Levites One of the twelve tribes of Israel, descended from Jacob’s son Levi. The smallest of the tribes during the wilderness wanderings, the Levites provide Israel with the priests who offer sacrifices to God and other ministers who care for the tabernacle and its sacred furnishings. The term “Levite” is somewhat fluid in meaning, sometimes referring solely to the nonpriestly descendants of Levi and other times including the Aaronic priests.

The Bible consistently states that only the priests can offer sacrifices to God and draw near to the ark and other holy items in the tabernacle. The other Levites are warned, on pain of death, not to come into contact with the holy things (Nm 18:3). Divided into three kinship groups—Kohathites, Gershonites, Merarites—their duties include dismantling, transporting, and reassembling the tabernacle and sacred items as the Israelites move from site to site (Nm 4). At the time of the exodus their population is roughly equivalent to the number of firstborn males in all Israel, for whom they serve as substitutes (Nm 3:39–43).

The Levites uniquely receive no inheritance when the land of Canaan is divided. Their dispersal in forty-eight cities (Nm 35:1–8) allows the Levites to represent God among the other tribes. Lacking their own land, they are dependent on their fellow Israelites to support them with tithes. The Levites in turn give a tithe to the priests.

During the time of David and Solomon, the Levites receive new roles because there is no longer any need to transport the tabernacle (1 Ch 23:2–5, 25–32). Temple duties include purifying the sacred objects, providing the Bread of the Presence and flour for the grain offerings, and bringing thanks and praise to God. Some Levites are appointed as prophets and musicians (1 Ch 25:1). Others serve the king as gatekeepers, treasurers, judges, scribes, and other officials.

At various times during Israel’s history, certain Levites assume the role of priest. Judges tells how one man, Micah, hires a Levite as his personal priest. The context makes it clear that this is inappropriate (Jdg 17:5–12). Anticipating the reestablishment of worship in Israel after the exile, Ezekiel recounts that the Levites formerly led the nation in worshiping idols. Although they will no longer serve as priests, they will be allowed to perform other duties in the temple. Only Levites descended from Zadok can serve as priests (Ezk 44:10–16).

The NT says little about the Levites. Jesus’s parable of the good Samaritan castigates both Levites and priests for failing to aid the robbed and injured man (Lk 10:31–32). The book of Hebrews demonstrates that Jesus’s priestly role is essential because the work of the Levitical priesthood is imperfect. Whereas the Levites as a class are occasionally portrayed negatively, Barnabas the Levite becomes an important leader in the early church (Ac 4:36).

Levitical Cities Forty-eight cities allocated to the Levites in lieu of a larger inheritance of land like those afforded the other tribes of Israel (Jos 13:1–14:5). The cities are listed in Jos 21:1–42 and 1 Ch 6:54–81. Included with the cities on the lists are six cities of refuge designated for fugitives from violent reprisal—the designated duty of the nearest male relative to the deceased—in cases of homicide without intent (Nm 35:6, 13–15). However, in cases of murder the boundaries of these cities offer no protection from the penalty of death. The cities of refuge are located on either side of the Jordan Valley (three on each side), facilitating access from the various parts of the nation.

Libya In the Bible, Libya is sometimes referred to as “Put” (Gn 10:6; Ezk 27:10). Libyans serve in the army of Egypt and Ethiopia (2 Ch 12:3; 16:8; Nah 3:9). Ezekiel prophesies that Libya and other nations will be ruined (Ezk 30:3–5). One of its cities is Cyrene, home of the Simon who is forced to carry the cross of Christ (Mt 27:32; Mk 15:21; Lk 23:26). Libyans are present at Peter’s sermon on the day of Pentecost (Ac 2:10).

Linen A type of cloth woven with fibers from the flax plant. Common in Palestine and known for its strength, coolness, and remarkable whiteness, linen served many uses, especially in the tabernacle (Ex 25–28; 35–36; 38–39). Both wealthy and common people wore linen garments, but luxurious fine linens were worn by the rich (Is 3:23; Ezk 16:10; Lk 16:19; Rv 18:12, 16). In NT times, the Jews extensively used linen burial shrouds, as at Jesus’s burial (Mt 27:59; Mk 15:46; Lk 23:53; Jn 19:40; 20:5–7).

Lintel The horizontal beam on top of a doorway. God commanded the Israelites to sprinkle lamb’s blood on their doorposts and lintels in preparation for the first Passover; this marking would identify the Israelite houses and spare them the destruction that God would bring on the Egyptians (Ex 12:7, 22–23).

Loan Though often involving money, a loan can be anything that one party lends to another party without relinquishing ownership. Loans are a way to provide for the needy within one’s community (Dt 15:7). Although accruing debt is not desirable (Dt 15:6; Pr 22:7), loans are allowed. A pledge may serve as collateral to ensure that the loan will be repaid and then is to be returned upon repayment (Ezk 18:7; 33:15). The pledge is optional (Ezk 18:16), but when enacted, the item must belong to the debtor and not be provided by another party (Pr 22:26). An item needed for one’s livelihood is not an appropriate pledge (Dt 24:6; Jb 24:3). If the borrower is poor and uses a cloak as a pledge, the creditor should allow the person to use it for warmth at night (Ex 22:26; Dt 24:12–13; Am 2:8).

Making loans is not intended as a way to increase one’s wealth. When a loan is made between Israelites, no interest is to be exacted (Ex 22:25; Lv 25:35–38; Dt 23:19; Neh 5:7), although interest is allowed when lending to a foreigner (Dt 23:20). While it is expected that loans be repaid, they are not to endure for a lengthy period of time. Every seventh year all creditors are expected to cancel the loans made to fellow Israelites (Dt 15:1–2).

Locust A swarming insect notorious for its devastating effects on vegetation. Sometimes a clear distinction appears in the text between various types or species of locusts (Lv 11:22; Jl 1:4; 2:25). The various types of locusts have been described as grasshoppers, crickets, katydids, locusts, devouring locusts, swarming locusts, young locusts, and other locusts. At times, the use of multiple terms for locusts likely reflects Hebrew parallelism, with the terms being used synonymously (Is 33:4; Nah 3:15–17).

The swarming behavior of locusts appears in the OT as a trope for large human armies (Jdg 6:5; 7:12; Jr 46:23; 51:14) and as an image and instrument of God’s judgment (1 Kg 8:37; Pss 78:46; 105:34; Am 7:1). Destructive locusts were the eighth plague of Egypt (Ex 10:12–14), and they feature as one of the curses for covenant breaking in Dt 28:38. They are also noted as acceptable for food in Lv 11:22 and as part of the diet of John the Baptist (Mt 3:4; Mk 1:6).

The use of locusts in the book of Joel is particularly significant. It seems most likely that Jl 1:4 and 2:25 are describing literal waves of locust plagues; however, the locusts are only a precursor of the coming danger, which will be in the form of an enemy from the north (Babylon).

Logos A Greek term meaning “word,” a title given to Jesus Christ that indicates his preexistent divine nature and his identity as the climactic revelation of God (Jn 1:1, 14; 1 Jn 1:1; Rv 19:13).

Lord’s Supper The meal of remembrance instituted by Jesus Christ during the Passover celebration prior to his crucifixion (Mt 26:26; Mk 14:22–25; Lk 22:13–20). While with his disciples, Jesus takes bread and breaks it and says, “Take and eat it; this is my body” (Mt 26:26). After this, he takes wine, gives thanks, and then gives it to them and says it is his blood, given to forgive sins (Mt 26:28). After Jesus’s death and resurrection, this breaking of bread and drinking of wine in his memory becomes a primary symbol of Christianity. The apostle Paul has harsh things to say to the Corinthian church for inappropriately celebrating the Lord’s Supper, for some go hungry while others become drunk (1 Co 11:17–26), and thus the whole point of Jesus’s sacrificial death is lost. The church’s observance of the Lord’s Supper proclaims the gospel, fosters remembrance of Christ’s sacrifice, signals the new covenant relationship, unites Christians with Christ, and portrays unity in the church.

Lots Possibly made of stone or wood, lots apparently were shaken or tossed from a container to help make decisions, on the assumption that God (or gods) directed the outcome (Pr 16:33). Many peoples throughout the ancient Near East cast lots; however, available sources do not make clear what exactly the lots were and how people cast them.

One finds the casting of lots in both Testaments in a number of different situations. Sometimes the lot is used to uncover truth about who has committed some wrong (Achan [Jos 7:14, 18]; Jonathan [1 Sm 14:41–42]). Other times lots are used to determine God’s choice (Saul as king [1 Sm 10:20–21]; Matthias as a disciple [Ac 1:26]) or to divide things, such as tribal allotments of land (Nm 26:55–56). Tasks and services can be determined by casting lots (Levitical service at the temple [1 Ch 26:13–16]; who will live in rebuilt Jerusalem [Neh 11:1]). Non-Israelites also cast lots to determine guilt (Jnh 1:7), divide property captured in war (Nah 3:10), and determine the best date for an event (when to massacre Jews [Est 3:7; 9:24]). The concept that God directs the course of events also leads to figurative use of the term “lot” as one’s fate in life (Jr 13:25).

Love Feast The “love feast” (Gk agapē) was a common meal shared by early Christians in conjunction with their celebration of the Eucharist, the Lord’s Supper. The term occurs in Jd 12 and, in some manuscripts, 2 Pt 2:13. This type of gathering for fellowship evidently was a common feature of early Christianity. Jude exhorts the community to rid itself of the immoral, godless people who blemish their community. A similar group appears to be infiltrating the “love feast” referred to in 2 Pt 2:13. In 1 Co 11:17–34 Paul describes some form of a common meal that included the Eucharist (cf. Ac 20:7), and it is likely that the Eucharist was very much a part of the love feasts mentioned in Jude and 2 Peter.

Macedonia The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula. Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood north of Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace. Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along the Thermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea.

From the time that Paul receives his vision of a Macedonian man calling him to proclaim the gospel (Ac 16:9), Macedonia plays a significant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. He establishes three churches there and writes three letters to them (Philippians and 1–2 Thessalonians). Paul speaks of Macedonia at least sixteen times in six different letters. Several of Paul’s companions are Macedonians (Ac 17:4–7; 20:4).

Answering the Macedonian call during his second missionary journey, Paul arrives in Philippi, which is “a Roman colony and a leading city of the district of Macedonia” (Ac 16:12). There he leads Lydia, as well as Paul’s Philippian jailer and family, to the gospel (Ac 16:16–40). The Philippian church generously supports Paul’s ministry and the church in Jerusalem (Rm 15:26–27; 2 Co 8:1–5; Php 4:15–17).

Paul then travels along the paved Egnatian Way to Thessalonica, where he establishes a church (Ac 17:4). Opposition drives him to Berea (Ac 17:1–11), and from there he leaves Macedonia for Athens and Corinth in Achaia. Paul later returns to Macedonia during his third missionary journey (Ac 20:1–6).

Machpelah A cave at Hebron purchased by Abraham as a burial place for his wife Sarah (Gn 23). Machpelah becomes the burial site for most of the patriarchs and their wives. Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, and Jacob and Leah are buried in the same cave (Gn 49:30–31). By starting this family burial site in Canaan, Abraham marks Canaan as the ancestral homeland for future Israelites, as opposed to Ur or Haran, where his family lived earlier. At about the time of Jesus, a massive structure sixty feet high was erected over the cave, apparently by Herod the Great.

Mahanaim This city, whose name means “Two Camps,” is named by Jacob when he meets the angels of God right before his encounter with God at Peniel (Gn 32:2). After the conquest and settlement, Mahanaim is located on the border of Gad and Manasseh and set aside as a Levitical city (Jos 13:26, 30; 21:38). It serves as the capital for Saul’s son Ish-bosheth until his murder leads to the unification of David’s kingdom (2 Sm 2:8, 12, 29). David seeks refuge here when pursued by Absalom and uses it as his headquarters when fighting against his son (2 Sm 17:24, 27; 19:32). Solomon makes it the seat of one of his administrative districts (1 Kg 4:14). It is situated east of the Jordan River and north of the Jabbok River, but its precise location remains uncertain.

Manna Miraculous, heavenly bread that God rains down for the Israelites to eat during their wilderness wanderings (Ex 16:1–35). The word manna likely comes from the Hebrew phrase man hu (“What is it?”), reflecting the Israelites’ puzzled response to God’s gracious provision (Ex 16:15). It results from a layer of dew that falls on the camp at night and evaporates in the morning, leaving fine flakes resembling frost on the ground (Ex 16:14; Nm 11:9). Manna is white like coriander seed and tastes like wafers made with honey and olive oil (Ex 16:31; Nm 11:8). It can be crushed into a paste and then either boiled or baked (Nm 11:8).

Marah An Israelite encampment in the Wilderness of Shur (Ex 15:23) that the Israelites reach following a three-day journey after they cross the Red Sea (Nm 33:8). The name means “bitter” and describes the bitter, brackish water found there. The Israelites complain against Moses because of the water, and God instructs him to cast a tree into the water, which makes it sweet and drinkable. The exact location of Marah is debated and cannot be established with certainty.

Maranatha The Aramaic phrase Paul uses in 1 Co 16:22 when closing that letter (see the CSB footnote). “Maranatha” is actually two Aramaic words, marana tha, meaning “Our Lord, come.” Two similar passages suggest that eschatological hope may be a key factor. Near the end of Revelation, the author writes, “Come, Lord Jesus!” (Rv 22:20). Also, Paul, discussing the Lord’s Supper, refers to proclaiming the Lord’s death “until he comes” (in 1 Co 11:26). Both of these references are in Greek, but they suggest the future aspect to the early Christian’s hope for Christ’s return.

Marriage Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride-price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age and to preserve the family’s inheritance. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

As in the OT, marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lv 18:6–17). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jewish woman. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option (Dt 7:3–4; Ezr 10; Neh 13:23–28). The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Maskil The classification of thirteen psalms (Pss 32; 42; 44–45; 52–55; 74; 78; 88–89; 142). All are associated with “authors” (David, the sons of Korah, Asaph, Heman, and Ethan). They include individual and communal laments, royal psalms, instruction, and psalms of mixed type, but none are hymns of praise. The root of maskil pertains to understanding or skill. There are two main views as to its meaning. As it relates to “making prudent,” the maskil may be meditative or instructive. Or maskil may be a designation that skilled musicians were required for proper performance.

Massah A location on the journey toward Mount Horeb (Sinai) where the Israelites grumble against God because they have no water. Moses calls the place Massah (“Testing”) and Meribah (“Quarreling”) because of their complaining (Ex 17:7). Still, at God’s direction, Moses strikes the rock at Horeb, and water flows out. All subsequent references to Massah in the biblical text are about this incident (Dt 6:16; 9:22; 33:8; Ps 95:8). Subsequent references to Meribah, however, concern another incident (e.g., Nm 20:13, 24; Dt 32:51; 33:8).

Medes Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea, to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west of Parthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the modern country of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height of Media’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraq and Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media, the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboring countries for their excellent horses.

The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books of Daniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under the Babylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of the Medo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw this change of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest of Babylon (Is 13:17; 21:2; Jr 51:11, 28; Dn 5:28). The importance of the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the new empire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius is called “the Mede” in Dn 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry (cf. Dn 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not be changed even by the king himself (cf. Est 1:19) seems to be a Median contribution to the empire and was the political tool used by Daniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den (Dn 6:8, 12).

Jews from Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by the Spirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Ac 2:9. Thus, although the country had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its language and culture were still present during the NT period.

Mediator One who serves as a facilitator of reconciliation between two parties. The role of a mediator is taken by different individuals and offices in the OT, as seen in Abraham interceding for Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn 18:22–32), Moses asking God to forgive Israel (Ex 32:31–32), and the Israelites begging Moses to speak to God on their behalf (Ex 20:19). In addition, judges, prophets, kings, and priests assume intermediary functions at times. Mediation functions bidirectionally: from God to humans, and from humans to God. The prophets are quintessentially the first kind of mediators (God to humans), while the priests take, mostly, the second function (humans to God).

In the NT, the role of mediator is given to Christ, since he alone, as God incarnate, is qualified for it (the “one mediator between God and humanity” [1 Tm 2:5]). This implies that insomuch as reconciliation between sinful humankind and a holy God is conceivable, Christ alone can facilitate that mediation.

Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea (also known as the Great Sea, the Western Sea, and the Sea of the Philistines) plays a major role for Israel in both Testaments. It is noted as the western boundary for the inheritance of Israel (Dt 11:24; Jos 1:4; 23:4) and thus forms the border of Judah (Jos 15:12, 47). In Jos 9:1 the Mediterranean coast is noted as part of the territory of the pagan kings before the conquest. The prophet Joel declares that God will push Israel’s enemies in all directions, including westward into the Mediterranean (Jl 2:20). In the NT, the book of Acts relates the story of Simon Peter staying with Simon the tanner in Joppa, which is by the Mediterranean Sea (Ac 10:6, 32). And later, Acts chronicles the path of the ship taking Paul to Rome, a trip on the Mediterranean, starting from Caesarea (Ac 27:1–28:14).

Medium A person who serves as a conduit for communicating with the dead (more commonly today called a “psychic”). In the OT, this term is almost always paired with “spiritist.” The law delivered to the Israelites by Moses compares a patron of these practitioners to a prostitute (Lv 20:6). The practice defiles patrons (Lv 19:31), making them detestable to God (Dt 18:11–12), and the law prescribes excommunication from the community (Lv 20:6) and death by stoning (Lv 20:27) as punishment for such acts. Such activity is considered characteristic of the other nations (Dt 18:11–12; Is 19:3) and therefore inappropriate for the Israelites.

In accordance with this overriding negative attitude toward them, Saul expels the mediums and spiritists from Israel (1 Sm 28:3). Nevertheless, when Saul seeks a prophetic word regarding his imminent encounter with the Philistines and is unable to receive one from God by the usual means, he asks for a medium (1 Sm 28:5–7).

Megiddo A major city in the north of Israel that guards a strategic pass of the international highway known as the Via Maris, which connected Egypt and Mesopotamia. Its location explains why it was so large and the site of many ancient battles.

Megiddo appears for the first time in the Bible when Jos 12:21 mentions its king as one of the many defeated by the Israelites (presumably as part of the northern coalition). It was part of Manasseh (Jos 17:11), though it was not conquered until later (Jdg 1:27). The Song of Deborah describes it as being near the location of a battle between Israel and the Canaanites (Jdg 5:19). We do not get the account of the Israelite takeover of Megiddo, but we know that Solomon (tenth century BC) controlled it and fortified it along with Hazor and Gezer. It is listed in the fifth administrative district of Solomon (1 Kg 4:12).

Jehu’s agents wounded King Ahaziah of Judah, who fled to Megiddo, where he died (2 Kg 9:27). The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III conquered parts of northern Israel in the middle of the eighth century BC and created a new province of his empire, Magiddu. In 609 BC, King Josiah of Judah died there trying to stop the Egyptians under Necho from reinforcing the Assyrians against Babylon (2 Kg 23:29; 2 Ch 35:22).

The area around Megiddo began to be called Har Megiddo (“mountain of Megiddo”). In Greek this became Armageddon, and in Rv 16:12–16 it is associated with the final future battle between the forces of God and the forces of evil.

Melchizedek A mysterious individual who is referenced twice in the OT and once in the NT. In Gn 14:18–20 Melchizedek is a priest of El Elyon (God Most High), possibly a reference to the Canaanite god El but here used as a title for Yahweh. He is said to be from Salem, which could be a shortened form of “Jerusalem.” Melchizedek brings out bread and wine to Abram, blesses him, and receives one-tenth of Abram’s spoils that Abram has acquired from his successful military campaign against the eastern kings. The royal oracle of Ps 110 holds a declaration of the Davidic king as an eternal priest “according to the pattern of Melchizedek” (v. 4). This phrase is later applied to Jesus by the writer of the book of Hebrews to emphasize the superiority of Jesus’s priesthood over the Levitical priesthood. In Heb 7:1–17 Melchizedek is described as the “king of righteousness” and the “king of peace” (v. 2); he is said to have been birthed without parents and is described as one who has existed eternally, thus resembling the Son of God (v. 3). This description draws not only on Gn 14 and Ps 110 but also on the description of Melchizedek as a heavenly figure that appears also in one of the Dead Sea Scrolls. While Melchizedek’s identity and function remain a mystery, all three biblical passages refer to him in order to proclaim the work of God.

Memorial In the Bible the word “memorial” is used in two primary senses. First, it can refer to something meant to provoke a worshiper’s remembrance. The Israelites erected a monument of stones as a memorial to remind their descendants that God had stopped the flow of the Jordan River (Jos 4:7). Similarly, the Passover feast was a memorial to the Israelites of God’s deliverance (Ex 12:14). God could even speak of his name as a memorial (Ex 3:15).

Second, a memorial can be an act of worship whereby God favorably remembered a worshiper and his or her offering (Lv 5:12; Ac 10:31). Memorial portions were burned before God in grain offerings (Lv 2:1–2) and certain sin offerings (Lv 5:11–13); the remainder of these offerings was consumed by the priests. In the NT, God considered Cornelius’s prayers and gifts to the poor to be a memorial offering (Ac 10:4).

Memphis An Egyptian city, no longer in existence, located about fifteen miles southwest of Cairo. It was the site of the palaces of most of the pharaohs mentioned in the Bible. Notably, both Jr 46:14–19 and Ezk 30:13–19 prophesy against the city and predict its destruction. Historically, Egypt and Israel had a rather tumultuous relationship, but Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s particular invective may have concerned Memphis’s refusal to join with the southern kingdom in its rebellion against the Babylonians. At least one of Jeremiah’s prophecies after the destruction of Jerusalem is directed toward some Jews who have settled in Memphis (Jr 44:1).

Mercy Mercy is an attribute of God, his goodness expressed to those who are afflicted. Highlighted by God himself when he reveals his name, mercy is associated with grace, patience, love, and faithfulness (Ex 34:6). Mercy is seen in God’s fatherly compassion for his children, whose weaknesses and failings he knows well (Ps 103:13–14). It is seen in Jesus’s pity toward the miserable, like the blind men who beg, “Have mercy on us” (Mt 9:27). Because God is merciful, his people are to love their enemies, do good, and lend without expecting repayment—that is, be merciful as God is merciful (Lk 6:35–36).

Mercy Seat The “mercy seat,” or atonement cover, was the cover on the ark of the covenant in the tabernacle and the place of atonement for Israel (Ex 25:17–21). There, God spoke with Moses (Nm 7:89). Upon entering the holiest place, the priest was required to burn incense over the mercy seat; otherwise, he would face judgment and die (Lv 16:13). On the Day of Atonement the blood of the bull and the goat was sprinkled on the mercy seat to cleanse the temple from sin and thus to facilitate the atonement for Israel’s sins (Lv 16).

In the NT, the Greek term hilastērion is used for the mercy seat itself (Heb 9:5) and for the “atoning sacrifice” (Rm 3:25), the blood of which was dripped onto the mercy seat. In Romans, Christ himself is identified as the hilastērion, the sacrifice of atonement for our sins.

Meribah Meribah (“Quarreling”) is another name for Massah (“Testing”), a location on the journey toward Mount Horeb (Sinai) where the Israelites grumble against God because they have no water; Moses strikes the rock at Horeb, and water flows out (Ex 17:7). Subsequent references to Meribah concern a similar incident in Kadesh after the Israelites have journeyed on from Horeb (Nm 20:13, 24; 27:14; Dt 32:51; 33:8; Pss 81:7; 95:8; 106:32). On this occasion Moses and Aaron, in getting water out of the rock, fail to honor God as holy, and for this they are denied entrance into Canaan.

Messiah The “anointed one” (Hb mashiakh) who saves God’s people. In ancient Israel, kings, prophets, and priests were anointed with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart (1 Sm 16:1–13; 2 Sm 2:4, 7). In the OT, the hope of the Messiah centers on a descendant of David (2 Sm 7) who will reunite the divided kingdom of Israel and defeat its enemies (e.g., Ps 2:2, 7–9; 45). The messianic age also includes the Gentiles, as the Messiah brings peace to the world (Is 42:6).

In the NT, “Christ” (Gk christos, “anointed one”) becomes the title for Jesus of Nazareth, the long-awaited Messiah (Mk 8:27–29). He fulfills the messianic prophecies (Ac 4:24–28), performs the works associated with the Messiah (Mt 11:2–6), and, after accomplishing salvation, is exalted as Christ over the world.

However, in the Gospels Jesus demonstrates reticence in using the title “Messiah” (e.g., Mk 8:29; 14:61–62; Mt 26:64), and he never refers to himself as “Son of David” and “King of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do (Mt 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mk 10:47; 15:2; Jn 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). Instead, Jesus redefines traditional understandings of the son of David (Mk 12:35–37). Jesus is the Messiah who will have to “suffer many things and be rejected” (Mk 8:31) and through whom redemption will come (Mk 10:45). As Messiah, Jesus has come not to defeat the Roman legions but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

Messianic Secret On several occasions Jesus commands demons or individuals to refrain from announcing his identity or making known a miracle that he has performed. These commands to keep silent are found in Luke and Matthew, but more frequently in Mark (Mk 1:25, 34, 44; 3:12; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26, 30; 9:9). Since Jesus has come to reveal himself as Israel’s true Messiah, these prohibitions against the public proclamation of his identity and certain miracles are puzzling. This feature in Mark’s Gospel has been called the messianic secret.

At least three reasons can be given for the command to silence. First, rumors of Jesus’s messianic status are not to Jesus’s advantage—and could invite Roman reprisals—since the popular understanding of “messiah” carries military connotations. Second and more important, the command to silence seems to derive from Jesus’s conscious patterning of his ministry after Isaiah’s servant of the Lord, for whom hiddenness, ironically, is paramount in achieving God’s purpose. Finally, and of ultimate importance, Jesus cannot be truly and fully known until his redemptive suffering on the cross. Until that time, all proclamations of him—at least from imperfectly informed humans and demonic opponents—are premature and must be silenced.

Michael One of the few angelic beings whose names are identified in the Bible. Scripture refers to Michael as “one of the chief princes” (Dn 10:13), a “great prince” (Dn 12:1), and an “archangel” (Jd 1:9), indicating that Michael is a high-ranking leader of other angels (Rv 12:7).

Midianites The Midianites inhabited what is now southern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The biblical narrative regards their progenitor to be Midian, one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah (Gn 25:1–2). The relations between the Israelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generally adversarial. Moses’s experience is the exception: after fleeing Egypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has an amicable relationship with her father (Ex 2–3; 18).

In Numbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop the Israelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to curse them (Nm 22–24). Although this attempt fails, idolatrous sexual relations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to put a plague on his own people (Nm 25) and to instruct Moses to make war against the Midianites to exact revenge (Nm 31). When the Israelites later continue their cycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to other nations, including the Midianites (Jdg 6–9). Israelite victories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated in various later passages (Ps 83:9; Is 9:4; 10:26; Hab 3:7).

Miktam A Hebrew title of uncertain meaning found in the superscription of six psalms ascribed to David (Pss 16; 56–60). Previous suggestions connect the title with Hebrew words for “gold” and “atonement.” The Greek Septuagint renders the title as “inscription,” suggesting that the Hebrew should read the same. These psalms may have been inscribed on stelae in the temple.

Millstone One of several different types of stone implements used to grind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily, so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life (Jr 25:10; Rv 18:22). Women (Mt 24:41) or servants (Ex 11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Jdg 16:21), might be made to perform the mundane task.

Mills often were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldest type of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt or other hard stone (Jb 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second, smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Jdg 9:53) back and forth on the lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs, and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as a handle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. A large, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shaped lower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone by pushing posts set into sockets. References to casting large millstones into the sea (Mt 18:6; Rv 18:21) probably refer to such a large upper millstone.

Millstones from ancient Israel

Minister In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2 Co 3:6), related to “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1 Co 16:15). These words describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1 Co 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rv 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1 Tm 3:1–13).

Miracle A supernatural, extraordinary event that diverges from observed natural processes. As signs, miracles point to divine activity; as wonders, they astonish onlookers; as mighty works, they express exceptional power (2 Co 12:12).

In the OT, miracles, often described as “signs and wonders,” are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles are performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha (1 Kg 17–18; 2 Kg 1–7, 13). Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Ex 7–12; 1 Kg 18:20–40).

In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus (Ac 2:22) as the promised Messiah (Mt 4:23; 11:4–6). They reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Mt 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mk 3:27). John’s Gospel is structured around Jesus’s “signs” (Jn 20:30–31), which are intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (Jn 20:31), but not all who witness them believe (Jn 10:32). Jesus regards a faith that rests only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mk 8:11–13; Jn 2:23–25; 4:48); faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

Miriam The sister of Moses and Aaron, and the only known daughter of Amram and Jochebed (Nm 26:59). After Jochebed lays the infant Moses in a basket and places it in the Nile River, Miriam follows the basket until Pharaoh’s daughter discovers it, and she promptly volunteers her mother to assist in caring for the child (Ex 2:4–10). Miriam, referred to as a “prophetess” (Ex 15:20), leads the Israelite women in celebration and worship after the successful crossing of the Red Sea as the Israelites flee Egypt (Ex 15:20–21). She is remembered as a central figure in Moses’s leadership team during the exodus (Mc 6:4).

Along with Aaron, she comes to oppose the leadership of Moses (Nm 12:1). The end result is that God causes Miriam’s skin to become diseased, for which she has to be cast out of the camp for seven days. She is healed because of Moses’s interceding prayer. She dies and is buried in Kadesh (Nm 20:1).

Along with Aaron, she comes to oppose the leadership of Moses (Nm 12:1). The end result is that God causes Miriam’s skin to become diseased, for which she has to be cast out of the camp for seven days. She is healed because of Moses’s interceding prayer. She dies and is buried in Kadesh (Nm 20:1).

Moab Moab proper lies between the Arnon and the Zered Valleys east of the Dead Sea. The Arnon is the deepest gorge in Jordan and served as a natural northern boundary for geopolitical Moab, even though the nation frequently expanded its control farther north. According to Gn 19:30–38, Moab’s name comes from a son of Lot by his eldest daughter, when Lot’s daughters determine to carry on the family line by sleeping with their father after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

As the Israelites make their way past Edom during their travels in the wilderness (Nm 20:14–21), they give a wide berth to geopolitical Moab, moving instead along the desert highway to the east (Nm 21:10–20; Dt 2:8–9; Jdg 11:18; but see also Dt 2:29) until they arrive at the territory that King Sihon previously captured from the Moabites (Nm 21:21–26). This is the plateau north of the Arnon (Dt 2:36) stretching to Ammon (Jos 13:10). After defeating the Amorites, the Israelites camp on the “plains of Moab” (Nm 22:1; 33:48–50), where they remain until crossing the Jordan River.

Frightened by this multitude, the king of Moab and the elders of Midian send for Balaam to curse the Israelites (Nm 21–24). Instead, Balaam pronounces blessings on Israel, and in one Balaam speaks of a star from Jacob who will wound Moab (Nm 24:17). Because the Moabites refused to welcome the Israelites, they are excluded from the assembly of the Lord for ten generations (Dt 23:3–6).

The plateau is allocated to the tribes of Reuben and Gad (Nm 32:34–38; Jos 13:8–9). Their presence enables the Israelites to maintain a hold in the region (see Jdg 11:26). As the Israelites prepare to enter the land, Moses restates the covenant on the plains of Moab (Nm 36:13; Dt 29:1). When it comes time for Moses to die, he climbs Mount Nebo from the plains of Moab to the top of Pisgah (Dt 34:1–8).

During the period of the judges, the Moabites push north across the Arnon and as far as Jericho. When Ehud kills Eglon, the Moabites are driven back and subjected to Israel for eighty years (Jdg 3). The respite is temporary, however, due to repeated apostasy on the part of the Israelites, including their worship of the gods of the Moabites (Jdg 10:6).

Ruth is a Moabite woman who allies herself with Israel. Ruth’s son Obed is the father of Jesse, the father of David (Ru 4:21). This family link may explain why David seeks refuge for his parents in Moab when he is fleeing from Saul (1 Sm 22:1–4), even though Saul has been fighting against the Moabites (1 Sm 14:47). The complexity created for David by this combination of family allegiances and ongoing national concerns is evident when later, as king, he defeats the Moabites and brutally subdues them, reducing them to a vassal kingdom (2 Sm 8:2–12). The united kingdom continues to control the plateau of Moab (2 Sm 24:5).

Moab is the object of stinging rebuke from several prophets (Is 15–16; 25:10; Jr 48; Ezk 25:8–11; Am 2:1–3; Zph 2:9; cf. Pss 60:8; 108:9). Even so, God declares he will restore the fortunes of Moab (Jr 48:47). After the return from exile, Moabites are among those with whom the Israelites intermarry (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1; cf. Dt 23:3–6).

Molech Generally, it has been believed that Molech was a god of the Ammonites (1 Kg 11:5). Molech has long been associated with the practice of child sacrifice, based on several references to the god within the Bible. For example, Leviticus associates child sacrifice with the worship of Molech and prescribes capital punishment for any practitioner of such (Lv 18:21; 20:2–5). Josiah is credited with destroying the altar (Topheth) to Molech in the Ben Hinnom Valley, so that no one could sacrifice a child to Molech there (2 Kg 23:10–13).

Moon The ancient Jewish calendar was tied to the phases of the moon, with the months beginning with each new moon. The new moon was celebrated with multiple offerings (Nm 28:11–15). Festival days were calculated from the new moon.

The moon figures prominently in prophecy. At the day of the Lord, the sun and the moon will be darkened (e.g., Jl 2:10; cf. Jl 2:31). While most ancient Near Eastern cultures worshiped the moon, Israel was forbidden such worship (Dt 4:19).

Mortification With respect to sanctification, the ongoing process of considering oneself dead to sin and putting to death one’s desire for sinful pleasures. Based on Paul’s presentation of the sin nature as the “old self” (Rm 6:6), mortification rests on the truth that Christians, through their identification with Christ’s death, have died to sin (Rm 6:2). Their sinful nature was crucified with him, releasing them from enslavement to sin. Accordingly, Christians must consider themselves dead to sin (Rm 6:11). Through the Holy Spirit’s assistance (Gl 5:16–17), they kill their craving for sin, its lure gradually weakening as they mortify it.

Most Holy Place The main structure of the tabernacle and later the temple consisted of two rooms, the holy place and the most holy place (or holy of holies; Ex 26:33–35; 1 Kg 6:19–21). The ark of the covenant was placed in the most holy place, which was entered by the high priest once a year on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16).

Mourning Grief and mourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they may occur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2 Sm 13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Est 4:3; Is 37:1), or repentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, or both. The expressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gn 23:2), wailing (Est 4:3; Is 15:3; Mk 5:38), tearing clothes and wearing sackcloth (Gn 37:34; 2 Sm 3:31), lying on the ground (2 Sm 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting on dust and ashes (Ezk 27:30), fasting (2 Sm 3:35; 12:16), singing songs of lament (2 Sm 1:17–27; 3:32–35), pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezr 9:3), cutting the hair (Jr 7:29), uncovering the head (Lv 10:6), removing sandals (Ezk 24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezk 24:17, 22; Mc 3:7), and employing professional mourners (Jr 9:17; Mt 9:23; Mk 5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such as slashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), and the somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lv 19:28; Dt 14:1; cf. 1 Kg 18:28).

Myrrh A resin that originates in southern Arabia and Somalia. In the Bible, the Israelites value myrrh for its fragrant cosmetic and antiseptic properties, as a preservative, and for embalming (Gn 37:25; Est 2:12; Ps 45:8; Pr 7:17; Sg 3:6). Myrrh is a valuable gift from the magi upon Jesus’s birth (Mt 2:11); at his death, myrrh mixed with wine is an undrinkable potion given to him as he hangs on the cross (Mk 15:23).

Mystery A mystery entails knowledge that is disclosed to some but withheld from others. Nothing is mysterious to God (Heb 4:13), and he alone understands the full purpose of his will (Jb 38:1–40:24; Is 46:10), but he also condescends to reveal portions of his will to those whom he chooses (Jn 16:15).

Jesus’s parables make known the character and future of God’s coming kingdom to his chosen servants, while also concealing it from those outside the circle (Mt 13:18–23). Paul, by contrast, uses “mystery” to refer to the disclosure of God’s plan for the redemption of humanity, namely, the inclusion of Gentiles within “Israel” (Rm 11:25). This plan, foreshadowed in the OT but nevertheless hidden in essentials, has been fully revealed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rm 16:25; Eph 1:9; 1 Tm 3:16; cf. 1 Pt 1:10–12). The gospel message is therefore the revelation of this mystery, the proclamation of the truth about Jesus Christ, now made public to the world (Eph 3:3–9).

Nazareth In the first century, Nazareth was a small village in the extreme southerly part of lower Galilee, midway between the Sea of Galilee and the Mediterranean Sea. It was near Gath-hepher, the birthplace of Jonah the prophet to the Gentiles (2 Kg 14:25), and Sepphoris, one of the three largest cities in the region. Not far was the Via Maris, the great highway joining Mesopotamia to Egypt and ultimately the trading network that linked east and west. The community, whose population may have averaged around five hundred, subsisted from agriculture.

The village is not mentioned in the OT. Nazareth appears to have been uninhabited from the eighth to the second centuries BC, until it was resettled during the reign of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BC), probably by a Davidic clan of army veterans. The claim that Jesus’s adoptive father, Joseph, was a descendant of David and a resident of Nazareth is therefore plausible (Mt 1:20; 2:23; Lk 2:4–5). Descendants of Jesus’s family continued to live in the area for centuries.

Although Jesus’s ministry is unsuccessful in Nazareth (Lk 4:16–30), he is referred to as “Jesus of Nazareth” (Mk 1:24; 10:47; Jn 18:5, 7; Ac 2:22; 3:6), and he and his followers are called “Nazarenes” (Mt 26:71; Ac 24:5). The epithet Nazarene probably is intended as a slur. Nathanael is unimpressed by Jesus’s origin in Nazareth (Jn 1:46).

Nazirite Both men and women can take the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:1–21), consecrating themselves to God and abstaining from all grapevine products, avoiding contact with corpses, and allowing their hair to grow long. The first two stipulations mandate separation from conditions reflective of decay and corruption, clearly an affront to God’s holiness (cf. Am 2:11–12). Long hair is the sign of the vow, symbolic of the power of God (Jdg 16:17).

Inadvertently touching a corpse interrupts the vow. Rededication necessitates shaving the head and sacrificing sin and burnt offerings, along with a guilt offering for having defiled something holy (Lv 5:14–19). The vow can last one’s entire life, as is intended for Samson (Jdg 13:7) and Samuel (1 Sm 1:11), or it can simply be for a period of time (Ac 18:18; 21:24). In the latter case, the vow is terminated with the presentation of sin, burnt, and fellowship offerings and shaving and burning the hair at the tabernacle.

An individual can take the vow by personal volition, or it can be imposed by others. Most of the biblical examples fall into the latter category. The angel of the Lord declares that Samson will be a Nazirite for his entire life, although Samson despises the sanctity of the vow in just about every way (Jdg 13–16). Hannah dedicates Samuel for his life (1 Sm 1:11). John the Baptist is also apparently given over to these conditions by the word of the angel Gabriel (Lk 1:15).

Mount Nebo Located in Abarim, a mountain range in northwest Moab separating the Transjordan Plain from the Jordan Valley, Mount Nebo is usually identified with a mountain of the same modern name that is five miles northwest of Madaba and is well over four thousand feet in elevation. This is the mountain that God commands Moses to ascend to get a glimpse of the promised land before he dies (Dt 32:48–52; 34:1).

Neco Neco II was the third pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty of Egypt (r. 610–595 BC). In 609 BC Neco led the Egyptian army through Syria-Palestine to help support the crumbling Assyrian Empire against the encroaching Babylonians. Neco’s goal was to consolidate Egyptian power over the region from Egypt to the Euphrates.

The Bible records that while Neco is traveling through Israelite territory, King Josiah of Judah leads his army to confront Neco and forces a battle near Megiddo (2 Kg 23:29–35; 2 Ch 35:20–36:4; cf. Jr 46:2). Neco has warned Josiah that he is only passing through, but the battle goes forward, and Josiah is killed. Three months later, after the Egyptian and Assyrian armies are unsuccessful in battle, Neco summons Josiah’s son Jehoahaz and deposes him, taking him into exile in Egypt. In his stead, Neco renames Josiah’s older son Eliakim, calling him Jehoiakim, and places him on the throne of Judah. This makes Judah a vassal of Egypt, and Neco requires a heavy tribute of gold and silver.

Four years later, Neco again leads the Egyptian army in battle against Babylon and suffer serious defeats. Jehoiakim switches his allegiance (and vassal loyalty) from Egypt to Babylon. Neco prevents the Babylonian army from invading Egypt, but he never would come farther east than Gaza from that time forward.

Negev This arid region, whose name sometimes is translated as “the south” (e.g., Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Sm 27:10; Zch 7:7), extends from Judah to the Gulf of Aqaba and includes the Wilderness of Paran. Abraham and Isaac both live in the northern part of the Negev (Gn 20:1; 24:62). Part of Israel’s wilderness wanderings takes place in the Negev (Nm 13:17), and they encounter the Amalekites here (Nm 13:29). Joshua conquers this region and allots it to Judah and Simeon (Jos 10:40; 15:21). The Negev is also referenced in poetic and prophetic texts (Ps 126:4; Is 21:1; 30:6; Jr 13:19; 17:26).

Nephilim The Hebrew word nepilim (literally, “fallen ones”) occurs only in Gn 6:4 and Nm 13:33. Some scholars have considered the Nephilim to be offspring from the unions between the “sons of God” and the “daughters of mankind,” but it is also possible that the writer was distinguishing between the Nephilim and the children of those unions who became the “powerful men of old, the famous men” (Gn 6:4). Descendants of the Nephilim were purported to have also lived after the flood (Dt 2:10–11, 20–23; Jos 14:15; 15:13–14; 2 Sm 21:16–22; 1 Ch 20:6–8). Since the entire human race, except for Noah and his family, was destroyed in the deluge, these descendants who lived in Canaan at the time of the exodus most likely descended through Ham, one of Noah’s sons (Gn 10:8–20).

New Birth One of the many pictures of salvation that the Bible uses is new birth. Peter praises God because “he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead” (1 Pt 1:3). In his conversation with Nicodemus, Jesus says we can see the kingdom of God only if we are born again (Jn 3:3). He goes on to explain further that this act of new birth is the work of the Spirit (Jn 3:5–8). What Jesus speaks of, God had promised in the OT (Ezk 36:25–27). Paul uses similar language when he asserts that God gave us new life in Christ, even while we were dead in sin (Eph 2:5). Because of our sinful rebellion against God, humanity is spiritually dead. By the work of the Spirit through the resurrection of Jesus, God the Father makes alive those who are spiritually dead. This new birth is the starting point for the believer’s moral transformation.

New Jerusalem Both Ezekiel and Revelation envision a new Jerusalem and use similar imagery to describe it and to emphasize God’s presence in the city (Ezk 48:30–35; Rv 21:1–22:5). According to Revelation, the throne of God, the Lamb, and the river of life are present in the new Jerusalem, which comes down from heaven, is made of gold and glass, is adorned with jewels, and is in the shape of a cube. Only those with names in the Lamb’s book of life will dwell in the city (Rv 21:27). The city represents a new, spiritual order (Gl 4:25–26; Heb 12:22).

Nineveh An Assyrian city near modern-day Mosul in Iraq, first mentioned in the Bible in Gn 10:11–12. It became the capital of the Assyrian Empire during the reign of Sennacherib (705–681 BC). Because of Assyria’s threat during the late eighth and seventh centuries BC, Nineveh was the target of prophetic oracles that predicted its downfall (Nahum; Zph 2:13) and is the setting for the prophetic story of Jonah. The city was sacked and destroyed by the Medes and the Babylonians in 612 BC.

Oath The obligations of relationships within ancient societies and between social groups were frequently reinforced by means of oaths. This practice of oath making (by both God and people) is witnessed in the Bible. The name of God is frequently invoked (Jdg 8:19; 2 Kg 2:2), but oaths are not to be made using the names of foreign deities (Ps 16:4). For this reason, when an oath is broken, God’s name is profaned (Lv 19:12). To take an oath is to ask God to witness what has been promised, and it invites him to act as avenger if the promise is broken (Gn 31:50; 1 Sm 12:3). This makes oath taking a religious act, and so oaths often are made at sanctuaries and under the supervision of religious officials (Nm 5:11–31; Jdg 11:11; Hs 4:15).

In the Bible, God is portrayed as binding himself by oaths, most notably his sworn promises to Abraham (Gn 22:16–18; 50:24). This fact is used by the author of Hebrews in an argument designed to assure readers that God meant what he said when he made promises to his people (Heb 6:13–18). The coming of Jesus has fulfilled the terms of that oath (Lk 1:73). So too the Davidic covenant was supported by a divine oath (Pss 89:35, 49; 110:4; 132:11), and this has been fulfilled by the enthronement of Christ at his resurrection and ascension (Ac 2:30–33).

Jesus’s teaching on oaths (Mt 5:33–37) does not necessarily contradict OT legislation (cf. Lv 19:12; Nm 30:2; Dt 23:21–23) but rather brings out the true heart of God behind the legislation. Oaths are unnecessary, Jesus says, for those who habitually tell the truth. An emphatic yes or no is all that is needed. The teaching of Jms 5:12 reflects what is found in Jesus’s teaching on this subject. This may not outlaw all oath taking, and certainly the apostle Paul does not understand there to be a blanket prohibition of oaths, for in his letters he is on record as making oaths (Gl 1:20; Php 1:8).

Obedience A central concept in both Testaments for understanding how God’s people are to respond to him. God desires obedience from his people, in contrast to mere lip service (Is 29:13; Mt 15:8; Mk 7:6) or conformity to religious ritual (Hs 6:6; Mc 6:6–8). When Saul disobeys God by sacrificing some of the spoil from his victory over the Amalekites, Samuel the prophet responds that obedience is better than sacrificing (1 Sm 15:22).

In the NT, focus shifts from obedience to the Mosaic law to obedience to Jesus Christ. The Great Commission contains Jesus’s instructions for his own disciples to make disciples, teaching them to obey that which Christ has commanded (Mt 28:19–20). Jesus’s disciples’ love for him would lead them to obey his commands (Jn 14:15, 21–24; 1 Jn 5:3; 2 Jn 6). Paul instructs children to obey their parents and slaves to obey their masters in obedience to Christ (Eph 6:1, 5–6; Col 3:20, 22). The NT also discusses Christ’s perfect obedience to God the Father as a quality to imitate (Php 2:5–13) and as the basis for salvation (Rm 5:19).

Oil Almost all the oil to which the Bible refers is olive oil. Oil was used primarily for cooking but also for medicinal purposes, cosmetics, lighting, and religious ceremonies.

Oil was one of the major export products of Palestine, with huge economic impact on Israel and Judah. Oil often was used as currency for other needed materials (Dt 7:13; Neh 5:11; Lk 16:6). For example, Elisha performs a miracle with oil to help a widow pay her debts (2 Kg 4:7). Oil was kept as part of the royal stores (2 Kg 20:13; 2 Ch 32:28). There are dozens of ostraca that detail the trading, bartering, and selling of oil.

Oil was one of the main ingredients for cooking. A typical meal consisted of flour pressed together with oil and fried with oil on a griddle (1 Kg 17:12–16). This was also the typical way in which grain offerings were made at the tabernacle and temple (Lv 2:1, 4–7). Oil was also used in lamps because it burned cleanly and produced bright light (2 Kg 4:10; Mt 25:3–8). Lamps were used throughout the house. Small lamps, often no larger than a hand, were used to give people light when they were walking and traveling at night. In such instances, extra oil usually was carried as a reserve (Mt 25:1–13). Both the tabernacle and the temple used olive oil to light their lamps. The finest oil was also used for sacrifices at the tabernacle (Ex 27:20; 29:40; Lv 24:2; Nm 28:5).

Oil was used cosmetically as well. For instance, oil was put in the hair for beauty (Ec 9:8). Oil was also the normal base for perfumes, mixed with a variety of spices (Est 2:12). The tabernacle had special anointing oil that was mixed to make a perfume (Ex 30:25). Oil was also used medicinally to help heal wounds, either by mixing it with other substances or by using the oil itself to help seal a wound (Lk 10:34). The elders of the church were commissioned to pray for and anoint the sick with oil (Jms 5:14).

Mount of Olives A ridge of peaks about two miles long running north–south to the east of Jerusalem. It may also refer to the middle two of these peaks directly east of the temple. Kidron and Gethsemane lie at the foot of the mount. It was so named for the large number of olive trees there in ancient times.

David weeps here because of Absalom’s betrayal (2 Sm 15:30). Here the glory of the Lord rests after withdrawal from Jerusalem (Ezk 11:23). The Lord will return to the Mount of Olives (Zch 14:4).

Sometimes Jesus spends the night here (Lk 21:37). He customarily withdraws to Gethsemane at the foot of this mount (Jn 18:2). Thus, on the evening before his trial Jesus and the disciples go to the Mount of Olives (specifically Gethsemane) after leaving the upper room (Mt 26:30), and it is there that the betrayal by Judas takes place.

Jesus’s triumphal entry begins on the Mount of Olives (Mt 21:1), and he discourses about the future there (Mt 24:3). After his resurrection, Jesus gathers and instructs his disciples on the Mount of Olives before ascending to heaven (Ac 1:12).

Omen A sign that is read or interpreted to ascertain a divine message, usually to avert some evil or predict the future. Reading omens was a very common practice in Mesopotamia and is known in different forms. One such practice was extispicy: reading the entrails of a sacrificial animal. Other forms included astrology, the observation of freak births (teratoscopy), and observing the behavior of water when poured onto oil (lecanomancy). Ezekiel 21:21 makes note of some of these practices. Generally, the Bible outlaws omen reading; instead, God uses prophets to make his purposes known (Am 3:7). However, some forms of omens do seem to be used in the Bible. Jacob uses his master’s cup for divining (Gn 44:5) and seems to be practicing lecanomancy. The Urim and Thummim also have a similar purpose (1 Sm 14:41).

Omnipotence An attribute of God related to his infinity, omnipotence is the attribute of having all power. This attribute is expressed every time Scripture notes God as “Almighty” (Hb shadday). In Scripture, God as omnipotent is related to God as eternal, God as the Creator of all things, and God as the Sustainer of all creation and life.

Nothing is beyond the power of God to act and perform, and what God does is in conformity with his own nature and will. In the NT, omnipotence is noted with the word “Almighty” (pantokratōr) in 2 Co 6:18; Rv 1:8; 4:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7, 14; 19:6, 15; 21:22. These contexts describe God as sovereign and eternal, frequently noted with the Johannine expression of God as the one “who is, who was, and who is to come” (Rv 1:8).

Omnipresence The divine attribute of being all-present: God is present everywhere with his entire being at the same time. He is not limited by space and should not be considered as being enormously big or located in one place rather than another. God is both nearby and far away, filling heaven and earth (Jr 23:23–24). Though God is present everywhere, he manifests his presence in different ways in different situations, to bless, warn, comfort, rebuke, reward, or punish. There is nowhere people can go to escape God (Ps 139:7–10), and worship is not confined to one place (Jn 4:20–24).

Omniscience The divine attribute of being all-knowing: God knows all things. He fully knows (1) himself, his infinite knowledge encompassing his infinite being (1 Co 2:10); (2) the past, which is as vivid to him as the present; (3) the present, even the minutest details of life (Ps 139:1–6); (4) the future, even the free-will decisions and actions of his creatures (Is 41:22–23); (5) all actual things, that is, people and events that actually exist and happen; and (6) all possible things, that is, all people and events that could possibly exist and happen but never do (Mt 11:20–21).

On/Heliopolis On is the Hebrew name for one of the oldest cities in Lower Egypt (Gn 41:45, 50; 46:20; cf. Ezk 30:17). On dates from the predynastic period. The city is also referred to by its Greek name, Heliopolis, which means “City of the Sun” (Is 19:18).

On was the center of worship for Re, the sun god, and Atum, the creator god. The priests of On were among the most powerful in Egypt. They officiated at all the major festivals and produced one of the major versions of Egyptian religion and mythology. The prominence of the priesthood is reflected in the description of Joseph marrying Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera, the priest of On (Gn 41:45, 50; 46:20). The Egyptians called the city by a name that means “City of Pillars.” Its temples were embellished with many obelisks to catch the first rays of the morning sun. Jeremiah prophesied the destruction of the obelisks and temples in On (Jr 43:13; cf. Ezk 30:17). The city flourished as a seat of learning until it was eclipsed by Alexandria.

Ophir A land most often mentioned in regard to the economic enterprises of different kings, especially involving gold. David’s contribution to the building of the temple includes gold from Ophir (1 Ch 29:4). Together, King Solomon and King Hiram of Tyre in Phoenicia send ships from the Red Sea port of Ezion-geber to Ophir and bring back gold (1 Kg 9:26–28; 2 Ch 8:18). The report about the Queen of Sheba’s visit to Solomon says that Solomon and Hiram’s ships bring gold from Ophir along with silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks every three years (1 Kg 10:11; 2 Ch 9:10). Jehoshaphat also builds a fleet of trading ships that he intends to send to Ophir, but they are wrecked in harbor and never set sail (1 Kg 22:48–49).

Parable A particular literary form that communicates indirectly by means of comparative language, often for the purpose of challenging the listener to accept or reject a new way of thinking. Parables regularly incorporate concrete and accessible images from the daily life of the audience, and often they are terse and pointed, mentioning only the details relevant for an effective comparison.

In the OT, the story of the trees (Jdg 9:7–15) and the story of the ewe lamb (2 Sm 12:1–4) may be considered parables. The story about the ewe lamb, like many parables, is used as a vehicle to bring about self-condemnation of its audience (in this case, David).

Although Jesus is not the only speaker of parables in the ancient world, the Gospels narrate a tremendous number of parables within his teaching. Some of the parables consist of short, relatively simple comparisons that lack the development of any significant story line (e.g., the parables of the mustard seed, leaven, hidden treasure, and pearl). Each of these offers a simple simile to explain some feature of the kingdom of God, a frequent topic in Jesus’s parables, and may include an additional sentence of clarification. Parables such as the good Samaritan and the prodigal son, on the other hand, are significantly longer, contain developed plots, and present several central characters. Stories of this sort may use the characters as examples of behavior to be either emulated or avoided. Such parables may remain open ended in an attempt to force the listeners into a decision about what should happen, or they may include a clear, concluding explanation that leaves no doubt as to how the audience should change their belief or behavior.

Paran The desert to which the Israelites journey after leaving the Wilderness of Sinai (Nm 10:11–12). The location is never explicitly mentioned, but it can be inferred from some of the descriptions of the Israelites’ wilderness journey. It is a desert region south of Judah, west of Edom, and north of Sinai, within the region known as the Negev. This is the location from which Moses sends spies to explore the promised land (Nm 13:3). They subsequently return to the Wilderness of Paran at Kadesh (Nm 13:26), giving us a geographical reference near Kadesh. Other references to the Wilderness of Paran confirm this location. Genesis 21:21 specifies the Wilderness of Paran as the place to which Abraham banishes Ishmael, and specific references to Egypt and Beer-sheba clarify its location between them. See also 1 Kg 11:18.

Passion From Latin patior, meaning “suffering,” the term “passion” is used to refer to Jesus’s suffering and death. The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was likely a version of the passion narrative, predating the NT Gospels. The first extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’s Letters (1 Co 2:2; Gl 3:1).

The passion events, recorded in all four Gospels, commence with the celebration of the Passover, the Last Supper. The new meaning of the Passover directs the focus toward the suffering and upcoming sacrifice of Jesus. Jesus’s prayer in Gethsemane ties the Passover to his suffering (Mk 14:23–24, 36; Jn 18:11). His subsequent betrayal, arrest, trial, beatings, and mocking are narrated in detail. The passion finds its climax in the crucifixion.

Pastor Pastors, surprisingly, show up only a single time in the NT, in Eph 4:11, where Paul describes how Christ has provided pastors and teachers. “Pastor” (poimēn) means “shepherd,” and although the noun appears in this sense of a church leader only here, the verb “to shepherd” (poimainō) occurs also in Ac 20:28 and 1 Pt 5:2. This shepherding role is associated with the elders/overseers. We see this in Paul’s address to the Ephesian elders in Ac 20, where he tells them how they are to shepherd the church (Ac 20:28). Peter does the same thing in 1 Pt 5:1–2.

Pathros A region associated with Mizraim (Egypt) in Is 11:11; Jr 44:1, 15; Ezk 29:14; 30:14. Most likely it is Upper Egypt, the region just south of Mizraim (Lower Egypt). The Egyptian name for the “south land” refers to the area between Memphis and Aswan and is philologically similar to “Pathros.”

Patriarch The male head of a family. The OT describes the Israelite nation as an extended family descended from a line of common ancestors, the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (also called Israel [see Gn 32:28]). The tribes that made up the Israelite people are named after each of Jacob’s sons (or his grandsons Ephraim and Manasseh). The NT applies the term “patriarch” to individuals of the generations from Abraham (Heb 7:4) to his twelve great-grandsons (Ac 7:8) and, in one case, to the tenth-century king David (Ac 2:29). In the OT the term “patriarch” is not used, though the concept of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as national fathers is frequently expressed, as in Ex 3:15, which refers to Israel’s God as “the Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob.”

Peace The attribute of the absence of conflict and the presence of harmony. In the OT, shalom (Hb “peace,” “welfare”) is human flourishing in this earthly life: health, large family, prosperity, peace with enemies, and innumerable divine blessings. Peace for the righteous stands in contrast with its absence for the wicked (Is 48:22). According to the NT, justification brings peace with God (Rm 5:1). Moreover, “God is not a God of disorder but of peace” (1 Co 14:33). Order and decency should reign in the church (1 Co 14), with the Spirit giving such peace (Gl 5:22).

Pelethites A group, possibly of Philistine origin, that serves as troops attached to David and separate from the main army (2 Sm 20:7). They are always mentioned in company with the Cherethites. They may originate in the band that David builds around himself in Ziklag (1 Sm 27:8), as they are associated with men from Gath in 2 Sm 15:18. As a special unit, they are under the command of Benaiah (2 Sm 8:18; 20:23). Their loyalty to David is evident from their service in putting down the rebellions of Absalom (2 Sm 15:18) and Sheba (2 Sm 20:7) and later in ensuring Solomon’s succession to the throne (1 Kg 1:38, 44).

Pentecost The Greek name for the Festival of Weeks described in Lv 23:15–22. It gets this name because it is celebrated fifty days after the Passover (Gk pentēkostē, “fiftieth”). The Festival of Weeks was an important pilgrimage feast commemorating the end of the grain harvest. Usually the harvest season began the week of Passover and continued for fifty days until the Festival of Weeks. The first NT use of the word occurs in Ac 2:1. Paul mentions in 1 Co 16:8 that he intends to stay in Ephesus until Pentecost. This early Pauline document suggests that for Christians, Pentecost was an established date that needed no explanation.

Pharisees One of the prevailing Jewish parties in Palestine during the first century. Like the Sadducees, the Pharisees apparently emerged in reaction to the rise of the Hasmonean priest-kings in the mid-second and first centuries BC. In the Gospels, the Pharisees are one of the groups that oppose Jesus. The Pharisees most strongly oppose him on issues related to their received tradition, which they consider to be as binding as the OT law. Two such legal issues are ceremonial washings before meals and working on the Sabbath.

The Pharisees question Jesus concerning his and his disciples’ failure to follow the tradition of the elders by eating with “unclean,” that is, “unwashed,” hands (Mt 15:1–2; Mk 7:1–5; Lk 11:39–41). Concerning breaking the Sabbath, the Pharisees confront Jesus on various occasions, such as when Jesus heals on the Sabbath (Mt 12:9–14; Mk 3:1–5; Lk 6:6–11) and when his disciples pick grain while walking through a field (Mt 12:1–8; Mk 2:23–28; Lk 6:1–5). In response to accusations concerning breaking the traditions of the elders, Jesus affirms the priority of mercy in the face of human need that supersedes laws concerning the Sabbath (Mt 12:7–8; Mk 2:27–28; Lk 6:5). Jesus’s critique of the Pharisees concentrates on their neglecting mercy toward fellow humans for the sake of their tradition (Mt 12:7; 23:23).

In the Gospel of John, the Pharisees are again usually depicted as adversaries of Jesus and also in league with other Jewish authorities in plotting to arrest and kill Jesus (Jn 7:32; 11:47–57).

The Pharisees are not always antagonistic toward Jesus. One passage suggests they are divided concerning him (Jn 9:16). From time to time, they are on the same side of an issue with him, such as Jesus’s confrontation with the Sadducees over the resurrection (Lk 20:27–40). One Pharisee, Nicodemus, comes to Jesus by night (Jn 3), defends Jesus before his peers (Jn 7:50), and brings spices to prepare Jesus’s body for burial after his death (Jn 19:39).

The apostle Paul identifies himself as a Pharisee in regard to keeping the law (Php 3:5; cf. Ac 26:5) and in a confrontation with Jerusalem authorities (Ac 23:6). Also, some early Christians are said to be Pharisees (Ac 15:5).

Philistines The Philistines mentioned in the Bible may constitute diverse peoples who migrated by land or by sea to the southern coastal region of Palestine over several centuries. Philistines are said to inhabit this coastal plain as early as the time of Abraham (Gn 21:32, 34; 26:1, 8, 14–15, 18) and as late as the postexilic (Zch 9:6) period. Prior to the influx of at least some of the Philistines from eastern Mediterranean islands, the southern coastal region was, at various times, inhabited by Canaanites (Nm 13:29; Dt 1:7; Jos 5:1; cf. Jos 13:4), Anakim (Jos 11:21–22), and Avvites (Dt 2:23; Jos 13:3).

The migration of Judah and other tribes of Israel into Canaan results in several centuries of hostility with the Philistines. Judah’s allotment of land includes the cities and surrounding areas of Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza, as well as the Mediterranean coastline (Jos 15:45–47). Judah subsequently conquers at least part of this area (Jdg 1:18).

During the time of the judges, Shamgar (Jdg 3:31) and Samson (Jdg 15:4–5, 15; 16:21, 29–30) both kill a number of Philistines to deliver the Israelites. Israel also suffers many defeats to the Philistines (cf. Jdg 10:7; 13:1; 15:11; 1 Sm 4:1–11; 12:9). On one of these occasions the Philistines capture the ark of God and place it in the temple of Dagon in Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1), but eventually they return it (1 Sm 6).

Saul’s reign as Israel’s king is characterized by war with the Philistines (1 Sm 9:16; 14:52; cf. 7:13) and includes both defeat (1 Sm 13:6–7; 23:27; 31:1) and victory (1 Sm 14:13, 22, 31, 47; 17:52–53; 24:1). The military dominance of the Philistines during this time is attributed to their control of blacksmithing and ironwork (1 Sm 13:19–22), which also allows them to extend their influence into Judean territory (1 Sm 4:1; 7:7; 10:5; 13:3, 16–18, 23; 17:1; 29:1, 11; 31:7–8, 10; 2 Sm 5:18, 22; 23:14). In spite of their superior weapons, David defeats the Philistine champion Goliath (1 Sm 17:4, 50; 18:7–9). Yet when Saul later attempts to kill David, David seeks refuge with the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1, 7). Saul and his sons are ultimately killed in a battle with the Philistines (1 Sm 31:2–4).

David’s early success in battle against the Philistines (1 Sm 17:50; 19:8; 23:5) continues upon his accession to kingship (2 Sm 5:20, 25; 8:1, 12; 21:15). Later battles between Judah and the Philistines take place during the reigns of Jehoram (2 Ch 21:16–17), Uzziah (2 Ch 26:6–7), Ahaz (2 Ch 28:18), and Hezekiah (2 Kg 18:8). Jehoshaphat receives tribute from the Philistines (2 Ch 17:11).

Phoenicia The geographical and chronological boundaries for Phoenicia are imprecise, but the heartland of Phoenicia was along the coastal regions of modern-day Lebanon, extending to parts of Syria and Israel. Since Phoenicia was usually formed of independent city-states, it was common practice in all periods to refer to Phoenicia by the name of one of its principal cities (Gubla/Byblos, Tyre, Sidon). Phoenicians were primarily sea traders and artists. Phoenician religion had a pantheon that differed from city to city and from one age to the next. Nature and fertility deities predominated. Baal, the chief god of Tyre and Sidon, was at times the leading rival to Yahweh worship in Israel (1 Kg 16:29–22:18), and his consort was Astarte.

In the OT the territory occupied by the Phoenicians is called “Canaan” by the Israelites (Is 23:11), “Canaanite” (Hb kena’an means “merchant”) being the name applied by the inhabitants to themselves (Gn 10:18). By the time of David, Tyre is ruled by Hiram I, whose reign begins a golden age. Phoenicia becomes allied commercially with David (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kg 5:1), and Hiram supplies Solomon with wood, stone, and craftsmen for the construction of the temple and Solomon’s palace (1 Kg 5:1–12; 2 Ch 2:3–16). Ships and navigators from Phoenicia are sent to assist the Judean fleet and to develop the port of Ezion-geber as a base for commerce (1 Kg 9:27).

During the ninth and eighth centuries BC, the Phoenicians expanded into the western Mediterranean and founded colonies in Sardinia, Sicily, North Africa, and Iberia. Alexander the Great captured Tyre in the fourth century BC, and the slaughter and destruction were extreme, but the city recovered and, like Sidon, was still prosperous in Hellenistic and Roman times (see, e.g., Mt 11:21–22; Ac 12:20).

Phylactery In Ex 13:16; Dt 6:8; 11:18 the word “symbol” refers to God’s commandments bound on one’s forehead (see the CSB footnotes). The literal reading of this has led to the custom of tefillin, a pair of small leather boxes worn by Jews during prayer. Specific Scripture verses (Ex 13:1–16; Dt 6:4–9; 11:13–21) are written on small scrolls and placed in each box. One box is bound to the left arm and the other across the forehead, serving as a sign and a remembrance that God brought the children of Israel out of Egypt. The NT refers to tefillin as “phylacteries.” In Mt 23:5 Jesus condemns individuals who call attention to themselves by enlarging their phylacteries, which describes tefillin placed on the head that were not cubical but rectangular, with the breadth across the forehead greater in length.

A modern-day phylactery, a box containing Hebrew texts bound on the forehead (Dt 11:18)

Pillar of Fire and Cloud As Moses and the Israelites travel through the desert, God guides them by going ahead of them, appearing as a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (Ex 13:21–22). Prior to the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea, the pillar of cloud separates the Israelites from the Egyptian army, protecting them and giving them light (Ex 14:19–20). The pillar lights the way for the Israelites (Neh 9:12).

When the tabernacle is set up, the pillar of cloud or fire settles on it (Ex 40:34–38), so that the pillar is always in the sight of the Israelites. The Israelites move whenever the cloud moves from above the tabernacle (Ex 40:36–37; Nm 9:17). While Moses is meeting with God, the cloud stays at the entrance to the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9; Nm 12:5; Dt 31:15; see also Ps 99:7).

Plow An instrument used by farmers to break up ground in preparation for planting (Is 28:24; Hs 10:11). The plow was made of wood (1 Kg 19:21), and the point was covered with a metal plowshare (Is 2:4; Jl 3:10) that required occasional sharpening (1 Sm 13:20–21). Usually, plowmen used pairs of oxen (1 Kg 19:19; Jb 1:14; Am 6:12) to pull the plow, although one might harness single animals or other animals such as donkeys (Dt 22:10), depending on the situation and resources. The busy time of plowing at the beginning of the rainy season (around November) required hard work (Ex 34:21; Pr 20:4) and commitment (Lk 9:62).

Plumb Line A cord with a weight attached to one end, to measure verticality, used in ancient construction. In OT passages, a plumb line measures righteousness and signals God’s commitment for renewal. In Am 7:7–9 a plumb line in the hand of God communicates his judgment. A measuring line signals God’s act of washing in 2 Kg 21:13. A plumb line or measuring line in Is 28:17; 34:11 is righteousness and justice as well as desolation and chaos. While signaling an end, a plumb line also indicates a new beginning.

Praetorium The official residence of a Roman governor, military commander, or official. In the Gospel accounts, the praetorium of Pontius Pilate in Jerusalem is the location of some of the beatings, mockings, and trials of Jesus (Mt 27:27–31; Mk 15:16–20; Jn 18:28–19:15). It is uncertain whether Pilate chose as his praetorium either Herod’s palace in Jerusalem or the Antonia Fortress, with its garrison near the temple. The term could also be used of the praetorian guard, Caesar’s personal troops (cf. Php 1:12–13).

Praise The expression of approval, respect, and honor in reference to God. Praise is an essential element of worship. As the church worships, it engages in recognizing and describing the worth and glory of the awesome majesty of God and his mighty acts in creation, redemption, and consummation. Specific activities of praise include singing hymns and songs (of various genres, and accompanied by musical instruments, shouts of acclamation, the raising of hands, and more), the reading of psalms of praise, and speaking corporate prayers of adoration and thanksgiving. Praise in another sense is the ascription of admiration for human beings.

Prayer The act of bringing a petition or request before God. More broadly, prayer also includes elements such as praise, thanksgiving, and confession. A presupposition of prayer is that God hears prayer and may indeed effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circumstances of the one praying. However, prayer must be made from a heart that is right toward God (Ps 51:17; cf. Is 66:2).

In the OT, prayer is not described as conversational or dialogical. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, not vice versa. Therefore, prayers are reverential, from the praying subject to the sovereign God. Many of the prayers in the OT specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for both those praying and God’s answering (e.g.,1 Kg 8:23–25; Neh 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss 25:10–11; 44:17–26). In postexilic books, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use of prior Scripture, praying God’s words back to him (e.g., Neh 9; cf. Ac 4:24–30).

There is a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in many OT prayers (e.g., Jr 4:10; 12:1–4; 20:7; Jb 31:35–37; Ps 89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebuke Jeremiah and Job (Jr 12:5; Jb 38–42), he does not ignore them or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encourage such honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.

In the NT, Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Mt 6:9; cf. Rm 8:15; Gl 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Mt 18:19–20; Jn 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26), in essence saying to God that the prayer being offered is one that Jesus would approve. Prayer can also be made directly to Jesus himself (Jn 14:14; Ac 7:59; 1 Co 16:22; Rv 22:20). However, the norm in the NT still seems to be that prayer is to be made to the Father, through Jesus’s name. The Holy Spirit also plays a vital role in prayers: the Spirit intercedes for us (Rm 8:26), and our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph 6:18; Jd 20; cf. 1 Co 14:15).

Jesus becomes the model of one who prays (Mt 14:23; 26:36–44; Lk 3:21; 6:12–13; 9:29; Jn 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Lk 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Lk 18:1), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Lk 22:41–44; Heb 5:7). Even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb 7:25).

The apostles encourage the early Christians to “pray constantly” (1 Th 5:17) and to intercede for another, as well as for their leaders (e.g., Eph 6:18–20; Heb 13:18–19). Paul provides examples of this as his letters often include a prayer for his recipients (e.g., Eph 1:15–19; Php 1:3–11; 1 Th 1:2–10). Prayer in the early church was sometimes accompanied by the laying on of hands or anointing of oil, especially to heal the sick (Ac 28:8; Jms 5:13–16; cf. Mk 5:23; 8:23).

Predestination The term “predestination” means “to determine or decide something beforehand” (Ac 4:28; Rm 8:29, 30; 1 Co 2:7; Eph 1:5, 11). It is practically synonymous with the concept of foreordination and is closely related to divine foreknowledge (Ac 2:23; Rm 8:29; 1 Pt 1:1–2, 20). This divine predetermination occurred before the creation of the world and was motivated by the love of God (Eph 1:4–5). In regard to humans, this means that in eternity past, God determined that some individuals would be the recipients of his salvation. However, this determination does not rule out the necessity of human choice, responsibility, and faith. The decision to predestine some individuals for salvation was based not upon anything good or bad in the recipients but solely on God’s good pleasure and according to his holy, wise, and eternal purpose (Is 46:10; Ac 13:48; Rm 11:33).

Predestination is a part of God’s all-encompassing eternal plan (Is 40:13–14; Rm 11:34; Eph 1:11), but it appears to be restricted primarily to certain divine decisions affecting humans, angels, and the Messiah (Is 42:1–7; Ac 2:23; 1 Tm 5:21; 1 Pt 1:20; 2:4). Some theologians argue that election and predestination are merely based upon God’s foreknowledge of those who will believe in him. Others assert that the term “foreknowledge” connotes that God has sovereignly chosen to know some individuals in such an intimate way that it moved him to predestine them to eternal life (Rm 8:29). Scholars have likewise differed over the relationship between predestination and reprobation. Some have argued that God is just as active in determining the reprobate as he is the elect; others have pointed out that God’s condemnation of the nonelect is based solely upon their sin and unbelief. God’s predetermined plan does not force individuals to respond in predetermined ways, either to accept him or to reject him. Sinners are drawn by God to himself but must also choose to place trust in Christ (Jn 6:37, 44), and those who do not come to God refuse to do so by their own volition (Mt 23:37; Jn 5:40). When all aspects of the issue are considered, there is indeed a mystery that lies outside the boundaries of our comprehension regarding God’s sovereign working and human choice.

Priest A priest is a minister of sacred things who represents God to the people and the people to God. Early biblical history records clan heads offering sacrifices for their families (Gn 12:7–8; 13:18; 22; 31:54; 46:1), although they are never called priests. The only priests mentioned from this time are foreigners such as Melchizedek, the Egyptian priest of On, and Moses’s father-in-law Jethro (Gn 14:18; 41:45, 50; 46:20; Ex 3:1; 18:1). Whereas all Israelites are called “my kingdom of priests” (Ex 19:6), a distinctive priesthood first comes to light when God instructs Moses to prepare special priestly clothes for Aaron and his sons (Ex 28). Israel’s priests are to come from the tribe of Levi, but it is not always clear whether all Levites or only Aaron’s descendants can serve as priests.

The prime role of the priests is to minister before God by offering sacrifices. They are also to assess and treat uncleanness, discern God’s will, and teach God’s precepts and laws (Lv 10:10–11; Nm 6:22–27; Dt 33:8–11). Like other Levites, the priests receive no land in Canaan, since God is their inheritance. In payment for their services, the priests are to receive a portion of the sacrifices and a tithe of the tithe given by the Israelites for the Levites’ support.

After the division of the kingdom, Jeroboam I erects shrines to calf idols at Dan and Bethel and enlists non-Levites as priests (1 Kg 12:31; 13:33), cutting off the northern kingdom from worship at the temple in Jerusalem. As a result, many Levites and priests relocate to Jerusalem. After the exile, many priests and Levites return to Jerusalem. In line with earlier practice, the priests offer sacrifices to God and are joined by the Levites in rebuilding the wall and teaching the law to the people. Among the prophets, Isaiah anticipates Israel bringing peoples of other nations as an offering to God and indicates that some of them will serve as priests and Levites (Is 66:19–21).

In the NT many priests exert religious and civil power as leaders of the Sadducees and the Essenes. Some priests, such as Zechariah, are portrayed as righteous men (Lk 1:5–6) or come to faith in Jesus (Ac 6:7). Jesus regularly requires those whom he heals to show themselves to the priest. Even so, most Gospel references to priests underscore their opposition to Jesus’s ministry and the role they play in his trial and crucifixion. This opposition continues after the resurrection, as priests challenge the witness of the apostles (Ac 4:1–20; 6:11–7:1) and even instigate the arrest of Christians (Ac 9:1–2; 24:1; 25:1–3).

Hebrews uniquely highlights how the priesthood of Jesus has surpassed the OT priesthood. The OT priests presented sin offerings, but their sacrifices needed to be repeated regularly, whereas Jesus, the faithful and merciful High Priest, has offered a sacrifice that never needs repeating and is available to everyone at all times. Jesus also has surpassed the Aaronic priests because they first needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins, but he has never sinned. Furthermore, since he has offered the perfect sacrifice of himself, all people, not just priests, can draw near to God.

The NT develops the idea of a priesthood of all believers by taking the concept that Israel is a kingdom of priests and transferring it to the church (1 Pt 2:4–9; cf. Ex 19:6). Reflecting the general biblical view of priesthood, believers offer spiritual sacrifices to God, represent God to the world by revealing his works of salvation, and represent the world to God through prayer. In the NT, the priesthood of believers is corporate; a priestly office in the church is never expressly mentioned.

Principalities One of the names given to spiritual realities that were created by God in Christ but are now corrupted. Paul says that it is these entities (Gk archē, “rulers”), not humans, that form the real opposition for Christians (Eph 6:12). Synonyms that appear in various Bible translations are “rulers,” “authorities,” “powers,” “spiritual forces,” and “thrones” (Rm 8:38; Eph 3:10; 6:12; Col 1:16).

Prison In many modern societies, prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). Many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration. In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jr 37:15; Ac 28:16) and pits (Zch 9:11).

The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison, whereas the NT, especially the book of Acts, highlights prison practices in Roman times. Joseph is falsely put in prison for molesting his master’s wife (Gn 39:19–20), while his companions are imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (Gn 40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences are not of a predetermined duration, and release depends on the goodwill of the king (Gn 40:13). Paul finds himself in a similar situation hundreds of years later (Ac 24:27). When Joseph imprisons his brothers, it is on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gn 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Ac Acts 25:27; see also Ac 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Mt 18:30). Joseph keeps Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers will fulfill a prior agreement (Gn 42:19, 24).

In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms (e.g., Pss 68:6; 107:10; 142:7; 146:7; cf. Is 61:1). In Ac 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (e.g., Eph 3:1; Col 4:10; Phm 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1 Pt 3:19; Rv 20:7).

Procurator The governor of a Roman imperial province, also called prefect. The prefect or procurator collected taxes, oversaw judicial matters, and commanded auxiliary military troops. Pontius Pilate was prefect of the province of Judea from about AD 26 to 36 (Mt 27:2). The title was changed to “procurator” in the mid-first century. Paul was imprisoned in Caesarea under Felix, procurator of Judea in AD 52–60 (Ac 23:24–24:26). Felix was succeeded by Porcius Festus (Ac 24:27), who approved Paul’s request to appeal to Caesar (25:12).

Promise God unfolds the history of redemption by employing the idea of promises. Most remarkable in the OT is the promise that God makes to Abraham and reconfirms to Isaac and Jacob (e.g., Gn 12:1–3; 13:14–17; 22:17–18; 26:1–5; 28:13–15). God calls Abraham in order to give him blessings of land, descendants, and the channel of blessing among the nations. As a sign of his promise, God makes a covenant of circumcision with Abraham and his descendants (Gn 17:10–14). At the time of the exodus and later the settlement in Canaan, God partially fulfills his promise to Abraham by multiplying Abraham’s descendants into millions and giving them the promised land.

The central message of the NT is that God’s promises in the OT are fulfilled with the coming of Jesus Christ, his suffering and resurrection, and the coming of the Holy Spirit (e.g., Lk 4:16–21; 24:44–48; Ac 2:29–31; 13:32–34; 1 Co 15:3–8). Jesus’s identity, both as the descendant of David (Ac 13:23) and as the prophet like Moses (Ac 3:21–26; cf. Dt 18:15–18), is also regarded as the fulfillment of the OT. Paul states that God’s promises are all “yes” in Christ (2 Co 1:20). According to Rm 1:2–3, Paul regards the gospel as the message that God “promised beforehand through his prophets.”

In the NT, God also makes new promises based on the work of Christ, including the final resurrection and the second coming of Christ (Jn 5:29; 11:25–26; 1 Co 15:48–57; 2 Co 4:14; 1 Th 4:13–18). Furthermore, the message of the gospel is presented as multiple promises, such as eternal life, the fullness of life in Christ, the forgiveness of sins, and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit (e.g., Mt 28:18–20; Jn 3:16; 16:20–24; 17:25–26; Php 4:4–9).

Prophecy In the OT, a type of divine revelation especially focused on disclosing God’s will, denouncing sin, and foretelling the future. According to the NT, prophecy, which is a spiritual gift empowered by the Spirit, is the reception and communication of divine revelation for the building up of the church. It consists of two aspects: the reception of a message, which God discloses to the prophet; and the report of that message, which is a communication that is regulated in its exercise and must be evaluated by the church (1 Co 14).

Providence The continuing work of God to sustain this created universe in existence and to direct it toward its end. Providence includes (1) preservation, God’s work to maintain the creation in existence and functioning as he designed it; (2) cooperation, God’s work of collaborating with all created realities as they act and occur; and (3) government, God’s work of directing the creation toward its divinely purposed end. Some theologies hold to meticulous providence: God ordains and controls everything that happens. Others hold to general providence: God attends broadly but not exhaustively to what occurs.

Purim One of the festivals beyond those commanded in the law of Moses that the Jews added to their sacred calendar. Purim was added during the postexilic period to commemorate God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies during a wave of anti-Semitic persecution in Persia during the reign of Ahasuerus (486–465 BC). As described in the book of Esther, their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival Purim, meaning “Lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February–March) with “feasting, rejoicing, and of sending gifts to one another and to the poor” (Est 9:22).

Purity The term “purity” often is used in the Bible to refer to physical, ritual, and ethical purity. Purification is the process needed to restore someone to a state of purity so that he or she can participate in ritual activities once again (Lv 22:4–7). These terms are cultural and theological; thus, in their ancient use they have little to do with modern notions of hygiene.

In the OT, God requires that his people observe purification rites when they come into his presence for worship. Ritual purity is intended to teach God’s holiness and moral purity; thus, purification rituals prepare individuals to approach God (Ex 19:10; Nm 8:15). These regulations and rites are outlined in the Mosaic law (see esp. Lv 11–15; Nm 19). The need for purification results from contact with any one of a number of natural processes that are more or less unavoidable. It is not necessarily sinful to contract these impurities, but they convey a temporary loss of ritual purity.

Outside the Mosaic law, loss of purity is sometimes used figuratively for transgression. For the prophets, it is not the ritual purification that ultimately matters but rather the forgiveness from God that renders people pure from sin. Thus, purification is a figure of God’s forgiveness.

In the NT, ceremonial purity is an important element in Jewish life (Jn 11:55; Ac 21:23; 24:18). But just as in the prophets, the notion of purity is applied to a life lived in wholehearted devotion to God. An individual is purified when obeying the truth (1 Pt 1:22). James describes repentance in terms of purity (Jms 4:8), and he describes helping those in distress as the kind of genuine piety that God accepts as “pure and undefiled” (Jms 1:27).

Purple Because purple dye was expensive, purple cloth represented wealth (Pr 31:22; Lk 16:19; Ac 16:14; Rv 18:16) and authority (Jdg 8:26; Dn 5:7), especially royalty (Lm 4:5; cf. Mk 15:20; Jn 19:2–5). In the tabernacle, temple, and the priestly garments, purple was often combined with blue and scarlet or crimson, themselves symbols of wealth and power (Ex 26:1; 28:4–15, 33; Nm 4:6–12; 2 Ch 3:14).

Queen of Heaven The title that Jeremiah uses in reference to a goddess being worshiped in Judah (Jr 7:18; 44:17–19, 25). This title was bestowed on several major goddesses in the ancient Near East, and since Jeremiah avoids using her name, the precise identity of the goddess is uncertain.

Rabbi A title applied to teachers and others in respected positions, literally meaning “my master.” By the NT era, the term was used in a more specific sense to refer to teachers of the Mosaic law.

In the NT, the title occurs only in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John, and it is most commonly used to address Jesus (Mk 9:5; 11:21; 14:45; Mt 26:25, 49). The title is used more widely in John’s Gospel by individuals such as Nathanael and Nicodemus, as well as the group of disciples (Jn 1:38, 49; 3:2; 4:31; 6:25; 9:2; 11:8). The title conveys the respect of pupil for master and indicates the nature of the relationship that Jesus has with his followers.

Others are also called Rabbi, including John the Baptist and some of the Pharisees (Jn 3:26; Mt 23:7). Although the Pharisees consider the title an honor, Jesus instructs his disciples not to allow themselves to be addressed as “Rabbi” and to acknowledge only one teacher, Christ (Mt 23:8, 10).

Rahab The Hebrew term rahab (not to be confused with the name Rahab in Jos 2, which is spelled differently in Hebrew) means “pride” but is also used as a proper noun several times in the OT. Rahab is a mythological monster especially associated with the ocean that represented the natural forces of chaos in the world. Many scholars believe that Rahab is identical to the Canaanite Leviathan. In the OT, Yahweh fights Rahab in the process of ending chaos and creating the world. Rahab is a depicted as a poor opponent (Jb 9:13; 26:12; Ps 89:10; Is 51:9). Later, Egypt is sometimes equated with the monster Rahab (Ps 87:4; Is 30:7), although there is no historical relationship between the two.

Rain In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such as ancient Israel, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periods could be hoped for each year, in February–March and in October–November, and these seasons were critical in producing a good crop. Regular rainfall thus forms a significant part of God’s promise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lv 26:4). Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of this promise: rain will be withheld from a sinful nation but will be given to a forgiven and obedient people (1 Kg 8:35–36).

Rain can also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives, where God sends rain to destroy all living things on the face of the earth (Gn 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rain accompanies hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Ex 9:23).

Since rain is completely beyond human control, it naturally becomes a symbol of God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. In 1 Kg 17–18, for three years the rains are withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in God is vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain follows. The effectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and later for rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (Jms 5:17–18).

Rainbow The great beauty of rainbows results from their containing the full spectrum of visible light. In Scripture rainbows have a special significance and symbolism. A rainbow is a sign of God’s covenant with the earth to never again destroy all life with a flood as he did in the time of Noah (Gn 9:13–14, 16). The power of this particular image comes from the transformation of a bow—typically a symbol of warfare, destruction, and death—into a colorful symbol of heavenly mercy, grace, and peace. The rainbow thus became a sign of God’s kindness and mercy and is found in descriptions of God in the heavenly visions of both Ezekiel and John (Ezk 1:28; Rv 4:3; 10:1).

Raisins Raisins, or dried grapes, were among the foods forbidden to Nazirites (Nm 6:3). The reference to raisins in Sg 2:5 indicates a belief in their aphrodisiac quality. Elsewhere, raisins frequently appear as a staple food, often pressed into cakes or patties that were easily transported (1 Sm 25:18) and supplied quick energy (1 Sm 30:12). Raisin cakes were also used as cultic offerings to other gods (Hs 3:1).

Ramah A town in Benjamin (Jos 18:25), possibly located on the site of the modern city of Er-Ram, five miles north of Jerusalem, or three miles farther north at Ramallah. Ramah was located near the cities of Gibeon and Mizpah and close to the eventual border between Israel and Judah. It was a resting place on the road to the north (Jdg 19:13). The judge Deborah holds court near Ramah on the road to Bethel (Jdg 4:5).

When King Baasha of Israel invades Judah, he makes Ramah his base, fortifying the city in order to control northern access to Jerusalem (1 Kg 15:17; 2 Ch 16:1). After Baasha is forced to abandon his position, King Asa of Judah dismantles the fortifications (1 Kg 15:22; 2 Ch 16:6). Following the return from exile, some of the Benjaminites resettle in the city of Ramah (Neh 11:33). Rachel’s tomb is said to be near Ramah, and the place is associated with her mourning for her children (Jr 31:15). Some scholars believe that Ramah of Benjamin was also the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 7:17; 8:4; 25:1), although the difficulty with this identification is the latter’s link with the territory of Ephraim (1 Sm 1:1).

Ramoth-gilead A city of refuge located in the Transjordan territory of Gad (Dt 4:43; Jos 20:8; 21:38). King Ahab of Israel invites King Jehoshaphat of Judah to ally with him to retake Ramoth-gilead from the Arameans. In the ensuing battle Ahab is fatally wounded (1 Kg 22; 2 Ch 18). After Ahab’s son Joram is injured at Ramoth-gilead, Elisha’s representative travels there to anoint Jehu as king of Israel (2 Kg 8:25–9:13). Ramoth-gilead is commonly identified with Tell er-Rumeith, a small fortification about three miles south of Ramtha in northern Jordan, near the Syrian border.

Ransom A payment made to redeem a slave, release a captive, or free a criminal from punishment.

In the OT, slaves can be set free by ransom (Lv 19:20), and certain kinds of criminals are excluded from ransom (Nm 35:31–32), implying that others can be ransomed to escape their punishment. Ransom is also used more broadly to include notions of atonement (Ex 30:12) and as a near synonym for “redemption” (Jr 31:11). “Ransom” is frequently used metaphorically to describe God’s saving actions on behalf of the nation (Is 43:3; 50:2; Jr 31:11; Hs 13:14), saving them from their enemies, or of individuals (Jb 5:20; Ps 55:18), saving them from death. In these cases, the emphasis is on the rescue effected, not the price paid.

In the NT, “ransom” is used to describe the atoning work of Christ. Jesus describes his own purpose (Mt 20:28; Mk 10:45). Paul uses the same language (1 Tm 2:5–6). The author of Hebrews describes the effect of this ransom (Heb 9:15). All three references indicate that the price paid for the ransom is Jesus’s life, given up to death on the cross. Each of the literal meanings of “ransom” has its metaphorical equivalent: Christ’s death frees us from our slavery to sin and death (Rm 6:6), releases us from our captivity to the law (Rm 7:4–6), and pays the price of the punishment that our sins deserve (Rm 3:25–26). The ransom was not paid to the devil, and it is best understood as the satisfaction of God’s own justice (Rm 6:23).

Rapture The word “rapture” (from Lat raptura) describes Christians being “caught up” to meet the Lord at the second coming (1 Th 4:17). This seems to immediately follow the resurrection of the dead. Paul claims those who have “fallen asleep” will rise first (1 Th 4:15), then the living will be caught up with them in the clouds and meet the Lord in the air.

There is disagreement as to the timing of the rapture. For some, the rapture occurs before the seven-year period of tribulation preceding Christ’s return. The purpose is to remove the church and bring it to heaven so that it will be spared the evil and punishment of the tribulation. For others, the rapture occurs immediately before Christ’s return for the purpose of catching up the church to meet Christ as he descends from heaven on his return to earth.

Raven An omnivorous member of the crow family, the raven is listed among the unclean birds in Lv 11:15 because it is a scavenger that feeds on live prey and carrion. Despite this, the raven is used as an example of God’s care for his creation (Jb 38:41; Ps 147:9; Lk 12:24). God uses ravens to bring food to Elijah while he is hiding in the wilderness (1 Kg 17:4–6). A raven is the first bird sent out by Noah at the end of the flood (Gn 8:6–7). It eventually does not return, presumably because it was able to find its own source of food. As part of God’s vengeance against Edom, ravens and other birds of prey will nest in the city (Is 34:11). Together with the vulture, the raven is used as a metaphor for vicious destruction (Pr 30:17).

Reconciliation The restoration of a relationship from a state of hostility to one of peace.

The need for reconciliation between God and humanity begins when Adam and Eve’s sin brings God’s judgment (Gn 3:14–19). The OT gives glimpses of what reconciliation will be like. God gives the sacrificial system as a means to deal with sin and restore fellowship with him (Lv 1–7, 16). Despite Israel’s sin, God pursues reconciliation with Israel just as a husband chases after a wayward wife (Hs 1–3). God’s people look forward to the day when a covenant of peace will be established through the Suffering Servant and announced to the ends of the earth (Is 52–54).

What is largely hinted at in the OT is stated explicitly in the NT. Paul in particular explains how believers are reconciled to God. As the last Adam, Christ has removed the barrier between God and humanity by taking the punishment for our sin. Thus reconciliation is a gift that God offers to humanity (Rm 5:11). Because God has reconciled us to himself through Christ, he has entrusted us with the ministry of reconciliation (2 Co 5:19). The result of reconciliation is the joy that comes from being at peace with God (Rm 5:1–2, 11).

Reconciliation between God and humanity makes it possible for people truly to be reconciled to one another (Eph 2:14–22). The reconciling work of Jesus is also the means by which God restores the created order to peace (Col 1:20), culminating in new heavens and a new earth free from the effects of sin and death (Is 65:17; Rv 21–22).

Redemption More than a simple notion of deliverance, redemption speaks as much of the grace of the redeemer as of the deliverance of the redeemed. The Greek word apolytrōsis (“redemption”) indicates the ransom payment given to release a slave, a captive of war, or someone sentenced to death. The Hebrew word padah (corresponding to the Greek term lytron, “ransom”) is a commercial term rooted in the idea of the transfer of ownership.

In the OT, the experience of the exodus gives the idea of redemption religious significance. Israel itself, God’s firstborn (Ex 4:22; cf. 13:12–13), has been redeemed by the Lord. God’s redemption broadens to include deliverance from all Israel’s troubles (Ps 25:22). Redemption includes the whole of the human situation, not just the eternal destiny.

The NT champions the theme of redemption (see Lk 4:18–19). Jesus teaches that he will redeem his people from the slavery of sin (Jn 8:34–36) and speaks of himself as a ransom for many (Mt 20:28 // Mk 10:45). Paul’s theology of the cross accentuates the connection between sin, slavery, and Jesus’s ransom (Rm 3:24; 6:17; 7:14). The Christian idea of ransom follows the accepted contemporary idea that people who are sentenced to death (Rm 6:23) can gain their life back if a redeemer buys it with a ransom (Col 1:13–14).

Although redemption is present, the fullness of it still awaits the future (Rm 8:18–23; 1 Co 15:28; Col 1:19–20). God’s eschatological redemption is universal; it restores the relationship between creation and the Creator (Col 1:21–23; Eph 1:7–10).

Red Sea References to the “Red Sea” (Hb yam sup, “sea of reeds”) in the Bible typically indicate the Gulf of Suez (Nm 33:10–11), the Gulf of Aqaba (e.g., 1 Kg 9:26), or the marshy and shallow lakes in the region north of the Gulf of Suez, rather than, as in modern usage, the large body of water stretching all the way to the Gulf of Aden. At high points of their political power (1 Kg 9:26; 22:48), the Israelite peoples controlled a Red Sea port at Ezion Geber on the Gulf of Aqaba (near modern Eilat).

Perhaps the best-known appearance of the “Red Sea” in the Bible is the story of the exodus from Egypt and the miraculous crossing of the sea by the Israelites (Ex 13:18; 14:15–15:22). This reference to the “Red Sea” (or “sea of reeds”) may refer to the region north of the Gulf of Suez, which, in antiquity, was characterized by large, shallow lakes and extensive swamps. The water level was higher four thousand years ago, and the north end of the Gulf of Suez may have merged with the Bitter Lakes region, all of it being called yam sup. It would not have been navigable without the miracle that dries it up and allows the Israelites to walk across on dry ground. Furthermore, this body of water is deep enough that the Egyptians are engulfed when the waters return.

Refine In metallurgy, to separate pure metal from impurities. The process of refining is used figuratively in the Bible in reference to God purifying his people from their sin (Jr 9:7; Zch 13:9; Mal 3:3).

Regeneration In the most basic sense, “regeneration” refers to God giving new life to someone or something. The concept is present in a variety of terms and images, especially those of new birth, new life, new self, new heart, and new creation. The biblical concept of regeneration is applied to both individuals (Jn 3:1–21; 2 Co 5:17; Ti 3:5–7) and creation (Mt 19:28; 27:51–53; 1 Co 15:20–23).

The regeneration of the individual and creation are inseparable. God imparts new spiritual life to his chosen people so that they respond in faith and obedience to him. The same regenerating power that brings the believer alive will one day renew all creation to make a suitable place for God’s regenerate people to dwell.

Remnant The central idea of the remnant concept or remnant theology is that in the midst of apostasy and the consequential terrible judgment and/or destruction, God always has a small, faithful group that he delivers and works through to bring blessing.

Early allusions to the idea of a remnant are introduced in Genesis when Noah and his family are the remnant saved during the flood (Gn 6–9). The remnant theme surfaces in several other places in the OT. For example, when Elijah complains that he is the only faithful one left, God corrects him by pointing out that he has maintained a remnant of seven thousand faithful ones in the midst of national apostasy (1 Kg 19:10–18).

However, in the OT Prophets the remnant theme flowers into full blossom (e.g., Is 10:20–22; 37:31–32; Jr 23:3; Ezk 6:8). The prophets proclaim that since Israel/Judah has broken the covenant and refuses to repent and turn back to God, judgment is coming. This judgment takes the form of foreign invasions and destruction followed by exile from the land. Yet the prophets also prophesy hope and restoration beyond the judgment. They declare that a remnant will survive and that God will work through the remnant to bring blessings and restoration. Usually the remnant is identified as those who go into exile but who likewise hope to return to the land. The reestablishment of the remnant is often connected with the inauguration of the messianic age.

The remnant theme continues into the NT. In Mt 7:13–14 Jesus states that few people find the narrow way that leads to eternal life. Likewise, in Mt 22:14 Jesus summarizes his preceding parable by stating that though many are invited, few are chosen.

In Rm 11 Paul is much more explicit, connecting his argument specifically to the remnant idea in 1 Kg 19:18. In both situations, even though the nation as a whole has rejected God, God maintains a faithful remnant, established by God’s grace (Rm 11:5). In the early church, that remnant consisted of Jewish Christians like Paul himself and the church as a whole (Rm 11:11–24; cf. 1 Pt 2:5–10; Rv 7; 14).

In a real sense, then, believers in Jesus are the remnant who have been rescued from the wrath of God (1 Th 1:10) but who still await full deliverance from the enemies of God (2 Th 1:6–10).

Repentance The act of repudiating sin and returning to God. Implicit in this is sorrow over the evil that one has committed and a complete turnabout in one’s spiritual direction: turning from idols—anything that wrests away the affection that we owe God—to God (1 Sm 7:3; 2 Ch 7:14; Is 55:6; 1 Th 1:9; Jms 4:8–10).

Rephaim A people group also called the “Anakim” (Dt 2:11). They are described as giants (Dt 3:11) who make Moses’s spies feel like grasshoppers in comparison, and they are associated with the preflood Nephilim (Gn 6:4; Nm 13:33).

Rest Intentional suspension of ordinary work for the purpose of refreshment and relaxation. Such repose is not the cessation of activity but the purposeful substitution of one activity for another. Varieties include: (1) rest from having to achieve favor before God through one’s best human works, because Christ’s righteousness is imputed through faith; (2) rest from worrying about life’s necessities, because one trusts that God provides for one’s needs; (3) rest from humanly imposed legalism that acts as a straitjacket, enjoying instead freedom in Christ; and (4) future rest from wearying labor for Christ in the rewards of the life to come.

Restitution An act of restoration in which compensation is given to account for a loss by the person responsible for that loss. As an integral part of community life, restitution protects against the loss of one’s property due to a neighbor’s carelessness or treachery.

As a part of economic life, restitution is prescribed for directly or indirectly causing someone else to lose his or her possessions. A thief must make restitution (Ex 22:3). Restitution aims to restore what was lost through equal replacement (an ox for an ox in Ex 21:36) and can involve matching value monetarily (Ex 21:34). However, in the case of theft, restitution is to be higher than equal value. Such cases may involve giving back double, quadruple, or sometimes quintuple of what was taken (Ex 22:1, 7), even to the point of selling oneself to pay the debt (Ex 22:3). In this way, restitution may also function as a deterrent, especially against theft.

In Nm 5:5–8 and Lv 6:1–7, acts against one’s neighbor are counted as acts against God, thus requiring an additional restitution, one-fifth of the value of the lost property, to be given to the priest along with a guilt offering. In this way, restitution operates not only to restore the owner of lost property but also to restore the guilty party before God.

Resurrection Rising again, with reembodiment, after death. The OT envisions this hope (Dn 12:1–2), and Jesus highlights it. He calls himself “the resurrection and the life,” promising to his disciples a return to life with reembodiment (Jn 11:25). The apostles testify to Jesus’s resurrection, which is an essential part of the gospel. Christ’s resurrection paves the way for the general resurrection. At Christ’s return, disembodied believers in heaven will receive imperishable, glorious, Spirit-dominated bodies (1 Co 15:42–44), as will living believers through an immediate transformation of their earthly bodies.

Resurrection of Jesus On the third day following his crucifixion, Jesus returns to bodily existence through his resurrection as he has foretold to his disciples. Jesus’s death involved the separation of his soul and body; his body was placed in a tomb while he, being disembodied, continued to exist. After three days, he rises from the dead, returning to earthly life with a glorified body. His grave clothes are laid aside, and his body has features of both continuity (it bears the marks of his crucifixion; Jn 20:27) and discontinuity (it can pass through doors; Jn 20:19). The resurrection itself is not witnessed by Jesus’s followers, but it is announced to the women at the tomb (Mt 28:1–7; Mk 16:1–7; Lk 24:1–8) and attested by the appearances of the risen Jesus (Lk 24:13–43; Jn 20:11–29). This resurrection is a work in which the Father (Ac 2:24), Son (Jn 10:17–18), and Spirit (Rm 8:11) participate.

Christ’s resurrection is the foundational event for the Christian faith. Paul goes so far as to say that if Christ did not rise, then the Christian faith is futile and Christians are to be pitied more than all others (1 Co 15:17–19). Resurrection’s climaxing position in all four Gospel narratives yields the same understanding. Christ came not merely to die, as some claim, but to conquer death. Resurrection gives everything that Christ did before his death an “of God” significance, and it establishes everything that follows as a guarantee of God’s eschatological promises. Without the resurrection, Jesus would have been just another “prophet hopeful” who died a tragic peasant death in Jerusalem. However, as it is, evidenced by the resurrection, he is the Son of God. According to the NT, the resurrection is the triumphant cry that God indeed did come to visit his creation and conquer the power of sin and death.

Although the Gospels’ presentations of Jesus’s resurrection vary in some detail (probably due to purpose and audience), all of them treat the event as the theological centerpiece of the Gospel narrative. The resurrection story launches God’s eschatological work and opens the door, as the postresurrection appearances show, for a connection between the Jesus story and the church story. It is the foundation both for the Great Commission (Mt 28:18–20) and for Pentecost (Lk 24:49). All people of all nations can now meet the living Christ.

Revelation of God God is the all-powerful, all-knowing, morally perfect Creator of the universe; and we are his creatures—no less, but also no more. Thus, an unimaginable distance must exist between God and us. The biblical writers note our creaturely limitations and God’s transcendence. But God has made himself known in two general ways, according to Scripture.

First, the biblical writers expect each of us to grasp something of God’s nature, based on what is called “general revelation.” General revelation operates in a broadcasted way, so to speak, relying on commonplace experience to make us aware of God’s existence and nature. We all see the heavens that “declare the glory of God” (Ps 19:1). Paul argues that every person can detect the “invisible attributes” of God, his “eternal power and divine nature,” in what he has created, so that we have no excuse for decadent theology and behavior (Rm 1:20). The law of God is “written on [our] hearts” (Rm 2:15), so that we grasp what we owe to him and each other. Even though God has not spoken directly to every nation, “he did not leave himself without a witness”; he has shown all people “what is good by giving [them] rain from heaven and fruitful seasons” (Ac 14:17). We can learn some things about God from these sources given to us, and thus we are accountable for right conduct in relationship to them. However, general revelation lacks the detail and assurance of what is called “special revelation.”

Special revelation differs from general revelation in having a target audience. It conveys information about God, human beings, and our world that cannot be deduced from everyday experience. Jesus suffered for our sins. Our trust in his death on the cross will save us. God is a Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, though there is one God. Christ will return in power and glory to judge all nations. We can think of God as our heavenly Father, a morally perfect deity who cares about the individual person. The Holy Spirit helps us in our weakness as we wonder how to pray. God is always sovereign, even over the wicked deeds of human beings and the suffering that they cause. These are essential points of Christian doctrine. Yet we cannot substantiate any of them by carefully observing ourselves, our world, or the facts of history. Indeed, sometimes our own thoughts lead us to resist these claims because they entail great mysteries. One can easily (but wrongly) equate “I do not understand this” with “This is false.” Thus, our knowledge of these doctrines rests on God’s willingness to speak and our readiness to hear what he says with humility and trust, without having all our questions answered.

Reverence Closely related to honor and respect and often translating the Hebrew and Greek words for “fear,” reverence is directed primarily toward the sacred or divine, such as God’s sanctuary (Lv 19:30; 26:2), the temple (Ps 5:7), God’s name (Rv 11:18), God himself (Dn 6:26; Mal 2:5), and his messengers, the angel of the Lord (Jos 5:14), and Peter (Ac 10:25). Reverence for God motivates behavior that honors him, such as just governance (Neh 5:15), mutual submission (Eph 5:21), purity (2 Co 7:1), and obedience (Col 3:22). It is an attitude of acceptable worship (Heb 12:28), connected with humility (Jr 44:10), which may win over unbelievers (1 Pt 3:2).

Righteousness In OT texts, the core idea of righteousness is conformity to God’s person and will in moral uprightness, justice, and faithfulness. God himself is righteous (e.g., Ezr 9:15; Is 45:21; Zph 3:5), so righteousness is the expression of his holiness in relationship to others (Is 5:16). Related to humans, righteousness is the opposite of wickedness (Ps 82:2; cf. Mt 13:49; 2 Co 6:14). Righteousness can be expressed as personal integrity (1 Sm 26:23; 2 Sm 22:21, 25; Ps 7:8). Unrighteousness is parallel to injustice (e.g., Jr 22:13).

The NT continues the OT theme of righteousness as it relates to God himself. God is righteous (Jn 17:25; Rm 3:5; 9:14; Heb 6:10; cf. Mt 6:33), and so are his judgments (Rm 2:5; 2 Tm 4:8) and commands (Rm 7:12; 8:4). He does not compromise his own justice in justifying the ungodly (Rm 3:24–26). The righteousness of God is contrasted with human wickedness (Rm 3:5; Jms 1:20). Jesus is also righteous (Ac 3:14; 7:52; 22:14; 1 Pt 3:18; 1 Jn 2:1, 29). He has fulfilled righteousness in demonstrating complete conformity to the nature and will of God (e.g., 1 Pt 3:18).

In the NT, human righteousness is related to personal conduct (1 Th 2:10; 1 Tm 6:11; 2 Tm 2:22; 1 Pt 2:24), especially proper conduct with respect to God or torah (Mt 21:32). The broader concept of conformity to God’s will is also apparent in calls for repentance, personal moral uprightness, mercy, and concern for the marginalized. The NT also signals some new dimensions to righteousness. In the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5–7), Jesus extends the requirements of righteousness to conformity to his own teaching. Jesus implicitly questions the righteousness of the “righteous” (e.g., Mk 2:17). A righteousness of one’s own is negative in the NT (Rm 10:3; Php 3:6; cf. Lk 18:9).

Rock In the OT, the “rock” is an image of inaccessibility and so of refuge from danger (Is 7:19), but rocks will not provide refuge on the day of God’s wrath (Is 2:10; cf. Rv 6:15–16). A great rock providing needed shade (Is 32:2) is a variation on this theme of protection. By extension, the image is applied to God himself in poetry (e.g., 2 Sm 22:2; Ps 31:3, in both cases parallel with “fortress”). God as the “Rock” is the object of trust (2 Sm 22:3). This quality is an aspect of his incomparability: “And who is a rock? Only our God” (2 Sm 22:32).

Sabbath God’s people were to observe the Sabbath on the seventh day of each week by resting from normal daily work. It is first explicitly introduced in Ex 16:23–30, where God provides twice as much manna for the Israelites in the desert on the sixth day so that they might enjoy his provision for them on the seventh day without having to gather it on that day.

The Sabbath command is incorporated into the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:8–11). The motivation given in Exodus for keeping the Sabbath is the fact that God made the world in six days and rested on the seventh (cf. Gn 2:2–3)—hence sometimes it is considered a “creation ordinance.” God’s rest was his enjoyment of a world that met his expectations, and thus the weekly celebration might look to a time when the world would once again truly enjoy such “rest.” In Dt 5:12–15 the motivation is given as the new creation event, the redemption of Israel from slavery in Egypt.

Although religious worship is not prominent in the Sabbath injunctions in the OT, there was to be a gathering of God’s people on that day with special offerings (Lv 23:3; Ezk 46:3–5), and it was a day when a visit to a prophet might be more likely (2 Kg 4:23). Psalm 92 is identified as a psalm for the Sabbath.

The terms “Sabbath” or “Sabbath rest” could also be applied to special days, such as the Day of Atonement, which did not fall on the seventh day (Lv 16:31). In an extension of the sabbatical system, the land was to enjoy a Sabbath of rest every seven years (Lv 25:4–7).

By NT times, regular gatherings were held at local synagogues on the Sabbath wherever a sufficient number of observant Jews resided. Jesus offends Pharisaic sensitivities with regard to Sabbath observance, using it to alleviate human suffering and presenting himself as the true representative of humanity, for whom the Sabbath was designed (Mt 12:1–13; Jn 5:9–10). The healings on the Sabbath day draw attention to the realization of God’s creative and redemptive purposes for the world.

The writer to the Hebrews treats the Sabbath as a foretaste of the ultimate rest God provides for those who persevere in faith and obedience (Heb 4:1–11).

Paul regards the victory of Christ as bringing a freedom “in regard to food and drink or in the matter of a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath day” (Col 2:16 [cf. Gl 4:10]). Some Christians understand this as denying continuity of the Sabbath principle of a weekly day of rest. Others understand it in a way similar to Jesus’s remarks on Pharisaic restrictions imposed on the day and see a continuity of Sabbath observance, perhaps with a change of day, to make it a celebration of the Lord’s resurrection on the first day of the week (the Lord’s Day).

Sackcloth Made of goat or camel hair, a material that was made into sacks for grain and into clothes generally worn to express grief or repentance (Gn 37:34; 2 Sm 3:31). Occasionally sackcloth was worn to express social protest (Est 4:1; Dn 9:3). It was generally black or dark in color (Rv 6:12), rough in texture, and worn close to the body, even next to the skin in extreme cases (1 Kg 21:27; 2 Kg 6:30; Jb 16:15).

Sadducees The Sadducees were an elite group of Jews connected with the priesthood. “Sadducee” probably means “Son of Zadok,” a descendant of the high priest Zadok from the time of David.

The Sadducees are mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels, but not in John, although the “chief priests” who plot against Jesus with the Pharisees (e.g., Jn 11:46) probably are Sadducees. All three Synoptic Gospels relate the narrative in which the Sadducees pose the hypothetical question concerning whose wife a woman would be in the resurrection if she outlived seven husbands. Jesus answers that they understand neither the Scriptures nor the power of God, and that God is the God of the living and not the dead (Mt 22:23–33; Mk 12:18–27; Lk 20:27–40).

The book of Acts confirms that the Sadducees were closely connected to the priesthood (Ac 4:1; 5:17), and that they disputed with the Pharisees over the resurrection (Ac 23:6–8).

Saints Used as a reference for God’s people in the OT and NT, the Hebrew word qadosh (e.g., Ps 16:3) and the Greek word hagios (e.g., Ac 9:13; 1 Co 1:2; 2 Co 1:1) emphasize being singled out or consecrated. In biblical terms, then, the saints of God are those whom he has designated as belonging to him and who live in faithfulness to him. They are not necessarily noted for exceptional holiness or meritorious acts. Thus, Paul places “saints” in parallel with “all those who have believed” (2 Th 1:10).

The NT speaks of saints as sometimes being in need (Ro 16:2; 2 Co 8:4; 9:1, 12) and persecuted (Rv 13:7), but also as called to endure (Rv 13:10) and offer help, especially to other saints (Ro 12:13; Gl 6:10; 1 Tm 5:10). The saints are the recipients of the faith (Jd 1:3), of grace (Rv 22:21), and of special equipping for ministry in the church (Eph 4:12) and prayer (Rv 5:8; 8:3–4). As those who belong to the Lord, the saints will be raised to eternal life (Jn 6:39; 1 Co 15:22–23).

Salt A crystallized mineral compound used with food for flavor and preservation (Jb 6:6) and medicinally rubbed on infants (Ezk 16:4). Salt is added to the grain offering to represent the covenant (Lv 2:13). Just as salt survives the sacrificial fires, so does the covenant survive the difficulties of life. In the first century, salt was known as a preservative, seasoning, and fertilizer. All these uses may be behind Jesus’s statement that his disciples are “the salt of the earth” (Mt 5:13), indicating that they are important for the welfare of the world.

Salt Valley A location apparently in the Rift Valley near the southern end of the Dead Sea, notable for its heavy concentration of salt. Numerous battles cited in Scripture take place there, usually between the armies of Judah and Edom, the peoples who live on either side of the valley (2 Sm 8:13; 2 Kg 14:7; 1 Ch 18:12; 2 Ch 25:11; Ps 60 superscription; see also Gn 14:3).

Salvation “Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible.

In many places in the OT, “salvation” refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Frequently in the Psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (e.g., Pss 3:8; 9:14; 18:2; 70:1–3). Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivers his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Ex 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saves Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Jdg 2:16; 3:9), a king (2 Kg 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1 Sm 17:1–58).

But these examples of national deliverance have a profound spiritual component as well. God does not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it is the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Is 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that has resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant will once and for all take away the sins of his people (Is 52:13–53:12).

As in the OT, the NT has places where to be “saved” refers to being rescued from physical difficulty (Mt 8:25; 2 Co 1:8–10; Php 1:19; 2 Tm 4:17). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the Greek verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin (e.g., the woman with the hemorrhage, Mk 5:25–34; the blind man along the road, Lk 18:35–43; and the man possessed by a demon, Lk 8:26–39). The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Lk 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Lk 19:9–10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rv 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.

Samaria Samaria was the capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel. After the fall of the dynasty of Jeroboam I, and the rules of Baasha, Elah, and Zimri, the ruling center of the northern kingdom moved from Tirzah to Samaria during the rule of Omri (r. 882–871 BC), the first king of northern Israel’s third dynasty.

Samaria remained the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel until it fell to the Assyrians under Sargon II in 721 BC, when he deported most of the population to other areas of the Assyrian Empire (2 Kg 17:6). According to Sargon’s annals, he improved the city and populated it with peoples deported from other countries that he had conquered. The report of the fall of Samaria in 2 Kg 17:24 generally agrees with this. The populace of Samaria worshiped its own gods and the God of Israel as well.

Besides being the name of the capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel, “Samaria” was a name for the northern kingdom itself. The northern kingdom was always politically and economically more prosperous than Judah.

In the NT, Samaria is the region between Galilee and Judea through which Jews often avoided traveling (Lk 17:11; Jn 4:4–5). By this time, there had been great animosity between the Jews and Samaritans for centuries. Luke lists Samaria as one of the regions to which Jesus’s disciples would be witnesses (Ac 1:8; cf. 8:1; 9:31). The archaeological ruins of Samaria lie eight miles northwest of the modern city of Nablus. The town of Sabastia is located there today.

Sanctification The word “sanctification” relates directly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy.” The biblical terms are relational and speak primarily of belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “to belong to God.”

The gradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabled entrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’s presence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness. Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), the priests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinary Israelite.

Average Israelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites and priests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holiness through obedience (Lv 11:44–45; Nm 15:40–41). Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced the average Israelite’s holiness (Nm 6:1–21).

This dynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translates directly to the NT. Although the Gospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’s ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who have turned their piety (holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes the same point. John correlates Jesus’s sanctification as God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of the Spirit’s empowerment (Jn 10:34–38; 17:17–19). In Acts, the outpouring of the Spirit enables the disciples to live the Christian life, which requires the dynamic, creative power of God’s presence (Ac 1:8; 2:1–21).

In Paul’s vernacular, “divine presence,” as expressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stems from the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly, sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God and the Spirit-filled Christian. For Paul, life in the Spirit is synonymous with being a Christian (Rm 8:9).

Satan As “the ruler of this world” (Jn 12:31) and “the god of this age” (2 Co 4:4), Satan is the head of the realm of demons. Though originally created good with all the angels, Satan fell from his lofty position as the supreme angel by rebelling against God, being cast down to earth, on which he now opposes God as the “evil one.” His names indicate his evil activities with regard to humans: as Satan, he is the “adversary” (Hb satan); as the devil, he is the “slanderer” (Gk diabolos); as Apollyon, he is the “Destroyer” (Rv 9:11); as the “ancient serpent” (Rv 12:9), he is the liar and slayer of life.

Satrap The official title of a governmental ruler under the sovereignty of the Persian king. These rulers were entrusted with the provinces of the Persian Empire. According to Dn 6:1, Darius appointed 120 of them over the empire. They appear in the books of Ezra (8:36), Esther (3:12; 8:9; 9:3), and Daniel (3:2, 3, 27; 6:1–7).

Scepter A rod, club, or mace that signifies royal authority and power. The king rules over the nation and enemies with his primary weapon, the scepter (Nm 24:17; Pss 2:9; 45:6; 110:2; cf. Gn 49:10). In the hands of the wicked, the scepter symbolizes oppression and violence (Ps 125:3; Jr 48:17). In the NT, the Roman soldiers mock the royalty of Jesus by putting a crown of thorns on his head and a staff in his hand, which represents his scepter (Mt 27:29).

Scribe An individual with the ability to read and write who uses these skills professionally. The scribe was highly esteemed in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Most scribes were royal secretaries (2 Sm 8:17; 20:25). Early scribal activities included writing official records, drafting letters, and preparing royal decrees, deeds, and other things (2 Kg 12:10; 25:19; 2 Ch 26:11). The scribes also read to the king (Jr 36:21). As a result, scribes often became counselors to the king in matters of state (1 Ch 27:32). After the exile, scribes became experts in the law of Moses (Ezr 7:6). By NT times, scribes were associated with the Pharisees as professional teachers of the law (Mk 2:16). Along with the chief priests, scribes conspired to kill Jesus (Lk 19:47).

Scroll Writing materials such as papyrus, tanned hides of sheep and goats, or parchment (hides with the hair removed and rubbed clean) (2 Tm 4:13) that were sewn or attached together in lengths and then rolled up for storage. The scrolls were unrolled for reading (Lk 4:17, 20) and could be secured with a wax seal (Rv 5:1). Almost invariably, only one side was written on, which makes Ezk 2:9–10 and Rv 5:1 exceptional.

Seal In the biblical world, documents were sealed with clay or wax (1 Kg 21:8; Neh 9:38; Jb 38:14; Jr 32:10; Rv 5:1). The integrity of the seal was assured by impressing an image into the soft substance, which would then harden and retain the unique image of the sender’s seal.

A person’s unique seal was closely identified with the owner and could be worn as a ring or pendant (see Gn 38:18; Est 8:8; Sg 8:6). Besides documents, we have records of the sealing of caves (Dn 6:17; Mt 27:66) and bags (Jb 14:17). In apocalyptic literature, seals are used to conceal prophecies of the future (Dn 12:4) and to mark humans as belonging to God (Rv 7:3–8).

Sennacherib A king of Assyria (r. 704–681 BC), he came to the throne after the death of his powerful father, Sargon II, who had solidified Assyria’s empire, including incorporating the northern kingdom of Israel (722 BC). Sennacherib established the Assyrian capital at Nineveh. The kingdom of Judah and its capital, Jerusalem, became a priority for Sennacherib because Judah was not only refusing submission to Assyria but also allying itself with Egypt and Ethiopia against Assyria. In 701 BC Sennacherib invaded Palestine. On his march toward Jerusalem, he laid waste to the Judean countryside and exiled the inhabitants. The brunt of the damage was done in the Shephelah region, especially the city of Lachish. The defeat of Lachish is pictured on reliefs that have been discovered from the remains of the Assyrian palace.

As recorded in the Bible (2 Kg 18:13–19:37; 2 Ch 32:1–23; Is 35:1–37:38), when Sennacherib’s army reaches Jerusalem, it lays siege to the capital city. Although Sennacherib has gone to Libnah, he sends his royal spokesman (or Rabshakeh, a senior official in the Assyrian army) to press his claims. The prophet Isaiah encourages King Hezekiah not to surrender because the Lord will deliver them. After hearing rumors of an approaching Egyptian army, the Assyrians withdraw and then experience what seems to be a plague that kills 185,000 soldiers. Sennacherib then withdraws from the field. His life ends some time later when he is assassinated by two of his sons. After his death (in 681 BC), his son Esar-haddon takes control of the Assyrian Empire.

Serpent In the biblical text serpents and related figures occasionally cross the boundaries between good and evil and serve as a metaphor for a vast complex that includes life, fertility, and wisdom, as well as chaos and death. The serpent initially appears in Gn 3:1, endowed with wisdom and the capacity to speak. While an explicit identity for the serpent is not given at this point, the curse pronounced against the creature for involvement with Adam and Eve’s sin (Gn 3:14–15) has transcendent implications (cf. Rm 16:20). By the first centuries BC and AD, the serpent became linked with the figure of Satan, the devil, the great dragon (e.g., Rv 12:9–15; 20:2). Eve acknowledges the serpent’s deceptive wiles (Gn 3:13), a point that both Jesus (Jn 8:44) and Paul (2 Co 11:3) reinforce.

Deadly snakes were feared denizens of the wilderness (Dt 8:15). When the people spoke against God and Moses, God sent poisonous serpents that bit the people (Nm 21:6–9). Moses’s action in elevating a bronze serpent on the pole served as the paradigm for lifting up the Son of Man (Jn 3:14). Because serpents were so dangerous, the venom of snakes or vipers was a figure for utterly destructive evil (Ps 140:3). Serpents were also associated with tumultuous water and especially the sea creatures Leviathan (Is 27:1; cf. Ps 74:13–14) and Rahab (Jb 26:12–13).

Sharon “Sharon” refers to the Sharon Plain (e.g., 1 Ch 5:16; 27:29; Is 33:9; 65:10; Ac 9:35). The coastal plain, one of the north–south sections into which Palestine can be divided north of the Negev, is the westernmost geographical feature of these strips. The Mediterranean Sea is to the west of the coastal plain, and the foothills of the Shephelah are to the east. The coastal plain is called the Sharon Plain once it extends north of the Yarkon River. The Sharon Plain is divided by two kurkar (local sandstone) ridges running north to south. North, toward the Carmel Mountains, the plain narrows and virtually disappears at the promontory at Haifa. It widens farther north past Acco and into Lebanon.

Shechem A crucial town in the hill country on the border of the tribal allotment of Ephraim (Jos 20:7). Shechem is the first Canaanite town to be mentioned in the book of Genesis (Gn 12:6). Abraham camps at the site near the oak tree of Moreh, and God reveals himself to Abraham there, giving the first indication of the importance of the place. In response to God’s revelation, Abraham builds an altar at Shechem. Later, Jacob settles in the region of Shechem and purchases land from Hamor the Hivite (Gn 33:18–19). When Hamor’s son Shechem rapes Jacob’s daughter Dinah, her brothers Simeon and Levi kill the men of the region, and Jacob’s other sons pillage the town of Shechem. Jacob buries his foreign gods at Shechem under the aforementioned oak tree in response to the revelation of God (Gn 35:1–4). It is in the general region of Shechem that Joseph later seeks his brothers and their flocks (Gn 37). Israel buries the bones of Joseph there in accordance with his wishes (Gn 50:25; Jos 24:32).

Due to the revelation of God and its significance to the patriarchs, Joshua gathers the Israelites to Shechem after the conquest of Canaan and just prior to his death in order to renew the covenant (Jos 8:30–35; 24). After the conquest the town is allotted to the Kohathite Levites and is one of the cities of refuge (Jos 20:7; 21:21; 1 Ch 6:67). However, in the period of the judges Shechem apparently is still under the cultural and religious influence of the Canaanites, as evidenced by the presence of the temple of Baal-berith (Jdg 9:4). Abimelech, whose mother is a Shechemite, convinces the people of the town to make him their king. After three years, the Shechemites reject Abimelech, and he kills many of them and destroys the town (Jdg 9). It is at Shechem that the ten northern tribes make the decision to reject Solomon’s son Rehoboam and make Jeroboam their king. Jeroboam subsequently makes Shechem his capital for a period (1 Kg 12).

Shelter A hut made with branches from a tree. Jacob lived in a shelter, or booth, on his journey to Succoth, a place named after shelters (Hb sukkot [Gn 33:17]). The Festival of Shelters (Lv 23:33–43; Dt 16:13–17; also known as the Feast of Booths or of Tabernacles, or in Hebrew as Sukkoth) takes place on the fifteenth of Tishri (late September to late October) and is one of the three pilgrimage festivals. It commemorates the Israelites’ living in temporary shelters in the wilderness following their exodus from Egypt (Lv 23:43).

The Shema Shema is the transliteration of a Hebrew word meaning “listen,” the first word of Dt 6:4: “Listen [shema], Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one.” The text that begins with this verse is therefore referred to as the Shema.

Jesus calls the Shema the greatest commandment (Mk 12:29–30; Mt 22:37–38; Lk 10:27) and invokes it in teaching his oneness with the Father (Jn 10:30). Paul later expands the Shema to include Jesus (1 Co 8:6).

Sheol In the OT, an underworld place to which all are destined after death. Sheol appears in the OT most frequently in songs and prayers (1 Sm 2:6; 2 Sm 22:6; many references in Psalms), as well as in the wisdom books of Job and Proverbs. The ancient Israelites visualized the cosmos as composed of three distinct realms: heaven, the realm of the divine; earth, the realm of humanity and God’s creation; and Sheol, a place underneath the earth and the seas, the realm of the dead (Jb 11:8; 14:13; 26:5–7; Ec 9:10).

In the OT, Sheol is not a place of judgment or of God’s wrath but rather a realm that harbors those who have died. Sheol is portrayed as a watery underworld (Ps 69:1–2; Jnh 2:6), a place of darkness (Jb 17:13; Ps 88:3) and of silence (Pss 6:5; 31:17; Is 38:18), with gates at its entrance (Is 38:10; Jnh 2:7). By contrast, Sheol is also portrayed as a place of peace (1 Kg 2:6; Jb 21:13). Sheol is not, however, outside the authority of God. Thus, God has the power to raise people up from Sheol, but whether he will choose to do so is a question unanswered in the OT.

When the OT was translated into Greek, the Hebrew “Sheol” was translated as “Hades,” importing a similar Greek concept of the underworld into the biblical text. The NT uses the words “Hades” and “hell” interchangeably; however, the distinction between the grave and hell is maintained. The grave is simply a place to which all are destined, as was Sheol. Thus, it is not until the NT that firm conceptualizations of a place for eternal punishment, as well as a place of eternal reward, emerge.

Shephelah The Hebrew word shepelah, translated “Judean foothills” (e.g., Dt 1:7; Jos 9:1; 10:40; Jdg 1:9; 1 Ch 27:28; 2 Ch 26:10; 28:18; see the CSB footnotes), generally refers to the low hills immediately west of the Judean hill country, although on two occasions it indicates similar topographical features in proximity to the hills of western Galilee (Jos 11:2, 16). The region functioned as a buffer zone between the secure location in the hill country and the foreign powers on the coastal plain. The Shephelah of Judah is cut through by five east–west valleys that provide access into the interior. Four of these valleys, Aijalon, Sorek, Elah, and Lachish, figured prominently in significant confrontations in the history of Israel.

Shepherd Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats for meat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integral part of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected in biblical portrayals of Abel (Gn 4:2), Moses (Ex 3:1), David (1 Sm 16:11), and Jesus (Lk 2:8–20; Jn 10:11, 14).

A shepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gn 30:37–43). Sons (Gn 37:2), daughters (Gn 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gn 13:7; 1 Sm 25:7; Lk 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculture developed and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized (note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended the sheep [1 Sm 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gn 46:34). Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to and from nearby arable land (Gn 29:7–14). Once all the grazing land had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland far enough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live a seminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water were needed (Gn 37:12; cf. Is 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshift enclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a cave and remained with the flock throughout the night (Gn 31:40; Sg 1:8; Lk 2:8).

The vital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturally led to the metaphorical use of the image to refer to both civil authorities (Nm 27:17; 1 Kg 22:17; Is 44:28; Ezk 34:1–19) and deity (Gn 48:15; 49:24; Pss 23:1; 77:20; 78:52; 80:1), in Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Ex 15:13, 17; Ps 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile (Ps 44:11–23; Jr 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayed in pastoral terms as God shepherding his people to safe pasture. In the NT, Jesus calls himself the “good shepherd” (Jn 10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders who are to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection of God’s people (Ac 20:28; 1 Pt 5:1–3).

Shibboleth The Hebrew word used by Jephthah’s forces in Jdg 12:6 to identify escaping Ephraimite troops, who would pronounce it as “Sibboleth.” The meaning of the word is uncertain and probably irrelevant to the events recounted in Jdg 12, but it may mean “ear of corn” or “flowing water.”

Shiggaion One of the classifications in the superscriptions of the Psalms, appearing only in Ps 7 (cf. Hab 3:1). Its meaning is uncertain. The root meaning seems to relate to “wandering” or “ranging.” Musically, this could mean that the tune went up and down the scale. It has also been interpreted to mean “fervent,” suggesting a passionate lament.

Shigionoth A word found in the heading to Habakkuk’s prayer (Hab 3:1), in the place where a stylistic comment might occur in the title of a psalm. Its meaning is uncertain, but it seems to be a plural of “Shiggaion” (see Ps 7 superscription). The root meaning seems to relate to “wandering” or “ranging.” Musically, this could mean that the tune went up and down the scale. It has also been interpreted to mean “fervent,” suggesting a passionate lament.

Water of Shiloah Probably the Siloam aqueduct, which passed southward from the Gihon spring along the western slope of the Kidron Valley and provided water for irrigation. Preparing for military siege, Hezekiah digs an underground tunnel to redirect parts of it to the Pool of Siloam (2 Kg 20:20). In Is 8:6–8 these waters are a metaphor for God’s presence and blessing for his people, which they have rejected.

Shiloh Protected in the hill country of Ephraim, Shiloh is a secure location for the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant in the early centuries of Israel’s presence in the land. Judges 21:19 gives a remarkably precise location for Shiloh: “north of Bethel, east of the highway that goes up from Bethel to Shechem, and south of Lebonah.” This means that it is centrally located in the hill country just off the internal north–south ridge route.

After the conquest of the land, the Israelites establish their worship center at Shiloh (Jos 18:1), and it is there that the assembly gathers in order to apportion the rest of the tribal allotments after Judah’s apportionment (Jos 18:8–10). The “house of God” continues to be at Shiloh during the period of the judges (Jdg 18:31), including when Eli is high priest.

When Samuel is born to Hannah, she dedicates him to God at Shiloh (1 Sm 1), and there God reveals himself to Samuel through his word (1 Sm 3:21). When the Israelites carry the ark of the covenant from Shiloh out to battle, the ark is captured by the Philistines; a man of the tribe of Benjamin runs uphill from Aphek through the rugged Shiloh wadi system and arrives at Shiloh to announce the news (1 Sm 4:12).

The sanctuary at Shiloh is destroyed, likely by the Philistines as they later encroach well into Israelite territory (1 Sm 13). Nevertheless, Shiloh remains a significant location. Jeremiah reminds the inhabitants of Jerusalem that God destroyed Shiloh, the first dwelling place for his name in the land, because of the wickedness of Israel and that he will do the same again to the temple in Jerusalem (Jr 7:12–14; 26:6–9). Even the psalmist notes the tragedy (Ps 78:60).

Shishak King of Egypt (r. ca. 945–924 BC) during the reigns of Solomon and his son Rehoboam. Shishak gives sanctuary to Solomon’s rebellious servant Jeroboam, who, upon Solomon’s death, becomes king of the northern tribes (1 Kg 11:40). Not only is Shishak instrumental in stripping away the ten northern tribes from Solomon’s son, but also he strips away from Rehoboam much of Solomon’s glorious gold and treasure (1 Kg 14:25–26). This is understood by the Chronicler as a direct judgment on Rehoboam because he has forsaken God’s law (2 Ch 12:2–9). Shishak is there presented as being in command of a vast international force, including Libyans and Ethiopians.

Shofar An instrument made out of an animal’s horn (most commonly a ram) that had at most three notes. The Hebrew word, shopar, is typically translated as “ram’s horn” or “horn.” It is most often used to signal troops during times of war (Jos 6:4; Jdg 3:27) and to gather people for religious or civic ceremonies (Ex 19:13; 2 Sm 15:10). It also has eschatological connotations in relationship to the day of the Lord (Jl 2:1).

Wilderness of Shur A region of desert and perhaps a specific place in the Sinai Peninsula east of what is today known as the Suez Canal. Hagar is traveling to Shur when she meets the angel of the Lord (Gn 16:7). Abraham settles between Kadesh and Shur before he tells Abimelech that Sarah is his sister (Gn 20:1). Ishmael’s descendants also settle in the area (Gn 25:18). Moses leads the Israelites into the Wilderness of Shur after they flee Egypt and cross the Red Sea (Ex 15:22). Both Saul and David travel through Shur in pursuit of their Amalekite enemies (1 Sm 15:7; 27:8).

Siege Ancient accounts and remains (e.g., the bas relief from Sennacherib’s palace in Nineveh depicting the siege of Lachish) and the biblical record (2 Kg 25:1–2; Ezk 4:2) reveal the siege techniques of the period. Spies sought any strategic weakness (Jdg 1:22–26). The city’s water supply was interrupted (2 Sm 12:27). People were prevented from entering or leaving. An attempt was made to starve the inhabitants into surrendering. The besieging army might use siege engines, scaling ladders, earthen ramps, and battering rams and make tunnels under walls. Although scholars refer to the Assyrian “siege” of Jerusalem in 701 BC, Is 36–37 and 2 Kg 18–19 indicate that the city was only blockaded.

Siege Works A general war term referring to systematic methods or mechanisms designed to overcome a fortified city. Siege works might include earthen ramps built against city walls (Ezk 4:2), towers probably designed for use by archers (Is 29:3), scaling ladders, and battering rams used to weaken walls and gates (Ezk 21:22). Wood was the primary material (Dt 20:20) used in the construction of siege works, often accompanied by metal, particularly on the heads of battering rams for added strength and weight. Nebuchadnezzar used siege works to overcome Jerusalem’s fortifications during Zedekiah’s reign (2 Kg 25:1; Jr 52:4). Utter destruction often followed once a city’s defenses were overcome and the besieging forces had gained entry into the city (Jr 52:10, 13).

Sign Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Dt 13:1–2) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Nm 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.

Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Ex 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gn 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gn 9:13). The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.

Signet Ring A ring with a seal inscribed on it (Gn 38:18; 41:42; Est 3:10; Jr 22:24; Dn 6:17; Hg 2:23). A signet ring denotes authority and honor. Set on the front side of the ring is a hard or semiprecious stone with a seal inscription carved in reverse. The seal on the ring serves as an individual’s official stamp or signature and can prove authenticity. For instance, a royal document is not considered legitimate unless stamped with the king’s seal. Proof of witness to a contract also is confirmed by stamping the seals of the involved parties on a document or object. A seal can also be used to fasten a document by stamping a small, circular lump of clay (“bulla”) over the document. A seal might bear the name of its owner and/or various decorations.

Silversmith A metalworker who creates objects out of silver and sometimes gold, brass, or iron (2 Ch 2:7). The OT references translated “silversmith” are based on the Hebrew word for “smelter, refiner” with “silver” as a modifier (Jdg 17:4; cf. Is 40:19) or implied from context (Pr 25:4; cf. Jr 10:9). In the NT, the only silversmith is Demetrius of Ephesus (Ac 19:24), a guild leader who makes shrines honoring Artemis. Recognizing that the gospel threatens his industry, he incites a riot against Paul.

Sin Although no definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of the concept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conform to God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action, orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered that God’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character, so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather is a personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited to actions. Desires (Ex 20:17; Mt 5:27–30), emotions (Gn 4:6–7; Mt 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature as human beings (Ps 51:5; Eph 2:1–3) can be sinful as well. The Bible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin, and they can generally be categorized as personal, legal, moral, or cultic. The Bible also uses several metaphors or images to describe sin: missing the mark (Ex 34:9; Dt 9:18), departing from the way (Ps 1:1, 6; Pr 4:11–19), adultery, (Ezk 16:15–52), and slavery (Rm 6:1–23; 8:5–8).

Sin Offering The sin offering (Hb hattat; Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24–30) atones for the sin of an individual or of the nation and cleanses the sacred items in the tabernacle that have been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering can purify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who are unclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and so forth also bring them (Lv 12–15).

The Hebrew word for “sin offering” is the same as the word for “sin,” which it remedies (e.g., Lv 4:3, 14), but the verb from the same Hebrew root can also mean “to purify” (Lv 8:15). Because the term “sin offering” does not distinguish between sins and physical impurities, it can mislead one to think, for example, that a woman somehow sins by giving birth (Lv 12:6, 8). Such category confusion can tend to reduce a person’s sense of accountability for making right choices: if automatic or involuntary physical impurities (e.g., Lv 15:19; Dt 23:11) were sins, people would automatically sin all the time and be unable to do anything about it. It is therefore helpful to think of this as a purification offering, to purify from either sins or physical impurities.

No Israelite sacrifices remedy defiant sins (Nm 15:30–31). The sin offering atones for inadvertent violations of divine commands (Lv 4; Nm 15:22–29), the deliberate sin of failing to answer a public adjuration to testify (Lv 5:1), or forgetting to perform a duty to undergo ritual purification or to fulfill an oath (Lv 5:2–4). Sinners are responsible for bringing sacrifices only when they know that they have sinned (cf. Jms 4:17).