the truth lies in precisely the opposite direction (3:22b–23). It is not the Corinthians who “belong” to Paul, Apollos, or Cephas; rather, along with all things, life and death, the present and the future (Rm 8:38–39), Paul, Apollos, and Cephas “belong” to them, as servants of Christ and “managers of the mysteries of God” (4:1).
4:2–5. The mention of the word “servants” (4:1) leads Paul to allude to 3:10–15, and in 4:2–5 he applies the teaching of the former passage to himself and the church at Corinth. As a teaching servant of Christ, Paul has been given a trust and, in order to fulfill it, must “be found faithful” (4:2). Yet his faithfulness cannot be judged either by the Corinthians or by Paul himself, for the judgment of his faithfulness belongs to the one who gave the trust. It is the Lord who judges him (4:3–4).
It is best, therefore, for both Paul and the Corinthians to not “judge anything prematurely,” because faithfulness to the divine trust depends as much on “what is hidden” and imperceptible (including “the intentions of the hearts”) as it does on that which is now in the light (4:5). Praise for Paul, Apollos, and the others who have taught the Corinthians will come not from them in the form of group allegiances but from God, who will give to each one the proper amount in reward for faithfulness to the divine commission.
4:6–8. Paul now concludes this section in which he has dealt with the tendency of the Corinthians to make self-centered comparisons between their teachers, and in particular between Paul and Apollos, with a saying that was probably in use at Corinth (4:6). “What is written” most likely alludes to the OT Scriptures, either in whole or in part. Though obscure, the saying’s message is generally the same as that of 3:5–9. The church is to learn “from us” (Paul and Apollos together) the saying’s meaning and is to apply it to their lives without “favoring one person over another.”
Indeed, pride, the desire to be different and better and boast of what wisdom one has come to possess, seems to Paul to lie at the root of all the church’s present difficulties (4:7). The Corinthians are acting as if the kingdom of Christ has already become complete (4:8). However, it has not (1 Co 15:23–28), and this observation, so evident in the lives of the apostles, Paul now uses ironically to negate the tendency of the Corinthians toward self-aggrandizement at the expense of others.
4:9–13. Both Paul and the other apostles have been “displayed” and held up to ridicule (4:9). Those to whom the apostles preach view them as a spectacle to be seen but not taken seriously. And so together they have become fools in the eyes of the world (but fools for Christ!), while the Corinthians prefer to be seen and regarded as wise (4:10). Similar contrasts are apparent between the apostles’ real weakness and the Corinthians’ self-designated strength, or between the apostles’ real dishonor and the Corinthians’ self-conferred distinction.
However, Paul drops the ironic comparisons as he proceeds in his attempt to teach the Corinthians that “a servant is not greater than his master, and a messenger is not greater than the one who sent him” (Jn 13:16). Like Christ, the apostles go hungry, thirsty, and homeless (4:11), and in obedience to his teaching, they bless when reviled, they endure persecution, and they respond graciously to slander (4:12–13a; cf. Mt 5:11, 44). Thus, “even now,” the light of the world (Mt 5:14; Jn 8:12) continues to be regarded as “the scum of the earth” (4:13b).
4:14–17. Such words must have stung the Corinthians’ pride. But in spite of this, Paul’s intention is not to exalt himself or humiliate them (4:14). Rather, as one who “became your father” (4:15), he has written in a fatherly act of compassionate correction to warn them of the dangers inherent in their self-centered attitudes and to urge them, as his children, to grow out of their immaturity by imitating their father. In order that they might learn to imitate in the way their father intends, Paul has sent Timothy, “my dearly loved and faithful child” (4:16–17a). Like an older brother, he will remind his brothers and sisters of their father’s ways, which agrees with the lifestyle he commends for all his children in every church that he teaches (4:17b).
4:18–21. Lest the Corinthians interpret this action as reluctance to confront his children, Paul writes of his own plans to “come to you soon, if the Lord wills” (4:18–19a; cf. 16:5–7, where the timing of the visit is more thoroughly thought out). And when he comes, he will not be diverted by the Corinthians’ own claims but will look instead for signs of God’s power evident in their midst (4:19b). For the kingdom of God “is not a matter of talk but of power” (4:20; cf. 2:1–5). It is up to the Corinthians, therefore, to choose how they wish to see the love of their father expressed (4:21).
B. A report of immorality, arrogance, and improper judgments (5:1–6:20). 5:1–2. Up to this point in the letter, Paul has dealt with a report about different allegiances. But Paul has also heard that Corinthian pride has expressed itself in an even more damaging way. It is actually reported that “a man is sleeping with his father’s wife” (5:1). The words of the text indicate more than a single immoral act. In addition, we can perhaps infer, because Paul does not speak of adultery, that the man’s father is deceased; from the lack of reference to incest we can infer that the woman is this man’s stepmother; and from the failure to mention her in 5:5, we can infer that she is probably not a Christian (see also 5:12–13). Marriage or cohabitation with such a person was forbidden to Jews (Lv 18:8; 20:11) and was also condemned by several prominent Greco-Roman moralists. Before addressing the question of proper discipline, however, Paul confronts the laissez-faire attitude of a prideful church that, because of a self-centered and permissive individualism, has failed to respond with appropriate grief and censure (5:2).
Jesus mentions the issue of church discipline in one of the two places in the Gospels where he uses the term “church” (see Mt 18:15–20).
5:3–5. Then, counting on the Corinthians to act together with him when they meet, making the word and the power of Christ manifest in the church in exactly the way that he would if physically there, Paul prescribes judgment (5:3–4). The man is to be handed over to Satan by expulsion from the church (5:11), which will deliver him back into the kingdom of this world, which Satan rules (5:5; cf. Eph 2:2). The purpose of the action is not punitive, however, but redemptive. [Excommunication]
5:6–8. Again, Paul’s mind turns back to the church. A body of believers that can boast of its achievements and ignore its obvious failures clearly has not yet learned that “a little leaven leavens the whole batch of dough” (5:6). Paul employs a proverb he has used before (Gl 5:9), and one commonly used in Jewish circles, to denote the way in which any moral evil eventually permeates its host.
On this occasion, the proverb prompts further analogies between the preparations for Passover (part of the ritual involved the removal of leaven from the household prior to the beginning of the festival; see Ex 12:15, 19; Dt 16:3–4) and Christian existence (which involves for Paul the continual call to “take off” the old sinful nature as well as to “put on” the new, as in Eph 4:22–24). In this sense Christians are indeed to “observe the feast,” to “clean out the old leaven . . . of malice and evil,” and to become what they really are, a “new unleavened batch . . . the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth” (5:7–8). Furthermore, this must be done quickly, for the festival is already in progress: Christ, “our Passover lamb,” has already been sacrificed.
5:9–13. In 5:9–6:11 Paul reminds the Corinthians he has written to them before that they should not associate with “sexually immoral people” (5:9). His counsel, however, has been misunderstood by the church, which took it to mean that contact with the “immoral people of this world” (5:10) was inadvisable, and therefore the church neglected it as an impossibly rigorous and impractical standard. Adherence to such a standard would involve the Christian community’s complete withdrawal from the world, and this possibility Paul does not even pause to contemplate.
Rather, Paul writes again, more fully and clearly, what he wrote before: “You [are] not to associate with anyone who claims to be a brother or sister and is,” as the Greek text and the specific case indicate, habitually “sexually immoral or greedy, an idolater or verbally abusive, a drunkard or a swindler” (5:11). And then, lest someone say that his judgment is unbalanced in its selectivity, Paul reminds his readers that his refusal “to judge outsiders” (5:12), while compelling judgment for those inside, stems from the sure promise that “God judges outsiders” (5:13) and will certainly impose on them a sentence that is both harsher and more permanent (2 Th 1:8–9) than that which he now imposes on his own.
6:1–7. When one seeks to bring judgment against a Christian brother or sister, however, the secular law court is hardly the appropriate setting (6:6). The place for such disputes, if they arise at all (6:7), should be “before the saints” (6:1). Indeed, as before, the Corinthians have acted exactly contrary to what is true. The saints will judge the world and even the angels who have fallen (see also Mt 19:28; 25:41; 2 Pt 2:4; Rv 20:4). Therefore, in light of their role in these ultimate judgments, they are certainly qualified to judge trivial cases that concern “matters of this life” (6:2–3) without recourse to secular courts. That is exactly what Paul calls on them to do in the next two verses, though his advice is full of irony.
If even those of “no standing” in the church are better qualified to render judgments than those outside, then surely there must be someone wise enough among the Corinthians—who value their wisdom so highly—“to arbitrate between fellow believers” (6:4–5). To fail to do so prolongs disputes and provokes lawsuits that completely defeat both the ideal of Christian community and the Christian witness. The fact that these disputes have been prolonged, however, also points to the self-centered behavior of some who refuse to be wronged in any way without rushing to their own defense, and to the willingness of some Corinthians to knowingly cheat and wrong fellow believers.
6:8–11. Some of the Corinthians appear to have forgotten that to engage in sin routinely is to place themselves back among the wicked, who will not inherit the kingdom of God. Paul urges them not to deceive themselves in this way. Neither those who are habitually sexually immoral (as Paul’s list makes clear, the general term includes behavior other than that which has provoked judgment [5:1–13]) nor thieves (once more the list expands beyond the specific behavior condemned in 6:8) will inherit the kingdom of God (6:9–10). Therefore, such behaviors, despite their routine place in the pasts of some, must be left behind through the constant remembrance that the believers have been cleansed from sin’s stain and set apart from its power so that they may live in relationship with the God who has justified them in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit (6:11).
The NT frequently calls believers to give up their rights in order to love and serve others (Mt 5:39–42; 1 Co 6:7–8; Php 2:1–8).
6:12–13. Paul goes on to deal with the rationalizations that have led some of the Corinthians to standards of their own: “Everything is permissible for me” (6:12). Some at Corinth have concluded that their Christian faith (6:11) gives them freedom to set their own standards. Paul warns them of two dangers: that they may fall into conduct that is “beneficial” neither to themselves nor to others, and that they may become “mastered” again, this time by the very patterns of behavior that marked freedom for them initially. A more specific instance of the same kind of rationalization has produced among the Corinthians the saying “Food is for the stomach and the stomach for food” (6:13). Paul reminds them that the freedom to eat whatever one desires is inconsequential in light of the coming destruction and transformation of our bodies, and therefore it is not a freedom one should cling to or defend at all costs.
6:14–20. A final rationalization, unrepeated by Paul, probably underlies the words that follow these and returns again to the subject of sexual morality. For some of the Corinthians, it followed from their freedom to eat that they were also free to indulge their sexual appetites in prostitution (6:15–16). For Paul, however, this action and the logical analogy that lies behind it are fundamentally wrong, because they involve the believer’s body as a physical, psychological, and spiritual whole in an action that unites the Christian (whose body in this sense belongs to the Lord [6:14] and, as such, is already “one spirit” with Christ [6:15, 17; cf. 12:27]) with the active presence and enslaving power of immorality.
Paul urges his converts to flee from this perilous rationalization and activity. All other sins are outside the body, in that they do not involve the entire personality (6:18). Our bodies are a temple of the Holy Spirit, who dwells within each of us, and we are, as a result, no longer free to use our bodies apart from a recognition of the presence of the Spirit within us (6:19). “Bought at a price,” which God did not hesitate to pay in and through his Son, we must respond in gratitude by giving glory to God with our whole being (6:20).
3. PAUL’S RESPONSE TO QUESTIONS FROM THE CORINTHIANS (7:1–16:9)
In the first verse of chapter 7, Paul moves from oral reports about the church and begins to address questions posed by the Corinthians themselves in a letter. The letter is now lost but originally was perhaps carried to Paul by the three Corinthians mentioned in 16:17. The recurring expression “now about,” or similar phrases, introduces Corinthian questions throughout this section.
A. Questions about marriage, divorce, and celibacy (7:1–40). The questions to which Paul responds in 7:1–16 probably had something to do with the relative worth of marriage as compared to abstinence or celibacy. Furthermore, behind the questions probably lay the supposition that abstinence or celibacy promoted spiritual achievement.
7:1–9. Paul’s words in reply to the statement of 7:1 strike a balance that is characteristic of his response as a whole. Within a marriage, sexual relations should not be suppressed (7:2) except by mutual consent “for a time” (lest prolongation lead to temptation) “to devote yourselves [together] to prayer” (7:5). Here Paul is making a concession, not giving a command (7:6). The idea of mutuality is remarkable. Both husband and wife should fulfill their “marital duty” to their spouse, for neither husband nor wife has “the right over his [or her] own body” (7:3–4).
Paul seems to derive his views on marriage from Jesus’s teachings (see Mk 10:11–12).
Paul’s desire is thus for all to be free from temptation as he is, whether through the gift of marriage or the gift of celibacy (7:7). So his counsel to the unmarried and the widows is the same (7:8). It is good for them to remain unmarried but advisable for those to marry who might otherwise be consumed with passion (7:9).
7:10–11. Another set of comments concerns separation and divorce. This set relates to the preceding issue: if celibacy is considered preferable to marriage, this could give sufficient grounds for separation or divorce. Paul, however, relies here on a command of the Lord (7:10a). The pursuit of celibacy is an insufficient reason for a wife to separate from her husband or for a husband to divorce his wife (7:10b). It is noteworthy that Paul addresses the woman first (perhaps this is the initial clue to a tendency among some women at Corinth toward the exercise and defense of an absolute liberty that transgressed the boundaries established for true Christian freedom; see also 11:5; 14:34). As a realist and not a legalist, Paul also provides for situations where separation still occurs (advising a woman in that case to remain unmarried or to be reconciled to her husband, 7:11).
7:12–16. Paul’s answers so far have been given to believers who are married to one another, but now he turns to the rest, and to questions (raised out of the same context of concern for a spiritual status) about mixed marriages. In doing so, Paul states openly that his instructions go beyond those of Jesus (7:12a; see also 7:25). But this does not mean they lack inspiration (7:40) or authority (1:1; 4:1). Again, the counsel is given to both the man and the woman whose spouse is an unbeliever. If the unbelieving spouse is willing to live with the believer, they are not to seek divorce (7:12b–13).
But will such a marriage not associate the believer too closely with the influence of the world? No, responds Paul, because the unbeliever is “made holy,” set apart from the world’s influence (though not completely, as are those “sanctified in Christ Jesus,” 1:2; cf. 6:11), through the choice of constant association with a believing spouse (7:14a). If this were not so, then (as some at Corinth had perhaps said) their children would be unclean (7:14b). But, together with their mother and father, they too are holy. On the other hand, if the unbeliever leaves, choosing to abandon the association, then the believer is not bound to struggle to maintain the bond (7:15). There is still one other possibility, so far unmentioned, and that is the best of all. Perhaps, though one cannot know, the association will serve to draw the unbeliever to faith and so to salvation (7:16).
7:17–20. As elsewhere in this second half of his letter, Paul’s response (7:17–27) now moves from ethics (7:1–16) to a statement of principles before turning back again to advice (7:28–40). Paul now states the basic conviction underlying his balanced counsel (7:17). Spiritual growth is dependent not on status (marital or otherwise) but on attention and obedience to God’s call. Accordingly, Christians should not ordinarily seek to change their status; rather, as far as possible, they should retain the status God has assigned to them.
Paul reiterates the principle with reference to circumcision. Those who were circumcised before their call should not now seek to erase the marks of circumcision, nor should those who before were uncircumcised seek its imposition (7:18; cf. Ac 21:17–26; Gl 5:2). Instead, each should remain as he was (7:20). For that which served before to promote a distinction in status, knowledge, and obedience between them has now been set aside; and both together will be enabled in Christ to know and obey God’s intentions for them as they walk in obedience to the leading of the Spirit (7:19; cf. Gl 5:25; 1 Co 2:6–16).
7:21–24. A final example concerns the slave and the freedman. Here, however, the analogy is incomplete, for Paul admits that the slave should use the chance to gain freedom whenever it comes (7:21). Nonetheless, the main point remains intact. The distinction in status between slave and free is irrelevant to those who belong to the Lord, who makes the slave his freedman (Gl 5:1) and the free one Christ’s slave (Rm 1:1) (7:22).
All three categories now come back into the argument as the section is finished by way of summary. All, whether married or celibate, Jew or Gentile, slave or free, have been bought “at a price” and thus have been brought into the body of Christ, where distinctions of status have no place (7:23; cf. 12:13; Gl 3:28; Eph 2:14–18; Col 3:11). Therefore, Paul urges them not to become subject again to human standards that would make their status a basis for comparison, but to transcend those standards and find unity and equality in the body of Christ. Paul closes the section with a final repetition of the principle (7:24).
7:25–31. Chapter 7 began with words addressed to single persons and questions about the value of marriage. The subsequent discussion, however, has focused primarily on related questions posed by those already married. In 7:25–40 Paul completes his answer to the questions of the unmarried and the widowed. The answer is made in light of the principles already given and reflects Paul’s considered “opinion,” which, though not binding as a “command from the Lord,” is worthy of trust (7:25). It is based, at the same time, on a conviction that the present, unsettled state of this world reflects that the time of its existence has been shortened; it is already beginning to pass away (7:29, 31). Therefore, it is best if the unmarried remain, like the married, as they are (7:26–27). Not all, however, will reach this decision, and so Paul adds realistically that its opposite, a decision to marry, is no sin (7:28).
In light of the reality of the world’s demise, however, Christians should live not with reference to its expectations but rather as those who already have begun to live in God’s new kingdom (7:29–31). Those who have wives should remember that one day the caliber of fellowship to be enjoyed between everyone in the kingdom of God will match that which is now the exclusive possession of husbands and wives (Mk 12:25). Similarly, those who mourn should likewise recall that their mourning has already begun to call forth comfort (Mt 5:4). And those who are happy in the present world should bear in mind that the age to come will reverse present fortunes (Lk 6:25). Finally, those who “buy” things or “use the world” must realize the transitory nature of their possessions and not become engrossed in the enterprise of attainment and use (Lk 12:16–21).
7:32–40. Those contemplating marriage must also consider a further factor, for their marriage will deservedly initiate a concern to give pleasure and comfort to the spouse in a present world full of pressure and trouble (7:33, 34b). This concern will be added to the valid concern they bear as individuals to please the Lord in response to the call to be about his business (7:32, 34a; see Mk 13:34–37; Ac 13:2; 1 Co 3:13; 15:58). All this Paul would have them consider before entering into marriage. This is said not to restrict those who would marry from doing so but to remind all of the priority of devotion to the Lord (7:35).
Last comes the apostle’s answer to widows who have asked about marriage (7:39–40). He reminds them that the unique loyalty of the marriage bond, though it is lifelong (with 7:15 as the exception, not the rule), is terminated by death. Accordingly, they are as “free to be married” as any others, or to choose not to do so, with this choice, in Paul’s judgment once again, the better. [Women in the Greco‐Roman World]
B. Questions about food, idolatry, and freedom (8:1–11:1). Paul introduces a second major topic in 8:1. As in the previous chapter, he treats several different though related questions. Here they concern the propriety of Christians in their own homes eating food that may have previously passed before an idol (8:4–6; 10:23–26); of Christians eating such food in the home of an unbeliever (8:7–9; 10:27–29); and of Christians accepting an invitation to dine in a pagan temple (8:10–12; 10:14–22).
It would be hard for any Christian at Corinth not to ask questions, since invitations to dine at a temple were common and virtually all the food sold in the marketplace would have passed through a pagan temple. But the questions here appear to have been asked by some in a way that defended their own conduct and challenged Paul’s (9:3) in this matter and others (9:4–6) as either too bold in its exercise of Christian and apostolic rights (9:4–12a) or too timid in its restraint (9:12b–27), and in any case inconsistent with what they had come to expect of an apostle (9:1–2). Paul’s reply alternates between instructions and his own example rather than between advice and principles. [Food Sacrificed to Idols]
8:1–3. In 8:1–13 (cf. 6:12; 7:1), Paul begins by giving assent to a guideline advanced by some at Corinth, in this case the principle that possession of knowledge justifies any conduct that is consistent with it (8:1). However, Paul quickly qualifies the guideline with a reminder that knowledge can blind its possessor to its own importance and lead him or her in isolation from others toward a false assurance (8:2). Love, on the other hand, is a far more reliable guide, for it leads its possessor toward personal maturity in fellowship with others, and when turned toward heaven, to communion with God (8:3). Consequently, it is important both to know the truth and to speak it in love (Eph 4:15).
8:4–6. Paul proceeds to review, for those who have need of it, the basic truths that undergird Christian monotheism. The first of these is that “an idol is nothing” (8:4a), having no real existence in the world except in the minds and hearts of its worshipers, who nonetheless by their ignorant devotion open themselves to the influence of real beings with demonic power (10:14, 19–22). The second, on which the first is founded, is that there is no God but one (8:4b). He is the source of all creation, and service to him gives life meaning. He is the Father of the one Lord Jesus Christ, his agent in the beginning of life and in its continuation and renewal (8:6). (Similar ideas expressed in Eph 4:5–6 and Col 1:15–16 are probably a fragment from an early Christian confession.)
What to do about food sacrificed to idols and invitations to dine at pagan temples were key questions for believers in Corinth. The temple to Apollo, one of the major temples in Corinth, towered over the city’s forum.
8:7–9. Next, Paul reminds his readers that some among them do not yet trust the substance of this truth enough to know its power in experience beyond simple assent. Therefore they continue to have doubts about the nature of the food that they eat and the implications of doing so (8:7). Because of this, fellow believers, in their words (8:8 probably paraphrases some of them) and actions, need to be careful lest the “right” and knowledge lead them to ignore the effect of their behavior on the faith of the weak (8:9).
8:10–13. Finally, Paul applies what he has said to the situation in Corinth. Some have already accepted invitations to dine in pagan temples in public view and are in danger of leading those with a weak conscience to disregard it and act insincerely (8:10). Thus the weak, for whom Christ died, will be led to abandon action that matches their convictions and perhaps even to depart from any attempt at morality, a departure that leads to destruction (8:11; see 5:5). When this happens, those who have encouraged it will be found to have sinned against both the weak and Christ (8:12), who cares for even the weakest believer (Mk 9:42). Therefore, Paul chooses, for himself, to restrict the actions that he might legitimately take according to the criteria of love and concern for his fellow believer (8:13).
9:1–2. The mention of restraint prompts Paul to recall that some at Corinth have begun to interpret his reserve as an indication that he is not free to act, as they presume an apostle would, without reference to the beliefs of others (9:1). The rhetorical questions he poses are not so much concerned with his defense as they are with the fact that this false supposition may cause the Corinthians to neglect his advice (9:1–27). So he must reestablish his apostolic authority through reference to his experience of having seen the risen Lord and to the results of his initial mission, which brought the Corinthian church into existence through the preaching of the gospel. Thus, though outsiders may question his status, Paul expects his own to remember that their life in Christ is the continuing seal of the authenticity of his apostleship (9:2).
9:3–7. But does not a true apostle ask his converts to provide him with food and drink and the financial support to enable him to travel with a believing wife (9:4–5)? Do not the “other apostles, the Lord’s brothers, and Cephas” request such things from those whom they serve? Indeed they do, and so, too, can Paul (9:6), who now illustrates the legitimacy of this right by noting that a soldier has a recognized right to serve at the expense of others and that those who plant crops or tend livestock have a recognized right to share in the produce (9:7).
9:8–12. This right of support is recognized not only in the sphere of human affairs but also in the law of Moses, which speaks (in Dt 25:4) about the right of an ox that treads grain to do so without a muzzle, that he might eat as he works (9:8–9). Employing a traditional rabbinic method (cf. Rm 5:9–10, 15, 17), Paul takes these last words to refer just as much if not more to the reward deserved by himself and others like him (9:10a). Confirmation is provided by the observation that those who have plowed or threshed the grain are also entitled to possess a “hope of sharing the crop” (9:10b). Thus Paul and the others who have “sown spiritual things” among the Christians at Corinth are also entitled to share in the harvest of their ministry through the provision of their continuing material needs (9:11–12a). But Paul has indeed, as they know, made no use of this right. Yet this is not, as his words have shown, because he is not entitled to do so. Rather, it is because he has decided to avoid any hindrance to the reception of the gospel of Christ (9:12b).
9:13–18. Despite the right of “those who preach the gospel” to “earn their living by the gospel” (9:14), which is analogous to the right of those who work in the temple and serve at the altar to “share in the offerings of the altar” (9:13), Paul has chosen not to make use of this or any of his rights, and he is not corresponding with the Corinthians for the purpose of requesting them (9:15). He has elected instead to make his boast in a ministry that disavows any dependence on another except the one who compels him to preach (9:16). Thus it is an almost involuntary obedience to God’s call, rather than a voluntary and carefully planned decision to take up a self-supporting career, that stands behind Paul’s attempt to discharge the trust committed to him (9:17; see also 4:1–2). And the reward he receives for such service is precisely the ability to make good on the terms of his boast, to preach the gospel free of charge (9:18).
9:19–23. But given independence from all, Paul has freely subjugated himself again, not to their support but to their way of life, in order to win them to faith (9:19). Though no longer bound by the notion of the law as a covenant enabling maintenance of the righteousness necessary for fellowship with God, Paul is nonetheless willing to follow many of the customs that are indifferent to one justified by faith (see also Rm 3:21–22; Ac 18:18; 21:26) when to do so means an opportunity to gain entrance for the gospel (9:20). Conversely, among those for whom the law was no guide, Paul is willing, to the extent permitted to him by “the law of Christ” (cf. Mk 12:28–34; Lk 10:25–37; Gl 6:2), to loose himself from divine law as a point of reference if this leads to the fulfillment of the gospel’s objective (9:21).
And so, at length, his reasons now plain, Paul repeats his readiness to abide by the standards of the weak, or even to become all things to all people if, in this way, it becomes possible for him to bring about their continuing allegiance to the saving gospel of Jesus Christ (9:22). For Paul, as their apostle, also shares in the blessing of their entrance into a growing faith (9:23; see also Col 2:5).
Paul entreats his readers to pursue the gospel as a runner who is seeking the prize. In ancient games, winners would receive a “perishable crown” (1 Co 9:25), a garland woven of laurel, celery, or pine, as can be seen in this bronze statue of an athlete from the first century BC.
9:24–27. A last illustration allows Paul to compare his restraint with that of a runner who gives up much to attempt to gain the winner’s crown in the race (9:24–25). Paul does not renounce his rights to no purpose, like a halfhearted runner running aimlessly, or a casual boxer who is always punching the air (9:26). Rather, like the serious athlete, he beats back his physical needs until they conform with the priorities of his Christian ministry, lest after proclaiming to others Jesus’s call to abandon all and follow him, Paul himself should be found seeking to retain some personal prerogative and so be “disqualified” for the prize (9:27; see also Php 3:13–16). [Imperishability]
Summary. The figure of the casual athlete allows Paul to make a transition from himself (9:1–27) to those at Corinth who have taken a casual attitude to their behavior with respect to food dedicated to idols (8:10–12). Their exercise of freedom without restraint, exemplified by a casual acceptance of invitations to dine in pagan temples, endangers both them and the weak if it fails to take seriously the influence of evil behind idolatry (chap. 10).
10:1–5. The people of Israel had made similar presumptions as those who together had been under the cloud and had passed through the sea (10:1; see Ex 13:17–14:31). Indeed, their experience suggests to Paul that all Israel underwent a baptism into Moses analogous to Christian baptism into Christ (10:2; cf. 1 Co 12:13; Gl 3:27). Furthermore, they all ate “spiritual food” and drank “spiritual drink” (10:3–4; see also Ex 16:1–17:7; Nm 20:1–13), experiences corresponding even more closely to the Christian (Jn 4:10; 7:37). For the “spiritual rock,” from which the drink came, continued to appear throughout their journey (according to a common Jewish understanding that interpreted Israel’s repeated ability to find water in the wilderness in this way). So Paul does not hesitate even to identify this saving action with the preincarnate work of God in Christ. Nevertheless, these experiences did not succeed in protecting most of the people from evil or from God’s judgment when they failed to take their actions seriously (10:5).
In 1 Co 10:1–13, as a way of warning the Corinthians about participating in idol feasts, Paul mentions how God blessed Israel during the wilderness wanderings and how they rebelled against God.
10:6–10. This should now serve as an example to dissuade Christians from stubbornly refusing to acknowledge and give up what is evil (10:6). The temptation to stubbornly ignore evil and acquiesce in an act of idolatry should be rejected (8:10–12; 10:14–22) if the Christians at Corinth are not simply to repeat in their own experience the experience of Israel (10:7; see Ex 32:6). In the same way, the temptation to “commit sexual immorality as some of them did” (Nm 25:1–9; the difference in the exact number of those who died is insignificant to the point of the argument) should also be refused (10:8). Persistence in behavior that might “test Christ” (in his resolve either to provide or to punish) should be eschewed, as should every temptation to grumble (10:9–10; Nm 16:41–50; 1 Co 1:11; 3:3).
10:11–13. Thus the past still serves to provide typical examples of divine judgment and, in this case, gives instruction to those who now participate in the fulfillment toward which all God’s action in the past was pointed (10:11). Christians who are entrenched in the firm defense of their conduct are especially urged to be careful (10:12). Yet no temptation, even of pride and stubbornness, is theirs alone. They are involved in something that has proved itself to be a common experience for all God’s people before and since. And God can be trusted not to allow temptation to go beyond their ability to resist if they will seek and do not ignore the way of escape he will provide (10:13).
10:14–15. In this case, the way of escape lies in a flight from the site of idolatry (10:14). Paul appeals without qualification to their ability to reason and form judgments based on what they know, for Christians are “sensible people” (10:15). Yet some of the Corinthians have failed to take into account all that needs to be considered before coming to a decision about how to respond when invited to a pagan temple. Paul has sketched out the potential implications of their conduct for others (8:9–12); now he invites them to consider the potentially harmful effects on themselves.
10:16–22. Once again the argument is by analogy. Paul’s first point of comparison is the Lord’s Supper: the acceptance of the “cup of blessing” and the “bread that we break” at the celebration of the Lord’s Supper enables a corporate and real participation or communion (Gk koinōnia) with Christ (10:16), because though many are present with individual thoughts, all “share the one bread” and thus become one body (10:17). He then draws on Israel’s sacrifices as a second analogy: the same sense of participation or communion is experienced in the life of the “people of Israel” in the sacrificial worship going on at the altar by all those who eat the sacrifices (10:18).
In the same way, then, the sacrifices of pagans (i.e., the food and drink present in a pagan temple) draw all who eat or drink them into corporate communion in a sphere where demonic presence is genuine and demonic influence powerful (10:19–20). For despite the fact that an idol has no real or personal existence, neither the reality nor the personal character of the evil that perpetuates a false worship can ever be doubted. Thus a Christian cannot participate in a meal at a pagan temple. To do so disregards realities and the inherent contradiction of trying to drink the cups of both the Lord and demons (10:21). Such action can only provoke the Lord to a jealous defense of his own unique right to be worshiped (Ex 20:3; Is 42:8; Rm 1:18–31) or invite the ludicrous thought that we are somehow more able in our freedom than he in his holiness (10:22).
10:23–24. The discussion to this point has highlighted two principles, which Paul now summarizes in 10:23–11:1. Paul has labored thus far to show that Christian freedom is not absolute. It must be qualified (10:23) through the exclusion of any attitude or action that is not beneficial to the development of the individual (10:1–22), or not constructive with respect to the growth of the community (8:1–13). Moreover, the two are tied together, because the goal for the Christian is to seek not simply one’s own good but also the “good of the other person” (10:24; cf. Php 2:4).
10:25–29a. Abruptly Paul turns to those who have gone to the opposite extreme and placed more restrictions than necessary on their freedom of conscience and behavior. They should eat whatever is sold in the market, without raising questions that are unnecessary outside the environs of a pagan temple (10:25). For beyond the confines where false worship is given and evil dwells, the earth—and all that is in it—is the Lord’s (10:26; see Ps 24:1). They may also accept an invitation to a meal at the home of an unbeliever and eat whatever is set before them (10:27). When they do, they should not raise questions of their own conscience, although they must respond to someone (Christian or not) who feels obliged to inform them that others present who are consuming this food both know and accept that it has been offered in sacrifice (10:28–29a).
10:29b–30. The next two questions are obviously intended to reinforce this advice, but the flow of thought is difficult. It may be, however, that the questions are intended to draw attention back to the basic advice of 7:27. If so, then the sense is that there is no need for Paul or any Christian to exercise restraint in deference to “another person’s conscience” unless that other person expresses his objections. For if that person does not (given that our conduct should not rest on assumptions about another person’s conscience), then Christians should be free to eat any meal with thankfulness and without fear of denunciation (10:30; cf. Gl 2:11–16).
10:31–11:1. This action or any other, however, should be construed as an opportunity to glorify God rather than an occasion to express our freedom (10:31). And the praise of God can only be diminished if our action causes anyone inside or outside the church to doubt the moral integrity of the gospel. So the Corinthians should follow the example of Paul, who attempted to “imitate Christ” (11:1) by conforming as far as possible to different standards (1 Co 9:19–23; Mt 9:10–13; Lk 7:36–50) and neglecting the pursuit of his own good in favor of the good of many (1 Co 10:24; cf. Mk 10:45) in order that they might continue in faith and so be saved (10:33).
C. Questions about worship, gifts, and order (11:2–14:40). A third topic provoking questions at Corinth concerned the proper expression and relative value of spiritual gifts, in particular the way in which certain gifts should be used in a worship service. Within this sphere of questions about worship, however, Paul takes time to deal first with two issues that have proved divisive in the worship of the church. These he has heard about, though the source of the report is not given.
11:2. The first issue is concerned with the different head coverings that appropriately distinguish women and men as they pray or prophesy in worship (11:2–16). The interpretation of the passage is complicated from the outset by its dependence on prior teaching, which Paul has given to the church but which, of course, is unknown to us (11:2). However, by beginning with “praise,” Paul hints that the church has not departed significantly from the substance of what he has previously taught.
11:3–5. The discussion of the issue then begins with a call for the church to acknowledge that “Christ is the head of every man” (11:3). However, the word “head” (Gk kephalē), used here and throughout this section, has various meanings. It may be used (as in 11:4–5) to speak of a physical head. But from this literal meaning come two metaphorical ones: rule and authority (the head of the church being in authority over the body; see Eph 1:22) or source and origin (the head of the church being the source of its existence; see Col 1:18). Either meaning enables these words to support the instructions that follow. But the second has the advantage of according greater continuity to the section as a whole (see 11:8–11).
If the second of the metaphorical meanings is Paul’s here, then his principle will be a statement of the truth that the source of every man’s existence (or perhaps “person’s”; the Greek can be used generically) is Christ, “through whom all things were made” (the Nicene Creed; cf. Jn 1:3; Col 1:16); the source of woman’s existence is “the man” (the definite article in Greek is used with the word “man,” not “woman”; see Gn 2:22–23; 1 Tm 2:13); and the source of existence for the historical person of Christ is God (Lk 1:34–35; Gl 4:4).
11:6–7. Thus a man who prays or prophesies with his physical head covered symbolically dishonors the source of his existence by obscuring that which was created in the image of God and designed to reflect that image to God’s glory (11:7; cf. Gn 1:26). Similarly, a woman who prays or prophesies (a practice Paul affirms apart from these comments on proper dress) with her physical head uncovered symbolically refuses to honor the source of her existence (i.e., by trying to obscure the distinctions between woman and man) and so brings dishonor on her own head as surely as if it were “shaved” (11:6). Thus, if a woman refuses to “cover her head,” she may as well “have her hair cut off,” for the latter state is no more or less dishonoring to her than the former.
11:8–12. The basis for this argument is now repeated and supplemented (11:9; cf. Gn 2:18) before Paul returns to the question of the woman’s appearance. For the “reason” he has given (11:7–9), and because of the angels (11:10; who were present with God at creation [Jb 38:4–7] and at the time the law was given to reveal and preserve the created order [Ac 7:53; Gl 3:19]), the woman who prays or prophesies must “have a symbol of authority on her head.” This allows her to transcend her created distinction from man (without seeking to deny it) in the expression of her gift. For both now participate in worship in a new order in Christ (1 Co 12:13; 2 Co 5:17; Gl 3:28; Col 3:11). This does not mean, however, that in the Lord woman is free to disregard man, nor is man free to disregard woman. The truth is that they are dependent on each other, and both are dependent on God (11:11–12).
11:13–16. As before, the Corinthians are urged to form their own conclusions based on Paul’s presentation (11:13). But they are reminded that nature reveals this same order as surely as scriptural argument (11:14–15). Thus, if anyone refuses to accept the evidence of either Scripture or nature, then Paul’s practice (see also 11:1) will have to provide sufficient grounds for their conformity to these instructions (11:16).
11:17–19. In contrast to the previous section, Paul has no praise for what he has heard about the Corinthians’ demeanor when they gather in worship at the Lord’s Supper (11:17). For in the midst of a celebration of unity, there are divisions among fellow believers (11:18). And while some divisions are needed to distinguish those who believe and act genuinely (receiving God’s approval as a result) from those who do not (11:19), other differences are unnecessary; and if stubbornly or pridefully maintained, they are liable to result in judgment (11:34).
11:20–22. The division between those who remain hungry and those who get drunk at the Lord’s table is one such unnecessary and dangerous difference (11:21). Homes are settings in which one may eat and drink freely according to his or her own means, but to do so in the midst of others who are hungry is to despise the new order of the church of God, in which people, both slave and free, are united in their status in Christ (1 Co 12:13; Gl 3:28; Col 3:11), and to humiliate Christian brothers and sisters (11:22). Paul’s words imply that the Corinthian church celebrated the Lord’s Supper at the end of a communal meal. The division of which Paul has heard is likely the product of differences in social and economic status, which were a prominent feature of life in the first century.
11:23–26. Since Paul cannot praise the Corinthians for remembering what he has taught them about the Lord’s Supper, he now reminds them of the words he received and “passed on” to them (11:23a). Paul’s testimony accords quite closely, though not exactly, with that of the Gospel records. Our Lord, on the night of his betrayal, took bread, gave thanks, broke it into pieces, and said, “This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me” (11:23b–24).
These words, precisely in contrast to their intent, have proven to be a source of division among Christians. For whatever the relationship established between the body and the bread, both are given for the benefit of all (the “you” is plural in Greek), that all may share in one body and celebrate their unity together in this memorial. In the same way, Jesus took the cup at the end of the meal and said, “This cup is the new covenant [see Jr 31:31–34] in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me” (11:25). Thus, whenever Christians together “eat this bread and drink the cup” (in contrast to common food and drink), they proclaim the Lord’s death, which is for all (2 Co 5:14–16), inaugurating the new age (2 Co 5:17; 10:11) that will be brought to its culmination when he returns (11:26).
The two verbs that Paul uses in 1 Co 11:23 to describe what he has “received” and “passed on” are technical terms in Judaism for the deliberate preservation and careful transmission of a tradition. Paul therefore provides what is probably the earliest account in the NT of this part of the tradition about Jesus’s words and actions at the Last Supper (cf. Lk 1:1–3).
11:27–32. Therefore, because of the significance invested in these elements, anyone who consumes them in a manner that is not in keeping with their purpose of uniting believers with each other and with their Lord “will be guilty of sin against the body and blood of the Lord” (11:27). That person will have failed to distinguish the consumption of these elements from that of ordinary food and drink. So all people, before they eat or drink, should examine their attitudes toward those with whom they are about to share in this most intimate fellowship (11:28). For if the Corinthians do not sense within themselves a genuine affirmation of unity, or a willingness to affirm unity, then they have failed to recognize the body of the Lord, which is made present in order to unite all with Christ, and they eat and drink judgment on themselves (11:29).
Furthermore (as Paul discerns from what he has heard), judgment has already begun to manifest itself in the weakness, sickness, and death of some within the church (11:30). But such signs of judgment would be unnecessary if the Corinthians would judge themselves in the manner Paul has indicated (11:31–32).
11:33–34. The conclusion to be reached is brief. When the Corinthians gather in worship to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, they must “welcome one another” (11:33) and come together to eat instead of going ahead as individuals with their own private provisions. If any are so hungry that they cannot wait, then they should eat at home first so as not to provoke judgment. Paul will provide more directions when he comes (11:34).
12:1–3. Paul now passes on to Corinthian questions about the spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40), for Christians should not be unaware regarding them (12:1). Their pagan experience should show, however, how easy it is to get carried away in ecstatic worship and “enticed” toward speech, even speech uttered falsely in the name of a mute idol (12:2). Thus, it is important to realize that speech inspired by the Spirit of God will never produce the words “Jesus is cursed” (12:3), despite any sense of ecstasy (which, if it were false, might explain this strange utterance) or any temptation under persecution to apostasy (an alternative context in which this cry might be comprehensible). Conversely, no one can say “Jesus is Lord,” producing the content of the most basic Christian confession (Php 2:11), without openness to the inspiration of the Spirit. [Spiritual Gifts]
12:4–11. The major topic that Paul addresses in this section (12:4–31) is the relative value of the various spiritual gifts, as well as speculation about the degree of inspiration (or the Spirit) associated with each gift. Since speech “in tongues” is mentioned repeatedly in this chapter and the next, becoming the main focus of discussion in chapter 14, it seems likely that this gift was highly regarded at Corinth and that its recipients tended to exercise a dominant role in worship.
In response to this situation, Paul stresses first (in an early expression of trinitarian thought) that all the different gifts are distributed by one Spirit (12:4), just as different services are allocated by the same Lord and different ministries are enabled by the same God (12:5). Thus in the same way that services and works are performed not primarily for the benefit of the individual but for that of others, “a manifestation of the Spirit is given to each person for the common good” (12:7).
The list that follows (12:8–10) is not intended to be exhaustive but is typical of the gifts that had been experienced at one time or another by Christians in Corinth (see also Rm 12:6–8; Eph 4:11). It is then repeated that all these are the product of the same Spirit, who distributes them not necessarily one by one but to each person for the good of all (12:11).
12:12–26. Paul now illustrates the unity (12:12–13), diversity (12:14–20), and integrity (12:21–26) produced at the Spirit’s inspiration among the body of Christ. The point is analogy, not identity. Christ dwells in the church after the resurrection but possesses his own body as well. The basis for comparison lies in the fact that all Christians, despite the inequities of their former existence, have now been brought into one body (see also Gl 3:27–28) by a common experience of the Spirit in baptism (12:13). This does not mean, however, that all will now be given exactly the same gifts, for a body is constituted not by a single part but by many (12:14). Thus the diversity among the parts of the body is no cause for concern about membership or status in the body (12:15–17). For, in fact, “God has arranged each one of the parts in the body” with thought for the proper place and role of each, so that there are “many parts, but one body” (12:18–20).
The cult of Asclepius, the god of healing, and his daughter Hygeia was accorded a prominent place in Corinth, and those who sought healing for a part of the body would often leave a representation of it in the Asclepion. Perhaps Paul has this in mind as he reminds his readers that the body is a unit and not simply a collection of various parts (1 Co 12:12).
Moreover, the unity of the body is not superficial but integral to its existence. Weaker parts of the body are indispensable, less honorable parts (i.e., those not usually receiving recognition) are given greater honor (12:23), and “unrespectable parts” are accorded a modesty that witnesses to their importance. And all this is by design (cf. 12:18). For God has now given greater honor to those members who before their incorporation into the body of Christ had little honor outside it, so that no cause for a division of honor, attention, status, or concern might exist within the body (12:24–25). Thus, if any part of the body suffers in its ability to function within the body, “all the members suffer with it,” and when one part is honored, all will rejoice in the recognition of its capability (12:26).
12:27–31. Repeating the affirmation with which he began the analogy, Paul now moves to his conclusion. The gifts may be differentiated, but not on the basis of supposition about the degree of inspiration. Rather, those who are given gifts are to be set in order on the basis of their ability (via God’s appointment) to serve and edify the body (see 3:5–15). Thus apostles come first, prophets second, teachers third, then miracle-workers, healers, helpers, administrators, and last those speaking in “various kinds of tongues” (12:28). The point is reinforced by questions that treat the gifts in the same order (12:29–30). If all are not appointed and gifted to be apostles, it follows that all should not expect to receive any particular gift, including the ability to speak in tongues or interpret.
| Rm 12:6–8 |
1 Co 12:8–10 |
1 Co 12:28–30 |
Eph 4:11 |
1 Pt 4:9–11 |
|
| Prophecy | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | |
| Service | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Teaching | ✔ | ✔ | ✔ | ||
| Exhorting | ✔ | ||||
| Giving | ✔ | ||||
| Leading | ✔ | ||||
| Showing mercy | ✔ | ||||
| Wisdom | ✔ | ||||
| Knowledge | ✔ | ||||
| Faith | ✔ | ||||
| Healing | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Miraculous powers | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Distinguishing spirits | ✔ | ||||
| Speaking in tongues | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Interpreting tongues | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Apostle | ✔ | ✔ | |||
| Helping | ✔ | ||||
| Administrating | ✔ | ||||
| Evangelist | ✔ | ||||
| Pastor | ✔ | ||||
| Hospitality | ✔ | ||||
| Speaking | ✔ |
The discussion, however, is not allowed to conclude on this point. For neither the gifts nor the giver is static (see 12:11). Thus all may “desire” to someday sense the call and empowerment to use in service to the body those gifts that really are “greater” in the list Paul has outlined (12:31). But in the midst of this ambition (as they are encouraged to realize) they should know that these gifts are still not the “even better way” to serve.
13:1–3. Once more Paul pauses to insert a section that interrupts his direct reply in order to clarify the grounds on which his response rests. He has said that the gifts are given for the “common good” (12:7), but this goal will not be reached apart from a motive to guide and direct their exercise. Thus, “if I speak human or angelic tongues,” and love does not motivate the control of my speech, “I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal” (13:1)—instruments that produce a variety of sounds to command attention but only frustrate their audience unless accompanied by music or words that interpret their meaning. Similarly, to have “the gift of prophecy” (which conveys insight into the mysteries of God’s activity [1 Co 2:7] and knowledge about God himself [1 Co 8:4]) or a “faith so that I can move mountains” (cf. Mk 11:23) is of no value unless these abilities are motivated by love as they are used within the body of Christ (13:2). So also the offering of “all my possessions” in sacrificial service to the poor or the offering of “my body in order to boast” (or “to be burned”; see the CSB footnote) in the sacrifice of martyrdom is of no lasting benefit apart from the motivation of love (13:3).
13:4–7. This love comes to expression in different ways at different times, through patience and kindness that elevate others (13:4). It does not express itself through the envy, boastfulness, or pride that keeps attention centered on self. On the same basis, the rudeness, the pursuit of self-gain, the anger, and the vindictiveness that express themselves at the expense of others are never characteristic of love (13:5). For love cannot be identified with the enjoyment that is achieved for ourselves by such means; its enjoyment consists in acknowledging the truth, of which our perception and interest are only a part (13:6). Such love always protects the interests of others, always trusts in their intentions, always hopes for their good, and always perseveres in its attempt to do these things (13:7).
13:8–10. Such love also “never ends”—whether in the past, the present, or the future—among those who belong to God (13:8). It will continue to do so even after prophecies, tongues, and knowledge cease (there is no indication here that Paul thought any of these events likely before the time when God’s kingdom is perfectly or completely manifested, 13:10; cf. 15:20–28). For our knowledge of God and our words spoken in worship in the light of what we know (whether our knowledge is expressed in words of prophecy or in tongues) are only a part of what they should be, and when perfection in thought and expression arrives, the imperfect always “come[s] to an end” (13:9–10).
13:11–13. It is this way in our own experience, for childhood speech and thought inevitably give way to different patterns in adulthood (13:11). Similarly, the poor reflection of anything seen in a mirror (such as those manufactured in first-century Corinth) could not be compared to the experience of seeing the same thing “face to face” (13:12). For now, then, these analogies should caution us that our present knowledge of God (and, by implication, the worship such knowledge initiates) will change and pale when we come to know God as completely as he now knows us. In view of this, three things can be trusted to remain unaltered by the enlargement of our knowledge: “faith, hope, and love—but the greatest of these is love” (13:13).
14:1–5. If love motivates the exercise of the gifts, it should not be difficult, as Paul now shows (14:1–25), to determine which gift should be accorded priority in worship. For while all the gifts are desirable, the gift of prophecy builds up or edifies the church to a greater extent than any other. On this basis, prophecy is to be given priority over the gift of speech in tongues, in contrast to some at Corinth who thought otherwise. For speech in tongues is directed in the first instance not toward those present in worship but toward God (14:2). Indeed, the conversation concerning divine mysteries is private to the extent that it is unintelligible to others apart from interpretation. But prophecy (whether it explains the significance of God’s actions and words for the present or reveals what God intends for the future) is given in language expressly to strengthen, encourage, and comfort other persons at worship (14:3).
Paul refers to “faith, hope, and love” (1 Co 13:13) together in some of his other letters as well, such as when he recalls to the Thessalonians “your work produced by faith, your labor motivated by love, and your endurance inspired by hope in our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Th 1:3; see also 1 Th 5:8; cf. Col 1:4–5).
The ability to speak in tongues is not to be neglected, for it has value for everyone to whom the gift is given. But the exercise of prophecy in worship is preferable because it is of value not only to the individual but also to the church (14:4). This contrast holds unless the one who speaks in tongues also interprets, so that the church may be made aware of the contents of an otherwise private conversation (14:5).
14:6–12. Several illustrations reinforce the point. If Paul were to come to the Corinthians speaking in tongues, clearly his visit would do them no good unless he also communicated in the intelligible language associated with the other speaking gifts (14:6). Similarly, the sounds produced by musical instruments must be distinct and clear if they are intended to convey a tune or a message that is understandable (14:7–8). Language itself furnishes a final illustration. For even languages, all of which have meaning, cannot convey their meaning so long as the hearer remains a foreigner to the language of the one who speaks (14:9–11).
14:13–19. For the reason that has now been stated and illustrated, persons who speak in tongues in worship should pray that they may interpret this speech to the others present (14:13). This is true even when persons pray in tongues. For in such prayer, apart from interpretation, the individual may communicate with God in a way that brings satisfaction to the spirit without enabling the mind to comprehend its basis (14:14). However, prayer of this kind is not to be abandoned. Instead, it is to be supplemented by prayer that can be understood by the mind—just as the song that springs spontaneously from our spirit is to be supplemented by that which is composed purposefully by our mind—and recognized as a form of prayer that is less desirable in corporate worship because it does not allow others to join in its praise (14:15–17).
The weight of Paul’s own practice is now thrown behind the argument. For even though Paul himself can give thanks to God for the ability to speak in tongues, a gift he has received with greater frequency than any at Corinth (14:18), he nonetheless prefers “in the church” to speak words that are few but meaningful to all as opposed to words that may be numerous but do not promote corporate understanding or response (14:19).
14:20–22. The Corinthians are exhorted to have a mature evaluation of the gifts (14:20) by keeping in view a passage from Isaiah (14:21). In context (Is 28:11–12) these words come in response to the mocking of the form of speech used by the prophet to convey God’s message. In turn Isaiah promises that, since Israel will not listen to the Lord’s word in their own language, they will hear the message that his judgment has come upon them spoken by people of strange tongues, and even then they will not listen readily. In this sense, speaking in tongues is meant to be a sign for unbelievers (14:22), as a display of God’s power sent with the intention that when they are at last understood they may also convict. Prophecy’s true purpose, however, is to instruct and speedily convict those who believe in its words.
14:23–25. Paul then applies this interpretative insight to the Corinthian worship service. If the church gathers and “all are speaking in other tongues,” when others come in, they will not readily listen to sounds they do not understand but attribute them instead to a temporary insanity (14:23; see also Ac 2:13–15). But if, in the same circumstances, prophecy is being exercised, then the message of conviction will be immediately understood, and repentance, worship, and confession will surely follow (14:24–25).
14:26–28. In a series of instructions, Paul now spells out the practical consequences of all his teaching in this section (14:26–40). When the church gathers, each person is to make the contribution that the Spirit inspires. Their ministries must be organized by their common commitment to structure worship so as to promote building up the church (14:26). Thus, if those who have the ability to speak in tongues feel inspired to contribute, they must not be allowed to dominate the service. “There are to be only two, or at the most three, each in turn,” and someone should be able to interpret to all present (14:27). If such interpretation is not made available by the Spirit, those who speak in tongues should “keep silent” enough in the church to enable their speech to function as a private prayer (14:28).
14:29–33a. Prophecy likewise, despite its value, is not a gift to be exercised in excess. “Two or three prophets should speak,” and then there must be time allowed for the congregation to reflect on the significance of what it has heard (14:29). If a prophetic insight comes to a church member while another person is giving a prophetic message, the one who is speaking should give way temporarily to the other member (14:30). In this way all who are inspired can “prophesy one by one” and the church can receive the maximum amount of instruction and encouragement (14:31). Those with the gift of prophecy should not object that they cannot be interrupted, because it is within their control to remember and resume their message (14:32). In this way a peaceful order will be established that reflects God’s character (14:33a).
14:33b–35. To explain the meaning of these verses and remove any tension between them and the permission given in 11:5 for women to pray and prophesy has always proved difficult. (Note that some early manuscripts place verses 34–35 after verse 40, indicating that they may have been added later to this letter; note also how the words of verse 36 follow naturally those of verse 33.) The explanation that seems most worthy of consideration takes its cue from the evidence of 14:35. The words “if they want to learn something” appear to point to a certain kind of speaking that was proving itself as disruptive within Corinthian worship as the unrestrained exercise of other kinds of speech and that was associated in this particular congregation with women. Perhaps it was simply the frustrated speech of wives whose soft-spoken questions were ignored by husbands, or the bolder speech of women who ignored their husbands entirely and interrupted to ask questions of the person who was speaking.
In any case, the instruction here (14:34) is that such women should not be permitted to speak in the disrespectful and disruptive way that they are doing but “are to submit themselves” (to their husbands; the word “submission” is one that Paul defines for his own use in terms of respect; see Eph 5:21–33), “as the law also says.” (Though there is no specific place in the OT where such submission or obedience is commanded, this idea is the presumption behind much of its content.) Instead they should ask their questions of their husbands at home (either before they disrupt the speaker, or before they distract their husbands and those around them). For “it is disgraceful” (see 11:7, where the same Greek word is used of women who refuse to cover their heads as a sign of respect) “for a woman to speak [in this way] in the church” (14:35).
14:36–40. The whole section is now brought to a close with a rhetorical question, a statement of the possibilities left open by the argument, and a final exhortation. The question is designed to deflect the Corinthian tendency toward a sense of their own inspiration and the stubbornly prideful maintenance of unhelpful and idiosyncratic customs (14:36). The statement sets forth Paul’s expectation that any true “prophet” or “spiritual” person will acknowledge the truth in what he has written (14:37). If stubborn ignorance is chosen, however, then it will also be safe to ignore such an individual’s claims to be led by the Spirit (14:38). The exhortation epitomizes Paul’s advice. The ability to prophesy should be sought eagerly, and speaking in tongues should not be forbidden (14:39). But whatever form the worship service takes as a result of adherence to these directions, “everything is to be done decently and in order” (14:40).
D. Questions about the resurrection and life in the age to come (15:1–58). Whether this final section comes in reply to reports (15:12) or tentative questions (15:35), Paul writes to defend, clarify, and broaden his teaching concerning the resurrection (15:1–11). From the statement attributed to some at Corinth (15:12), it seems that their attitude was being shaped by a skeptical aversion to the resurrection of the dead (cf. Ac 17:32). If this is so, then the crux of the issue was probably an opposition (which was characteristic of Greeks and, on occasion, Hellenistic Jews) to the notion of a bodily resurrection and the preference for an idea of immortality of the soul. Added to this was likely a remembrance that when Paul had originally spoken about the resurrection, he had done so with words about believers already being “raised” with Christ (Eph 2:6; Col 2:12; 3:1; in contrast, 2 Tm 2:17–18). In response, Paul seeks to demonstrate the validity of the idea of bodily resurrection (15:1–11), its necessity (15:12–19, 29–34), its futurity (15:20–28, 51–58), and its nature (15:35–50).
15:1–5. Paul begins by reminding the Corinthians of the gospel he preached to them, which they received, in which they have placed their trust, and by which they are saved if they continue to take their stand with regard to their faith in its truth (15:1). For otherwise, if initial acceptance gives way to confirmed disbelief, they will have believed in vain (15:2).
The content of Paul’s preaching is now crystallized in a creedal form that is introduced with technical terms (“passed on,” “received”) for the careful transmission of tradition (cf. 11:23) to demonstrate a link between Paul and others who provided sure access as witnesses to the events that are now described (15:3a). The contents of this very early creed are composed from the facts of Jesus’s death, interpreted (with probable reference to his teaching [Mk 10:45] and the scriptural figure of the Suffering Servant [Is 53:12]) as a death for our sins, burial (which meant he had actually died [Mk 15:44–46]), resurrection (which took place when God raised his Son in accordance with the Scriptures [Ac 2:24–32]), and appearance after death (“to Peter” [Lk 24:34]; then to the Twelve [as a group, not a number; Lk 24:36]) (15:3b–5).
15:6–8. The creed (the elements of which are all joined to one another by the repetition of the word “that”) is now supplemented by additions. They provide evidence for an appearance of the risen Christ to more than five hundred (15:6; otherwise unmentioned in the NT), to James (15:7; accounting apparently for his conversion and rapid rise to leadership in the Jerusalem church [Mk 3:20–21; Jn 7:5; Ac 12:17; 15:13]), to all the apostles (an appearance distinguished here from that of 15:5; cf. Ac 1:3), and last of all (in time only, not in importance) to Paul (in an appearance so long after the others as to make Paul an apostle “born at the wrong time,” 15:8; see also Ac 9:5).
15:9–11. Nonetheless, though least among the apostles and undeserving of the title because, unlike the others, he had persecuted the church of God (15:9; cf. Ac 9:1–2), Paul was still called by divine grace, which is not in vain, to do the work of an apostle (15:10a). In response, he expended more effort in travel and ministry and reaped more success (because of the “grace of God that was with me”) in the founding of churches than any other (15:10b). So whether the Corinthians wish to view Paul’s preaching, or that of those whose witness formed the tradition behind his preaching, as the source for their knowledge of Jesus’s death and resurrection, it makes no difference to the content of the gospel or the substance of their faith (15:11).
15:12–19. Paul next points out the implications of unbelief. The Corinthians have been reminded that the resurrection lies at the heart of the gospel that was proclaimed to them. But is it necessarily the center, or does the call to a spiritual life in union with the risen Christ demonstrate that, unlike Christ, Christians are called to be those who pursue and receive spiritual immortality rather than resurrection from the dead? Some such question appears to have led various persons within the church to deny any connection between the fact that “Christ is proclaimed as raised from the dead” and their idea that “there is no resurrection of the dead” in general (15:12).
But the disjunction is a false one, for if in fact there is no such thing as a “resurrection of the righteous” (Lk 14:14; Ac 24:15), then there is no reason to believe in the anomaly of Jesus’s resurrection (15:13). But if he has not been raised, then both to preach and to believe the resurrection is in vain (15:14). Worse, such preaching would be tantamount to bearing false witness about God’s actions (15:15–16). Worse still, if Christ has not been raised, then apart from God’s vindication made evident by the resurrection, faith in Christ’s death as the sacrifice for our sins is futile, and those who have fallen asleep, or died, believing in Christ as their Savior have also perished (15:17–18). Worst of all, if Christians have only a false hope in Christ for any life beyond the present, then “we should be pitied more than anyone” as self-deluded (15:19).
Paul emphasizes that the resurrection of Jesus is integral to the Christian faith. This Judean tomb is likely similar to the one in which Jesus was laid.
15:20–22. However, such consequences need to be explored no more, as Paul gives the implications of a true understanding (15:20–28). Christ has been raised as the firstfruits from the dead (15:20). “Firstfruits” refers to the first produce of a harvest; such produce represented what might be expected from the crop and was to be presented to God in the temple (Ex 23:19). The thought of Christ’s resurrection as a representative event triggers the comparisons that follow between Christ and Adam. For just as death came into the world through a man whose actions were representative of the harvest of sin and death of all who have come after him, so now the resurrection of the dead has come through a man whose destiny his progeny can also fully expect to share (15:21). For inasmuch as all who are united with Adam by birth and by sin die, all who are united with Christ by rebirth and faith will, like him, be made alive (15:22).
15:23–28. But each person will be made alive in their own order—first Christ, then those who belong to Christ at his coming (15:23; cf. 15:52; 1 Th 4:14). Then comes “the end,” the time when Christ hands over to the Father his kingly rule over all those who believe in him (15:24). This will not happen, however (Ps 110:1; Mk 12:36; Ac 2:34–35), until all the other forces that exercise an alien power over Christ’s people have been destroyed, including the last such enemy, which is death (15:25–26). But when all these have been destroyed, the God who has put them all under Christ’s feet (Ps 110:1; cf. Ps 8:6) by destroying their power must not be expected to subject himself to Christ (15:27). Rather, just the opposite will happen. “The Son himself will also be subject” to the Father, who has given him his kingly authority so that God may be recognized as the true source of “everything” that has happened “in all” these events (15:28).
15:29–34. If there is no resurrection, then to repeatedly endanger one’s life on behalf of the gospel is foolish (15:30). Why expend the effort that brings him unnecessarily closer to death every day (15:31)? And what possible benefit could there have been in allowing himself to be put in the arena with “wild beasts” at Ephesus for the cause of Christ (15:32a; an event otherwise unmentioned in the NT)? For if the dead are not raised, then it is much more prudent to enjoy the pleasures of life for as long as possible (15:32b; see Is 22:13).
As they reflect on their answers to these questions, the Corinthians are not to be deceived by the opinions of those outside the church, for as even the pagan playwright Menander said, “Bad company corrupts good morals” (15:33). Instead of a life lived in sin, which results from an excessive pursuit of the pleasures of the body, prompted perhaps by the notion that a spiritual union with Christ after the death of the body is assured, the Corinthians are called back from such shameful ignorance of the truth to the Christian use of right reason (15:34).
15:35–42a. The argument could certainly have been ended at this point, but questions about the nature of the resurrection (15:35) prompt further discussion (15:36–50). The second question (“What kind of body . . . ?”) explains the sense of the first (“How are the dead raised?”). The Corinthians are not asking about the way in which God’s power could make possible a resurrection but are questioning the implications of the idea. To ask the latter question, however, is foolish if the former is already answered with reference to God. The use of analogy will demonstrate this.
Paul begins with a biological analogy in common use among rabbis of the first century (Jn 12:24). A seed that is sown does not come to life in the form of a plant unless its first form, its bodily shell, dies (15:36). Furthermore, the form of the seed that is sown says nothing about the nature of the plant that will sprout (15:37). The form of the seed and that of the plant differ because God gives the latter a bodily form according to his own plan, and that he is able to do this is demonstrated repeatedly in the present by his power to give each kind of seed its own body (15:38). Similarly, divine activity in the present also explains why “not all flesh is the same flesh” (15:39). But just as “earthly bodies” now manifest God’s splendor differently than do “heavenly bodies” (15:40), “so it is with the resurrection of the dead” (15:42a).
The NT emphasizes the importance of the resurrection of the body at the return of Christ, which promises much more than just going to heaven when we die.
15:42b–49. The body that now displays God’s glory is perishable; the body that will be raised will display God’s glory in an imperishable form (15:42b). The body whose glory is now partially obscured in the dishonor of sin and death will be raised to reflect fully and completely God’s glory (15:43a). The body that dies in weakness will be raised to share in the power that comes from God himself (15:43b). And finally, most comprehensively, the one who dies in a “natural body” will be raised to life in a spiritual body (15:44a; note, however, that it is still a body, which is both like and unlike ours).
Thus the plausibility of a spiritual body, and something of its nature, is demonstrated from the fact of a “natural body” (15:44b). It may also be demonstrated from Scripture. For in the same way that Adam as a living being represents the first of his species, so Christ, the last Adam, as a spiritual being, gives life to a new race of persons whose bodily form is now represented only by his own (15:45). The point, however, is that full spiritual existence in a glorified body does not come until natural existence in a physical body is ended (15:46). But when it does, we shall share in the same kind of spiritual existence as our Lord, as surely as we now share in the same kind of physical existence as Adam (15:47–48). And the resemblance will extend even to our appearance (15:49).
15:50–58. But if the end of our natural life is a prerequisite to the transformation that allows our participation in the eternal kingdom of God (15:50), then what will happen to those who are left alive at the time of Christ’s coming and this world’s demise? The answer is part of the mysterious wisdom of God’s plan. In the same moment that the dead are raised, those who are alive will also be changed (15:51–52). Their perishable physical existence will be cloaked by the imperishable existence and immortality of a body transformed by God’s power, just as with those who have died and been resurrected (15:53–54a).
And so the prophetic words of Is 25:8 and Hs 13:14 will be fulfilled (15:54b–55). For, together with those who have been resurrected, those who have not passed through death and resurrection and yet have been transformed will also be able to celebrate their victory in Christ over the sting of death. For death’s power over a sinful humanity has been destroyed by Christ, and he gives to all his own, whether living or dead, his victory over death in which they may gratefully share (15:56–57). Consequently, Paul encourages the Corinthians to remain true to their trust in Christ’s promise to share with them his victory over death and to devote themselves fully and without fear to the work of the Lord (15:58).
E. Questions about the collection and Paul’s plans (16:1–9). 16:1–4. A final Corinthian question remains about “the collection for the saints” (16:1a; see also Rm 15:25–28; Gl 2:10). From the content of Paul’s reply, their questions seem to have been more concerned with the nature and timing of their own participation than with the collection itself or the rationale behind it. The Corinthians are advised to do as Paul has already directed the Galatian churches to do (16:1b). (Paul’s reference must be to a message sent orally or in writing; the Letter to the Galatians contains no explicit reference to the collection or directions for contributors.) Each person is to save up a weekly contribution, so that Paul may not have to make a special appeal at the time of his arrival (16:2). When he arrives, he will give the appropriate letters of introduction to those appointed by the church to carry the gift to Jerusalem (16:3; cf. Ac 20:4). Whether Paul will accompany them himself is uncertain as he writes this letter (16:4; though it seems almost certain that he did, and that the collection is the reason for a journey to Jerusalem in Ac 20–21).
16:5–9. Paul now coordinates the instructions for the collection with his own plans. At this point (though as 2 Co 1:15–17 indicates, his plans were modified), Paul’s hope is to come to Corinth after passing through Macedonia (16:5), to stay at Corinth (perhaps even for the winter), and then to continue his journey wherever that may take him (16:6–7). But he does not intend to begin his journey or leave Ephesus (from where this letter is written) until Pentecost; the opportunity for ministry, despite opposition, is simply too great to be abandoned too quickly (16:8–9).
We read about what happened to Paul when he returned to Jerusalem in Ac 21–23. Although he was pleasantly received by the believers, he ran into a great deal of trouble when Jews from Asia stirred up opposition against him.
4. THE RECOMMENDATION OF OTHERS (16:10–18)
16:10–14. Paul’s response to the Corinthians’ questions is now concluded, but his mention of his own plans leads him to relay to his readers what news he has of other persons with whom he and his readers are acquainted. They can expect a visit from Timothy, and when he arrives, they should give him no cause for fear to act and speak openly (16:10). Instead, they are to overcome his fears with their acceptance of his ministry and send him back to Paul in peace (16:11). (Whether “the brothers” mentioned here are traveling with Timothy or waiting for him with Paul is uncertain.)
Next Paul writes to the Corinthians about Apollos (16:12). Paul has indeed seen him and strongly urged him to visit them again (either on his own initiative or at the Corinthians’ request). But, at the time, “he was not at all willing to come,” and so they must not expect him until a later opportunity presents itself. (Whether Apollos ever returned to Corinth is not known.) Perhaps, however, it is not too much to conjecture that the words of exhortation that immediately follow (16:13–14) are meant to reflect Apollos’s agreement with the substance of Paul’s letter and his own greeting to the church.
16:15–18. Paul then commends to his readers those from the household of Stephanas, the first converts in Achaia (16:15a). They have devoted themselves to the service of the Lord’s people and consequently deserve the same submissive respect as others from outside the church who function as teachers and leaders (16:15b–16).
Finally, Paul conveys to the church that Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus have arrived, and he gladly commends their service in supplying him with the information that has allowed him to respond more fully to the church’s needs (16:17). Such men deserve recognition for their ministry of keeping the apostle and the church in touch with one another (16:18).
5. FINAL GREETINGS AND FORMAL CLOSING (16:19–24)
16:19–21. As in the opening of this letter, Paul now reverts to the elements that were customary in the closing of a letter in his era. First are closing greetings sent by Paul and by others. The others mentioned include “the churches of Asia” (among which Paul is now working), Aquila and Priscilla (who earlier hosted Paul and worked alongside him in his initial mission in Corinth, departing and journeying with him to Ephesus, where they chose to remain), “the church [at Ephesus] that meets in their home,” and “all the brothers and sisters” (either the rest of the Ephesian believers or Paul’s fellow workers in the Ephesian ministry) (16:19–20a). The warmth of their greeting to the Corinthians is to be conveyed symbolically with the Corinthians embracing one another in the way that these others would embrace them if they were present (16:20b). Paul’s final greeting in his own hand (16:21) serves a double purpose: authenticating this letter as his own (Gl 6:11; Col 4:18; 2 Th 3:17) and indicating that it was probably composed, as was customary, by dictation (Rm 16:22).
16:22–24. Next, again as was usual, one finds a final short message (16:22). Originating perhaps as part of an early Christian worship service (in which the response to the words found here may have been, “If anyone loves the Lord, let him be blessed”), these words remind the readers that in the end, love for the Lord is the paramount quality of Christian faith and as such should unite all believers. Similarly the cry “Our Lord, come!” is also probably cited from the liturgical context of worship that was meant to unite all believers. [Maranatha]
Finally, as was normal, a formal closing concludes the letter. Paul’s closing ends the letter as it began—with the recognition of God’s grace given in Jesus (16:23) and with the conveyance of his own abiding love for all in Christ (16:24).