2 Samuel
D. David unifies Judah and Israel (2 Sm 1:1–5:25). When Saul dies it appears that Israel’s experiment with the monarchy has been a failure. Philistine control has increased rather than decreased, and Israel is on the verge of splitting into north and south because of the dispute between Saul and David. Within seven years, however, David is able to unify the people of Judah and Israel, defeat the Philistines, and establish a strong national presence in the Near East. Israel’s golden age is about to begin.
It must be with a heavy heart that David awaits news of the battle in the north. Although an Israelite defeat would hasten David’s rise to the throne, it would also bring hardship and sorrow to the young nation.
1:1–16. Three days after David’s return to Ziklag, he learns the outcome of the battle. An Amalekite who has escaped from the scene describes how he himself put Saul out of his misery (1:1–10). His account differs from that of 1 Sm 31. Most likely the Amalekite claims credit for killing Saul with the hope of getting a reward from David. He undoubtedly reached Saul before the Philistines did, saw his dead body, and took the crown as plunder.
Having confirmed the death of Saul and Jonathan, David and his men tear their clothes as a sign of their grief (1:11–12). David displays no joy whatsoever over Saul’s death and in fact orders that the Amalekite be executed because he testified that he had killed the Lord’s anointed (1:13–16). It is obviously not lost on the historian how ironic it is that an Amalekite is executed for Saul’s death, since Saul’s downfall began with the failure to destroy the Amalekites (1 Sm 15:18–19; 28:18). In light of David’s recent conflicts with the Amalekites (1 Sm 30), the young man’s hope for a reward was slim to begin with.
David’s harsh treatment of Saul’s alleged murderer is an important part of David’s “apology.” To avoid the charge of being a usurper, David expresses displeasure with anyone who hastens the demise of Saul and his family. When Saul’s son Ish-bosheth is assassinated, David likewise orders the execution of the two assassins (4:10–12). No one in the tribe of Benjamin can say that David is supporting those who have killed his political rivals.
1:17–27. David composes an elegy in honor of Israel’s fallen leaders (1:17). Known as “The Song of the Bow,” it may have been sung by Israel’s warriors while they practiced their technique with the bow and arrow in the hope of avoiding defeat in battle. According to 1:18, this lament is also included in the Book of Jashar, a collection of battle accounts that appears to have been used as a source for biblical texts (cf. Jos 10:12–13).
The lament begins and ends with the line “How the mighty have fallen!” (1:19, 27) as David eulogizes Saul and Jonathan and emphasizes their accomplishments. Nowhere in the poem does David mention Saul’s weaknesses, failures, or jealousy; instead, he links father and son as an effective team, victorious in battle and benefactors of the nation’s citizens. The second line of the lament (1:20) has the form of a command aimed at David’s audience, but it functions as a wish, that the Philistines will not gloat over Israel’s defeat (although they do in fact spread the news throughout the land; 1 Sm 31:9). Turning his attention to the scene of the battle (1:21), David pronounces a curse on the mountains of Gilboa, as if the terrain itself were responsible for Israel’s defeat. Out of reverence for the royal men who have been slain there, David wishes that the soil would lie barren in sympathetic mourning over the terrible catastrophe. Although David honors the memory of Saul in several verses, his greatest praise is reserved for Jonathan (1:25–26). Jonathan made a covenant with David, linking their families forever (1 Sm 20:14–16), but his loyalty to Saul kept him by his father’s side in this final and fatal conflict (1:23).
2:1–7. During Saul’s reign, the people of Judah were also torn between loyalty to the king and loyalty to the local hero David, whom Saul had declared an outlaw. Since David has cultivated the friendship of the elders of Judah even while allegedly an ally of the Philistines (1 Sm 30:26), his leadership status is clearly established. Nonetheless, after Saul’s death David takes nothing for granted and seeks the Lord’s guidance before moving to Hebron, the most important city of Judah, centrally located in the hill country nineteen miles south of Jerusalem (2:1–3). There, where Abraham had lived for many years and where the patriarchs were buried, David is publicly crowned as king over Judah (2:4). He has waited about fifteen years since his private anointing by Samuel in Bethlehem (1 Sm 16:13), but the time to rule has finally arrived.
Realizing that Saul’s supporters in the north will not readily accept him as king, David seeks to establish good relations with them immediately (2:5–7). He demonstrates his respect for Saul by thanking the men of Jabesh-gilead for burying him. By their brave actions they have shown kindness to Saul, and David promises to treat them kindly and fairly. Although this message is an indirect request for them to recognize David as king, the northern tribes refuse to acknowledge him for another seven years.
2:8–11. The general of Saul’s army, his cousin Abner, managed to survive the Battle of Gilboa and has emerged as the most powerful figure of the northern tribes. Instead of unifying the nation under David, Abner decides to place Saul’s remaining son, Ish-bosheth, on the throne of Israel (2:8–9). His reasons for doing so are not entirely clear, but later on even Ish-bosheth suspects that Abner wanted the throne for himself (3:6–8). The name Ish-bosheth means “Man of Shame,” but this nickname was a later development. Originally his name was Ishbaal, or Esh-baal (“Man of Baal”; see the CSB footnote for 2:8; cf. 1 Ch 8:33). Baal is the name of a Canaanite god, but in Hebrew the word also means “lord” and was even sometimes used to refer to Yahweh. It is not clear whether Saul’s son’s name reflects syncretistic Baal worship or means “Man of the Lord.” Whatever the original intent, later tradition often changes the “Baal” to “Bosheth” (“Shame”) to emphasize that worshiping Baal was “a shameful thing.”
Abner makes Ish-bosheth king in Mahanaim, a city in the Transjordan that functions as a “capital in exile.” He is called king of “all Israel” (2:9), but it is not likely that he exercises much control over the tribal areas west of the Jordan, where the Philistines apparently control many of the cities. An additional problem is the two-year reign of Ish-bosheth (2:10), which is hard to reconcile with David’s seven-and-a-half-year reign over Judah (2:11). Does this mean that it takes five years before all the northern tribes recognize Ish-bosheth as king, or do the two years refer to the time it takes for him and Abner to reestablish control over the area west of the Jordan?
2:12–17. With two kings vying for control of the land, conflict between the forces of David and Ish-bosheth is inevitable. The first battle takes place at Gibeon, about six miles north of Jerusalem, close to Saul’s former capital at Gibeah. Abner brings in troops from the Transjordan, while David’s army is led by his nephew Joab, a loyal and effective commander to whom David has become greatly indebted (2:12–13). At times Joab is ruthless and quick to assassinate his foes, but David seems unable to punish him. In his opening battle, twelve men fight for each side in a kind of representative warfare similar to the one-on-one combat between David and Goliath (2:14–15). The result is indecisive, so a full-scale battle ensues. The civil war is under way, and David’s men win handily (2:16–17).
2:18–23. As the men of Israel flee the scene, Joab’s brother Asahel, who is a very swift runner, chases Abner (2:18–19). Asahel knows that if he can kill Abner, Ish-bosheth’s “kingdom” might collapse completely, giving David control of the whole nation. Abner is much older and unable to outrun Asahel, but he does not want to anger Joab by killing his brother (2:20–22). He fears that Joab might seek revenge, even if the death takes place in battle. When no other alternative remains, Abner strikes Asahel with the butt of his spear, perhaps to stop but not kill him. The blow is a powerful one, however, and Asahel dies immediately (2:23).
2:24–32. After the death of their brother, Joab and Abishai keep up the chase until sunset, when Israel’s resistance stiffens. Abner calls for a truce, because the terrible results of civil war are already becoming clear to him (2:24–26). In light of the number of fatalities, Joab agrees to the truce, and the battle is finally over. Both armies march all night to return to their respective capitals by morning (2:27–29, 32). Only 19 of David’s men have perished, compared with 360 casualties for Abner and Benjamin (2:30–31).
3:1–5. In the years that follow, David continues to enjoy success in the conflict with Ish-bosheth. One sign of David’s increasing strength is the number of sons born to him in Hebron (3:1–5). Since none of the six have the same mother, we learn that David has taken four more wives. One of these—Maacah, daughter of the king of Geshur (3:3)—was probably married to David for political reasons, to make an alliance with the Aramean city-state northeast of the Sea of Galilee. It is Maacah’s son Absalom who will kill David’s firstborn, Amnon, and then lead a rebellion against his own father.
3:6–11. Apparently Ish-bosheth resents the fact that Abner is the power behind the throne, and in his jealousy he accuses Abner of wanting to seize the throne himself (3:6–7). The specific issue is whether Abner has slept with Saul’s concubine, because a king’s concubines normally became the property of his successor. Abner reacts to the charge by ending his allegiance to Saul’s family and vowing to “transfer the kingdom” to David (3:8–10). In his reply Abner admits that he knows the Lord has promised the throne to David. Abner’s reaction is more than Ish-bosheth has bargained for, but his fear of Abner keeps him from raising any objections (3:11).
3:12–16. Abner immediately opens negotiations with David to discuss the conditions under which David might become the ruler of the entire nation. David is willing to work out an agreement, but only if Saul’s daughter Michal is returned to him (3:12–14). During David’s years as a fugitive, Saul forced Michal to divorce David, but David has continued to regard her as his wife. His marriage to Saul’s daughter would measurably strengthen his claim to succeed Saul as king, particularly in the eyes of the northern ten tribes.
3:17–21. In the decision-making process, the role of the elders is an important one. As the heads of families and tribes, the elders have a voice in the selection and retention of a king (1 Sm 15:30; 2 Sm 5:3; 1 Kg 12:3), though their influence will decrease over the years as the dynastic model of monarchy becomes more entrenched. Knowing that many of Israel’s leaders have favored David all along, Abner encourages them to support him openly (3:17–18). Abner pays special attention to Saul’s tribe of Benjamin, the hardest to convince (3:19a). Satisfied that the leaders of Israel will be willing to make a treaty with David, Abner personally goes to Hebron, where David prepares a feast in his honor (3:19b–20). From all indications, David’s coronation over all Israel is not far off (3:21).
3:22–27. There is one member of David’s inner circle who is not happy about the move toward unity. David’s nephew Joab, his top military commander, tries to convince David that Abner has come as a spy and that he cannot be trusted (3:22–25). In all likelihood, Joab fears that if the merger takes place, he might lose his job to Abner. Joab has also never forgiven Abner for killing his brother Asahel during the Battle of Gibeon years before (2:23). Since Abner has not traveled very far from Hebron, Joab uses an excuse to bring him back secretly and then stabs him to death (3:26–27). Although Joab justifies his action on the basis of blood revenge, David’s reaction to Abner’s death exposes Joab’s treachery. Abner killed Asahel only after repeated warnings and as a last resort to save his own life. Moreover, it took place in the middle of a battle and was not comparable to Joab’s premeditated murder of Abner.
3:28–39. When David learns what Joab has done, he does everything possible to express his displeasure and to indicate that he was not personally involved. David goes so far as to place a curse on Joab and his descendants, asking God to punish them with disease, starvation, or violent death (3:28–29). David himself leads the mourners and weeps at Abner’s tomb (3:31–32), and he also composes a short lament in Abner’s honor (3:33–34). To emphasize his sorrowful attitude David fasts the rest of the day (3:35).
By regarding Abner’s death as a great tragedy, David convinces the nation that he was not implicated in the murder, and the fragile alliance with the northern tribes remains intact (3:36–38). At the same time, David probably should have taken some direct disciplinary action against Joab, who seems not to have lost any power (3:39).
David’s failure to discipline his officers and his sons constitutes one of his greatest weaknesses, and it will nearly cost him the kingdom some years later. Just before he dies David will tell Solomon to bring Joab to justice for his crimes, and shortly thereafter he is executed (1 Kg 2:5–6, 29–35).
4:1–12. With Abner gone, Ish-bosheth’s weakness as a leader is evident even to the tribe of Benjamin (4:1). Not long after Abner’s death, two of Ish-bosheth’s military officers gain entrance into the king’s house and stab him to death (4:2–3, 5–7a). Then they cut off his head and take it to David at Hebron, hoping to be rewarded for their action. When they arrive, the two brothers connect their assassination with the Lord’s vengeance (4:7b–8). To their surprise, David does not rejoice at the news of Ish-bosheth’s death but instead orders that the murderers themselves be put to death (4:9–12a). Once again David claims no responsibility for the elimination of any rival—whether Saul or Abner or Ish-bosheth. In each case he is angry and dismayed. The bodies of the assassins are hung near the pool in Hebron as a warning to all and as a sign that David believes in justice (4:12b).
After the death of Ish-bosheth, there is no other member of Saul’s family who could be considered a serious contender for the throne. Jonathan does have a son named Mephibosheth, but he was crippled as a child (4:4). Years later David will make sure that he is well cared for in fulfillment of David’s covenant with Jonathan (2 Sm 9).
5:1–5. In recognition of their need of a strong leader, the tribes of Israel journey to the southern capital to anoint David. Many soldiers, representing all the tribes, come together to make an agreement with David and to acclaim him as king. They acknowledge that the Lord has chosen him and that he has demonstrated his leadership ability over the years (5:1–3). Even during Saul’s reign, some soldiers from the northern tribes defected to David (1 Ch 12:1–22), but now the entire nation rallies around him. David is almost thirty-eight years old, and he will remain king until he is seventy (5:4–5). In the next thirty-three years David strengthens the nation and extends its borders in every direction. Before David dies, Israel becomes a stable and secure force in the region between Egypt to the south and the Phoenician city-states and Mesopotamia to the north.
5:6–8. David makes many excellent choices during his lifetime, but none is better than his decision to make Jerusalem the capital of the united nation. Although Jerusalem briefly belonged to the Israelites (Jdg 1:8), they were unable to retain control of the city, leaving the Jebusites to rule it. Some biblical texts associate the name Jebus with the city (Jos 15:8; 18:28; Jdg 19:10; 1 Ch 11:4–5), which is really a reference to the ethnicity of the residents. The precise meaning of the name Jerusalem is unclear, but it might mean “Foundation of Peace” or “Foundation of [the God] Shalem.” The city is also known by the shorter form Salem (Gn 14:18) and by the name Zion, mentioned for the first time here in 5:7.
Jerusalem at the Time of David
In David’s time, Jerusalem was a hill covering about eleven acres, located on the border between Judah and Benjamin, making it an ideal neutral site for one who wanted to unite the north and the south. Deep valleys on every side except the north surrounded Jerusalem, so it could be easily defended, which explains the Jebusites’ confidence that David will not be able to capture the city (5:6). Jerusalem also possessed an excellent water source, the Gihon spring in the Kidron Valley, east of the city. But it may be the “water shaft” running from the Gihon spring into the city that David’s men use to gain entrance into Jerusalem or at least to block the city’s water supply (5:8).
5:9–16. David takes immediate steps to fortify his new capital. His building efforts are aided by an alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, one of the primary Phoenician city-states. Sending the famed cedars of Lebanon and skilled craftsmen, Hiram helps David build a palace (5:9–11). The Phoenicians were also excellent sailors who controlled the seas, and over the years the Israelites would trade them crops for merchandise. Both sides profit from the alliance, which will become even stronger during the reign of Solomon. David acknowledges that his success is due to the Lord, who is making Israel a great nation, as he has promised (5:12).
5:17–25. As long as David was only the king of Judah, the Philistines did not seem upset by his rule. In fact, they may have considered him a vassal king, one step removed from the role he played under Achish as a mercenary commander. But once David becomes king of all Israel, the Philistines realize that he is a threat to their control of the northern parts of Israel (5:17). So before David has a chance to get established, the Philistines launch an attack, perhaps even before David has captured Jerusalem (5:18). It seems unlikely that they would allow him to enjoy the safety of a fortress if they could engage him in battle before this occurred.
Although David has not fought against the Philistines for several years, he has not lost his battle sense and once again emerges victorious in two separate battles. Both battles are fought west of Jerusalem and determine who will control the central hill country. After the first battle, the Philistines abandon their idols, just as the Israelites lost the ark of the covenant in the days of Eli (5:19–21). The second battle begins after David hears “the sound of marching” (5:24). This is the signal that the Lord and his angels are leading the way into battle. Just as the Lord went ahead of Barak as he moved against the army of Sisera (Jdg 4:14), so he enables David to rout the Philistines and chase them back to the coastal plain (5:22–25).
E. David established as king (6:1–8:18). After a long wait marked by years of valuable training, David has now become the king of Israel. Because he is God’s new choice as king, the Lord gives him and his descendants the right to rule forever, and he gives David victory over all his enemies.
6:1–11. The ark of the covenant represents God’s presence more than does any other article in the tabernacle (6:2; cf. 1 Sm 4:4), so David has it brought to Jerusalem. The ark has been in Kiriath-jearim, about nine miles west of Jerusalem, since the days of Eli and Samuel, but the time has come to move the ark to the new national capital. To emphasize the importance of the ark, David and his men lead a triumphant celebration, complete with singing and dancing (6:5). It is the type of celebration that usually accompanies a military victory and is David’s way of proclaiming that God deserves the recognition and glory for Israel’s triumphs.
In his zeal to honor the Lord, David places the ark on a new cart, the way the Philistines did (6:3; cf. 1 Sm 6:7). While a new cart is pure and this is an appropriate means of transporting a sacred object, it is also contrary to what is specified in Nm 7:9; thus the historian likely sees in the next event a form of divine punishment. When the oxen pulling the cart stumble, a man named Uzzah—at whose home the ark has been kept—reaches out to steady the ark. As he does so, he is struck dead (6:6–7). There are many proposed explanations for this enigmatic event, but none is entirely satisfying, and the text provides no hint. There is no indication that Uzzah somehow sins or is ritually impure. The historian of 1–2 Chronicles ascribes Uzzah’s death to the non-Levitical mode of transport (1 Ch 15:13). Whatever the reason, David is angry at the Lord’s action and so disturbed that he leaves the ark in the house of Obed-edom (6:8–11).
6:12–19. Three months later David is encouraged by the blessing that God has brought to the household of Obed-edom. Realizing that the Lord is no longer angry, David prepares once more to bring the ark to Jerusalem. After the ark bearers have taken six steps and are still alive, David offers sacrifices in thanksgiving (6:12–13). As the procession continues amid music and shouting, David deliberately dresses like one of the Levites, putting on a robe of fine linen and a linen ephod, a garment usually reserved for the priests (6:14–15). When his wife Michal sees him dressed in this fashion, leaping and dancing before the Lord, she is shocked (6:16).
David does not try to bring the tabernacle to Jerusalem but sets up a special tent for the ark (6:17a). Moses’s “tent of meeting” remains at Gibeon, about six miles northwest of Jerusalem (cf. 2 Ch 1:3). David wants to build a permanent temple to honor the ark, as we learn in 2 Sm 7. With the ark safely in Jerusalem, David sacrifices burnt offerings and fellowship offerings and gives gifts of food to all the people (6:17b–19). This was also a custom at the coronation of a king, and, since the ark is the footstool of God’s throne, David may be emphasizing God’s role as the great King over Israel.
6:20–23. Michal’s reaction to David’s behavior during the celebration is harshly critical. She apparently feels that the king should not have put on such a display (6:20). Perhaps she is afraid that David will be like her father Saul, whose ecstatic prophesying episodes bore some similarities to David’s behavior (cf. 1 Sm 19:24). In any event, David rebukes her by reminding her of the context for his behavior, that it was in recognition that God is Israel’s true King and David but a servant (6:21–22). Moreover, the historian juxtaposes this exchange with the report that Michal never has any children, implying that the Lord is similarly critical of her response (6:23).
7:1–7. After the Phoenicians have built a palace for David out of the cedars of Lebanon, David wants to build a magnificent temple for the Lord (7:1–2). At first the prophet Nathan encourages him (7:3), but then the Lord reveals to Nathan that David will not be allowed to construct the temple (7:4–5). The reason is not explicit in 2 Samuel and differs from the Chronicler’s explanation (1 Ch 22:8–9). The implicit reason in Samuel seems to concern the direction of authority: Who is whose benefactor?
Note David’s reasoning: he sees the disparity between his dwelling and that for the ark of the Lord and proposes to rectify this. God’s response is interesting. After God notes his previous practice, that he has never dwelt in a house before, he addresses David’s concern that God not be angry over the disparity by pointing out that none of the previous leaders have been punished for not building God a temple (7:6–7). But underneath this all, it seems that the Lord’s rejection of David’s proposal is in fact aimed at the suggestion that David might be the Lord’s patron. The use of first-person pronouns (“I,” “my”) in the Hebrew of the verses that follow stresses the Lord’s role as David’s patron. Over against David’s proposal to serve as benefactor for the Lord, the Lord asserts his role as benefactor to David (a role that is emphasized again in 7:11–12). Whereas it was commonplace in the ancient Near East for kings to build temples for their deity, this story restricts the king from making the deity indebted to him. And yet the historian has to balance the direction of patronage with the fact that a temple is eventually built for God. Thus, it is assigned to David’s successor (7:13).
7:8–17. While God does not allow David to build his temple, he does reveal through Nathan that he will continue to bless David and the entire nation. God promises to make David’s name great (7:9), just as he promised to do for Abraham (Gn 12:2). Powerful leaders will no longer oppress Israel the way the Egyptians or other neighboring peoples did during the period of the judges. Although Joshua helped plant the nation in the land promised to Abraham, David will plant them more firmly (7:10–11a).
To encourage David even further, the Lord announces that instead of David building him a “house,” God will build David a “house,” meaning a dynasty (7:11b). Unlike the judges or Saul before him, David’s family will continue to rule for generations. The son who immediately succeeds him (Solomon) will build the Lord’s temple, and his kingdom will be powerful and secure (7:12–13). In addition to all of this, God promises to maintain a special father-son relationship with each king, assuring him of divine counsel. As the Lord’s “son,” however, the king is required to obey his commands faithfully. If the Davidic king sins, God will punish him, but he will not take the throne away from David’s family (7:14–16; cf. 1 Kg 11:34).
7:18–29. In response to what he has heard from Nathan, David enters the tent he has set up for the ark and worships the Lord. As he prays he addresses the Lord several times as the “Lord God,” stressing God’s control over the nations and his covenant relationship with Israel. David marvels that God has made such promises to him and his family (7:18–21). Unlike Saul, who became proud in his role as king, David seems to have maintained some degree of humility.
Many of the later prophecies about the Messiah draw on this great promise to David that “your throne will be established forever” (2 Sm 7:16). Eventually a king will arise who will reign “with justice and righteousness” (Is 9:7), and the Spirit of the Lord will rest on him in a powerful way (Is 11:2). The Gospels clearly identify Jesus as this Messiah, the son of David (Mt 1:1; Lk 1:32–33).
At the same time David acknowledges God’s greatness and uniqueness and his choice of Israel to be his special people (7:22–24). David realizes that God’s promises to him are intimately connected with God’s favor for Israel in the past, as in the exodus from Egypt (7:23). With a grateful heart David prays that God will keep his promises (7:25–29).
8:1–6. The battles described in chapter 8 may have taken place over a period of years. Almost all the nations adjacent to Israel’s borders fight against David, perhaps in an attempt to keep him from expanding or simply from becoming too influential over the important trade routes winding through Israel. But by defeating them, David becomes the head of an influential kingdom. One of his first foes is Moab (8:2), with whom he has earlier been allied (1 Sm 22:3–4). Another foe north of Israel and northwest of Damascus is the powerful Aramean kingdom of Zobah (8:3–4). By his victory over King Hadadezer of Zobah, David establishes a presence to the north of Israel. The Aramean kingdom between Israel and Zobah was centered in Damascus, located about sixty-five miles northeast of the Sea of Galilee and an important trade center. Damascus was closely allied with Zobah; when these Arameans come to the aid of Hadadezer, David also subdues them and places garrisons in Damascus (8:5–6). Israel remains in control of this Aramean stronghold until well into Solomon’s reign.
8:7–14. As a result of his military success, David receives significant wealth in the form of plunder and tribute payments from surrounding nations (8:7–8). Bronze, silver, and gold begin to pile up in Jerusalem. Even friendly neighbors such as Toi, king of Hamath, send gifts of precious metal to David (8:9–10). In recognition of the Lord’s blessing on his rule, David dedicates many of these articles to the Lord (8:11–12), and later on they are used in the construction of the temple. David’s victory over the Edomites gives him control of the rich copper mines south of the Dead Sea, adding further to his wealth (8:13–14).
8:15–18. Unlike the reign of many of the later kings, David’s rule is characterized by justice and righteousness (8:15). The historian juxtaposes this statement with the preceding description of David’s success to create a causal connection: David is successful due to his loyalty to God. David is assisted by several able administrators, including a “historian” and a “secretary” (8:16–17). The former may have been the head administrator of royal affairs and the latter something like our secretary of state. Neither position is mentioned in the summary of Saul’s role in 1 Sm 14:49–52, and this difference may indicate the growth of Israel as an administrative entity.
Zadok the priest is mentioned for the first time here (8:17). A descendant of Eleazar son of Aaron, Zadok replaces Abiathar as the leading priest under Solomon, and his descendants hold the high priesthood throughout the rest of the monarchy. Strangely, in the Hebrew text David’s sons are also called “priests” (8:18; see the CSB footnote). Sometimes priests did fulfill the role of advisers (cf. 1 Kg 4:5), but some scholars feel that David and his sons may have been priests of an order especially assigned to, and in this case including, members of the royal house. David did wear a linen ephod when he brought the ark to Jerusalem (6:14), and he is closely involved with the worship of the Lord throughout his reign. [Completing the Conquest of Canaan]
3. DAVID’S SUCCESSES AND FAILURES (9:1–20:26)
Although for the most part David is a pious and effective ruler, his sin with Bathsheba is a terrible stain on his record. In the years that follow his adultery, David faces a rebellion led by his own son Absalom and another led by a Benjaminite named Sheba. Jerusalem and all Israel are shaken by these events, and David struggles to maintain his throne. Because of the turmoil in his own family, the question of who will succeed him as king becomes an important one.
A. David’s success (9:1–10:19). Early in his career David is known as a wise and fair leader (1 Sm 30:24–25), and when he becomes king he continues to handle problems with great skill. His kindness to Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth demonstrates his genuine compassion for others. As a military leader, David has known only victory in battle ever since his triumph over Goliath, and the Ammonites and Arameans learn about his military prowess the hard way.
9:1–5. In light of the covenant God has made with David promising to show kindness to his family forever, it is fitting that David remembers the covenant he made with Jonathan (9:1). When most kings came to power, they sought to eliminate any survivors of the preceding king, but not David. Bound by covenant to his best friend, Jonathan, David is loyal to his oath and eager to take care of any of Jonathan’s descendants. Ziba, who was Saul’s chief steward, tells David about Mephibosheth, Jonathan’s crippled son, who is living in the Transjordan with a wealthy man named Machir (9:2–4).
9:6–13. We do not know if Mephibosheth knew anything about his father’s covenant with David, but he certainly does not anticipate that David will treat him so royally (9:8). Not only does David give him the income from Saul’s land, but Mephibosheth is allowed to eat at David’s table (9:7, 11, 13). Ziba and his family are given the responsibility of working the land for Mephibosheth (9:9–10), and from 16:3–4 we learn that Ziba really wants control of Saul’s land himself. For the time being, however, Ziba seems willing to serve Mephibosheth (9:12), and, unlike others who later rebel against David, Mephibosheth remains loyal to the king the rest of his life.
10:1–5. In light of the frequent fighting between Israel and the Ammonites, we might well wonder how and why the Ammonite king Nahash previously assisted David (10:1–2). Perhaps Nahash harbored David in some way while he was fleeing from Saul. Regardless, the old animosity is not far below the surface, and David’s attempt to congratulate the new king is interpreted as a spy mission. David’s men are badly mistreated (10:3–4). In the ancient Near East, beards were shaved only during times of personal or national catastrophe as a sign of deep mourning. By cutting off the men’s garments at the buttocks, the Ammonites treat the messengers as prisoners of war. Humiliated, David’s men cross the Jordan River and stay at Jericho until their beards grow back (10:5).
10:6–19. The Ammonites realize that David will regard their insulting behavior as an act of war, so they summon a substantial number of their Aramean allies for the upcoming battle (10:6). The small kingdoms of Beth-rehob, Maacah, and Tob lay to the east and north of the Sea of Galilee, with Zobah a little farther to the north. (Note that David conquered Zobah and its ruler, Hadadezer, in chapter 8, after which there is no hint that he loses control of the region; this thus suggests that the events in this part of 2 Samuel are not in strict chronological order.)
Faced by a powerful coalition, David sends Joab to engage the enemy in battle. As the leading general, Joab himself leads the best troops against the Arameans, and he sends Abishai to fight the Ammonites at their capital city of Rabbah, about thirty miles east of Jericho (10:7–10). Encouraging one another in the Lord, Joab and Abishai attack, with excellent results. The Ammonites take refuge behind the walls of their capital city while the Arameans head north (10:11–14). Hadadezer, king of Zobah, hires reinforcements from across the Euphrates, while David himself takes the men back across the Jordan to meet this new threat. Even with the additional troops, the Arameans fall before David, and a number of kings are forced to subject themselves to him (10:15–19). Initially, David intends to punish the Ammonites, but when the dust settles he finds himself in control of much of the land between Israel and the Euphrates.
B. The turning point (11:1–12:31). At a time when David and his people seem to be thriving, the king commits adultery and murder. Although David repents and the Lord forgives his sin, this whole episode marks a major turning point in David’s rule. From this point on David faces serious challenges from his own family and fellow Israelites and in the process nearly loses the throne.
Like Samson before him, David is guilty of sexual immorality, with all its consequences. While committing adultery is bad enough, David compounds the problem by committing murder as well. The second crime is intended to cover up the first—but he soon finds out that nothing is hidden from the Lord.
11:1–5. The historian starts the narration of this scene by noting that kings customarily return to the battlefield after the rainy season ends in April and May (11:1a). This provides a gauge by which to judge David’s choices. David and Joab want to complete the conquest of the Ammonites, so the army is sent to put Rabbah under siege (11:1b). But David stays home, a decision contrary to custom and one that places him in the way of temptation. Thus he becomes involved with Bathsheba, the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite (11:2–5).
11:6–13. To make it appear that her husband has made her pregnant, David calls Uriah back from the battlefront under the guise of gaining information about the progress of the campaign (11:6–7). David sends Uriah home to relax with his wife, but Uriah refuses to go home and enjoy himself when the rest of the army is exposed to hardship in the open field (11:8–11). His dedication contrasts sharply with David’s self-indulgence. Sexual intercourse made a man ceremonially unclean and unfit for battle for a few days, and it appears that Uriah wanted to get back into action quickly. David keeps Uriah in Jerusalem one more day, hoping that he will sleep with his wife. To break down Uriah’s defenses, David sees to it that Uriah is made drunk, but even so, he does not go home (11:12–13).
11:14–27. Frustrated by the self-discipline of Uriah, David now takes more desperate measures to cover up his sin. In a painful bit of irony, David uses Uriah as a messenger to send a letter to Joab asking that Uriah be placed in a very dangerous position in the front line (11:14–15). With Uriah dead, David will then marry his widow and legitimize the birth of Bathsheba’s child.
Joab complies by sending Uriah too close to the wall of Rabbah, where he is killed by Ammonite arrows (11:16–17). Joab clearly knows that this tactic is unwise and in the aftermath anticipates the king’s displeasure at losing soldiers in this way (11:20–21), but we can surmise it is his loyalty to David that leads him to follow David’s instructions. By way of contrast, David’s loyalty to Uriah is nonexistent. Though Uriah is one of David’s top thirty-seven soldiers (23:39) and more than willing to risk his life for David and for Israel, David mercilessly steals his wife and arranges for his death.
Israel during the Time of King David
Since only Joab suspects foul play, it looks like the perfect crime. Bathsheba mourns for her husband (perhaps seven days; cf. Gn 50:10), then slips into the royal harem (11:26–27). It all looks very innocent, but the Lord notices. In his eyes David has broken the last five Mosaic commandments in this one brief episode. The consequences will be devastating.
12:1–15a. The same prophet who told David about the eternal dynasty God has promised him (7:11–16) now delivers a very difficult message. Although many months have passed since David’s sin, he has apparently not reckoned with the significance of his deeds. Nathan’s visit changes everything, as David listens to a parable (12:1–4) and pronounces a death sentence on himself (12:5–6). The ewe lamb in Nathan’s parable is Bathsheba, and the poor man is Uriah. David as the reigning king is guilty of misusing the power God has given him (12:7–9). The king is regarded as the shepherd of Israel, and David now realizes what he has done to his flock.
After pointing out David’s guilt, Nathan announces that David will be punished the same way he has sinned (12:10–12, 14). Violent death will strike his own family, and in subsequent years, three of his four oldest sons will die by the sword. Confronted by the prophetic word of God, David finally realizes the true nature of his actions. After David admits his sin (his contrition is only implied), Nathan informs him that God has forgiven him and will spare his life (12:13; cf. Ps 51).
Psalm 51 describes David’s repentance and his broken heart over the Bathsheba affair.
Notice the confrontation between the prophet and the king. Especially telling is that David’s misdeed is characterized as despising the word of the Lord (12:9) and is thus cast as an offense against the prophetic office. Moreover, the analogy Nathan uses in his story of the rich man who steals the poor man’s sheep is just the sort of behavior Samuel warned is characteristic of kings: kings are takers, and they will appropriate what you cherish (see 1 Sm 8:10–18). Thus this passage betrays the same critique of kings and advances the image of prophets as dominant over kings.
12:15b–25. In the years that follow, David continues to reap the consequences of his sins with Bathsheba and Uriah, starting with the death of Bathsheba’s baby. For seven days David prays and fasts for the sick child with the hope that in his grace, God might also spare this little one. But the child dies, and David tastes the first bitter fruit of his sins (12:15b–19). In spite of his pain, David accepts the death of the child as the Lord’s will and does not continue to lament. Encouraged by the knowledge that his own sin is forgiven, David goes into the house of the Lord and worships (12:20–23).
Some time later Bathsheba has another son, whom they name Solomon (12:24), which is formed from shalom, the Hebrew word for “peace” or “well-being.” He is also called Jedidiah, “Beloved of the Lord” (12:25). Both names perhaps reflect what David hopes for and expects of this son; both names also aptly preview the historian’s assessment of Solomon’s reign.
12:26–31. After a long delay, the historian returns to the subject of the siege of Rabbah, where David probably should have been in the first place. More than a year has gone by since Joab began the siege. At Joab’s insistence, David participates in the final assault on the Ammonite capital and receives the honor for the victory (12:26–29). Of unusual interest is the seventy-five-pound gold crown taken from the king, part of the substantial plunder found in the city. Additional loot is taken from the other Ammonite cities, and the captives are put to work on various building projects (12:30–31). Slave labor of this sort played an important role in the construction activities of many ancient Near Eastern rulers.
C. Rebellion (13:1–20:26). 13:1–14. Although the Lord did not explicitly forbid polygamy, the story recounted in 13:1–14 illustrates why multiple marriages are unwise. Hatred and jealousy among half brothers was a constant problem and sometimes led to murder (cf. Jdg 9:5), especially when one’s own sister is violated (cf. Gn 34). It is unlikely that the heart of the matter in this story is an unlawful relationship: while Lv 18:9 and Lv 20:17 forbid sexual relations with one’s sister (half sister or not), taking a wife-sister was commonplace if not encouraged, particularly in royal families. (This ensured, for instance, that any claims to the throne were kept within the family.) This episode probably reflects a power play by Amnon, perhaps to keep another contender for the throne in line; in other words, Tamar is simply a tragic tool for getting at Absalom.
Taking the advice of his cousin Jonadab, Amnon pretends to be sick and asks that Tamar might visit him (13:1–7). When she is alone with him in the bedroom, his long-awaited chance comes. Tamar attempts to deter Amnon by suggesting his position as heir apparent to the throne could be placed in jeopardy by his action. Finally, in what is likely a last-ditch ruse to buy time, she suggests that David will allow the two of them to get married (13:8–13). In spite of these protests, Amnon refuses to listen and rapes her (which hints at his true motivation, the humiliation of Absalom; 13:14).
13:15–22. Unlike the young prince Shechem, whose love for Dinah increases after he rapes her (Gn 34), Amnon’s love is not genuine and is surpassed by his hate for Tamar (13:15). Thus, Amnon quickly has Tamar removed from his house; his purposes have been accomplished. Shamed and rejected, Tamar leaves in mourning, throwing ashes on her head and tearing her beautiful ornamental robe that signifies her status as a virgin daughter of the king (13:16–19). Amnon’s hatred for Tamar and Absalom is more than equaled by Absalom’s hatred for Amnon once Absalom finds out about the violation, with all its implications for himself (13:22).
Like Dinah’s brothers in Genesis, Absalom responds against the guilty party with vengeance. David is also deeply upset over what has happened, but, strangely, he does nothing to punish Amnon (13:21). At the very least he should have announced that Amnon’s deed disqualified him as a contender for the throne. Just as Jacob’s oldest son Reuben lost the birthright by sleeping with his father’s concubine (Gn 35:22; 49:4), so Amnon should have forfeited any right he had to the throne. Perhaps David is reluctant to take any action against Amnon because he himself has been guilty of adultery. David’s failure to discipline Joab, Amnon, and Absalom and to control the strife within his family in general constitutes a major character flaw and reflects the tragic course on which he has set his family by his mistreatment of Bathsheba and Uriah.
13:23–33. In spite of his intense hatred for Amnon, Absalom waits two years before taking revenge on his half brother. He chooses a normally festive occasion, the time of sheepshearing, to invite his brothers to visit his land in Ephraim, in the center of Israel (13:23). To make it look legitimate, he invites David to join them, but when David turns down the invitation, Amnon is invited as the king’s representative (13:24–27). Apparently none of the other brothers suspect anything either, until a somewhat drunk Amnon is struck down by Absalom’s men, after which they all flee in fear for their own lives (13:28–29). At first there is a rumor that all the king’s sons have been killed. David’s nephew Jonadab—who is partly responsible for the whole situation in the first place—correctly insists that only Amnon has been killed (13:30–33). By killing Amnon, Absalom gains revenge for the rape of Tamar and eliminates a rival for the throne. With Amnon dead, Absalom is apparently the oldest surviving son.
Just as Eli is unable to control his sons at the beginning of 1–2 Samuel, so David is unable to control his sons in the latter half of 1–2 Samuel.
13:34–39. While the rest of David’s sons flee southward toward Jerusalem, Absalom heads north, toward the safety of his maternal grandfather’s kingdom of Geshur (3:3), northeast of the Sea of Galilee (13:34–37). David used the same strategy himself when he sought refuge in his great-grandmother Ruth’s native land of Moab (1 Sm 22:3). In one stroke David loses Amnon by death and Absalom by flight. Absalom’s absence allows David time to postpone a decision about how to punish him. As time passes, the king recovers from the loss of Amnon and his heart grows softer toward Absalom (13:38–39).
14:1–20. Since David responded so well to Nathan’s indirect approach in 12:1–7, Joab decides to use the same method with reference to his cousin Absalom (14:1–3). The story told by the wise woman of Tekoa bears some resemblance to the struggle between Amnon and Absalom (14:4–7), but it is disguised to the extent that David can make an objective decision before applying it to his own case. He rules in the woman’s favor and in doing so creates tension between his ruling and his banishment of Absalom (14:8–11).
Once David has solemnly promised to spare the guilty son from death, the wise woman cautiously applies the decision he has made to his own situation with Absalom (14:12–13). Her reference to the reconciliation of a “banished” person to God (14:14) may be an allusion to David’s own restoration after he committed murder; it is also a powerful metaphor for God’s love of and desire for all sinners. As a final argument, the woman refers to David’s ability to make just decisions, such as a divine messenger would make (14:15–17). Although this may be partly flattery, David does possess excellent judgment—except when it comes to those close to him. By this point in the conversation David realizes that Joab has sent the woman to him, and he believes that Joab is right about Absalom (14:18–20).
14:21–27. Grateful that the king has taken his “indirect” advice, Joab goes to Geshur to bring Absalom home. When he arrives in Jerusalem, Absalom is not allowed to see David, an indication that while he has been allowed back from exile, he is not fully restored into the king’s house (14:21–24). Because of his good looks, Absalom soon becomes very popular. There is special mention of his thick hair, which serves to enhance his vigorous appearance (14:25–26). In the ancient world, kings and warriors were often depicted with long hair as a sign of strength and courage. The birth of sons was also an evidence of manliness, and Absalom has three of them. He also has a daughter named after her aunt Tamar (14:27).
14:28–33. After two years in Jerusalem, Absalom demands to see the king to find out what his status really is. He wants David either to punish him or forgive him and to do so openly. Since Joab was instrumental in Absalom’s return to Jerusalem, Absalom calls on his cousin for help once more. This time Joab is reluctant to even talk about the problem, until Absalom has Joab’s barley field set on fire (14:28–30). This brings Joab on the run, and a visit with the king soon follows. In their face-to-face confrontation David kisses Absalom as a sign that he is forgiven and restored to the royal family (14:31–33). There is no indication that Absalom has repented of Amnon’s murder, so it seems that some disciplinary action is in order—perhaps a clear statement that Absalom will never be king. Although Absalom may know that he will not be David’s choice as king, public censure might have made it more difficult for Absalom to gain support for his rebellion.
15:1–12. For four years Absalom develops a strategy to increase his popularity and chances for the throne. Pretending to be a champion of justice, Absalom wins the hearts of the people by agreeing with their complaints against the king. Handsome and charming, he personally meets large numbers of people near the city gates of Jerusalem, thereby ingratiating himself to the general populace (15:1–6).
All this time David apparently suspects nothing, so when Absalom asks permission to go to Hebron to fulfill a vow, David raises no objection (15:7–9). It sounds innocent enough, much like Samuel’s announcement that he would offer a sacrifice in Bethlehem—just before he anointed a king in place of Saul (1 Sm 16:2–3). Hebron was the site of the cave of Machpelah, where Abraham and Sarah were buried, so it was a popular national center. But it was also the city where David was anointed king by both Judah and all Israel—and where Absalom was born.
By now Absalom is probably close to thirty years old and David about sixty. Very few individuals know about Absalom’s plans, not even the guests he has invited from Jerusalem (15:11). From the outset, however, Absalom enjoys the support of key individuals, especially David’s top adviser, Ahithophel (15:12). With their help, the revolt has a good chance of succeeding.
15:13–23. Up to this point in his career David has never suffered a defeat in battle, but he is forced to flee his beloved Jerusalem in the face of Absalom’s revolt (15:13–14). David does not want to subject the city to the horrors of war, so he takes his men and heads east toward the Jordan River, unsure how much support he would have if he stayed. [Kidron Valley]
Accompanying David in his flight are the men who have been with him since the time he was a fugitive from Saul, as well as several contingents of mercenary troops from Philistine territory (15:15–18). According to 8:18 the Cherethites and Pelethites are commanded by David’s general Benaiah, and there are six hundred men from the city of Gath, where David and his men earlier served as mercenaries. Ironically, the foreign troops are most loyal to David. David releases Ittai of Gath from any additional obligation; Ittai refuses the generous offer, though, and pledges his loyalty to David (15:19–22). In the showdown against Absalom, Ittai will play a key role (18:2).
15:24–29. Since David has been a protector of the priests and since he has brought the ark to Jerusalem, it is fitting that the priests and the ark accompany him in leaving the capital. Both Zadok and Abiathar are with him, and their presence seems to ensure God’s blessing on David (15:24). Yet once they are safely out David sends the ark back to Jerusalem (15:25–29). It is particularly interesting that while David makes a declaration of trust in how the Lord will allow events to unfold, he also sets up a veritable spy network using the priests Zadok and Abiathar, whom he is sending back (15:35–36).
15:30–37. Leaving his trusted companions behind, David continues his sorrowful trek up the Mount of Olives. At the summit he meets Hushai, another of his close advisers, who has heard the news about Absalom (15:30–32). David asks Hushai if he is willing to return to Jerusalem and become an adviser to Absalom. In this way he might contradict the advice of Ahithophel and talk Absalom into a bad decision (15:33–37).
16:1–14. To make matters more confusing, David encounters two members of the tribe of Benjamin along the way. The first is Ziba, Mephibosheth’s servant, and the second is an angry relative of Saul named Shimei.
David knows Ziba from their earlier meeting, when David asked him to work for Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth (9:9–10). Now that David is headed toward the Transjordan, Ziba brings him some much-needed supplies. The amounts of bread and raisins are identical to those Abigail gave to David at an earlier time of crisis (1 Sm 25:18) and help Ziba accomplish his objective (16:1–2). Apparently Ziba does not enjoy his subservient position and so tells David that Mephibosheth is hoping to regain control of his grandfather Saul’s kingdom. Since David is uncertain about the extent of the revolt, he believes the lie about Mephibosheth and gives Ziba control of Saul’s estate (16:3–4). It is a clever move by Ziba, who profits from the political crisis.
On the eastern side of the Mount of Olives and still only about two miles from Jerusalem, David is confronted by Shimei, a man from the same clan as Saul’s family (16:5). Still frustrated by the transfer of power from Saul to David, Shimei takes out his anger on David by cursing him and pelting him with stones. Calling David a troublemaker and a wicked man, Shimei asserts that God is punishing David for shedding the blood of the household of Saul (16:6–8). This may be a reference to the execution of seven of Saul’s descendants because of the Gibeonite problem (21:1–9) or a more general allusion to casualties in the civil war between David and the remnants of Saul’s family. By throwing stones at David, Shimei implies that David should have been stoned to death for his crimes.
However, David’s men feel that Shimei deserves to die for cursing the king (16:9). According to the law, slander of this sort was akin to blaspheming God (Ex 22:28). But David does not allow anyone to strike Shimei down, perhaps because he knows his own sin is behind his troubles and he deserves harsh words. By committing the matter to God, David hopes that the Lord will turn the curse into a blessing (16:10–13). Although David will later spare Shimei’s life again (2 Sm 19:23), eventually Shimei is executed by Solomon (1 Kg 2:46).
16:15–22. When Absalom arrives in Jerusalem he is congratulated by Hushai the Archite, the man David hopes will be able to nullify the counsel of Ahithophel. In spite of Absalom’s suspicions, Hushai is able to convince him that he will serve the new king because he is David’s son (16:15–19).
As expected, Ahithophel gives Absalom some shrewd advice, recommending that he sleep with his father’s concubines (16:20–21). Usually a king’s concubines belonged to his successor, so by this action Absalom strongly asserts his kingship. At the same time he states his complete contempt for his father. By sleeping with the concubines in a tent pitched on the roof, he also ensures that all Israel knows what he is doing (16:22).
16:23–17:14. Given the skill and the reputation of Ahithophel (16:23), it comes as a shock to see his advice then rejected. Ahithophel recommends that Absalom pursue David immediately, before he has a chance to escape very far or to organize his forces. If he had killed David quickly, then David’s supporters would likely have paid allegiance to Absalom and the nation would not have been divided by a long and bloody civil war (17:1–4). It is a good plan, but Hushai tries to buy time for David by pointing out the fallacies in Ahithophel’s suggestion. He refers to David’s reputation as a fighter and warns that he will not be captured so easily. Appealing to Absalom’s ego, Hushai urges him to gather a huge army and make sure that he can defeat David’s men (17:5–13).
As the historian asserts, it is in accord with God’s planning that Absalom chooses to follow the bad advice of Hushai and in doing so brings ruin on himself (17:14). God will not allow Absalom to usurp the throne at David’s expense, and thus God answers David’s prayer. Moreover, because of Ahithophel’s subsequent suicide (17:23), Absalom loses the services of his top adviser permanently.
17:15–22. Delighted with Absalom’s decision, Hushai decides that he will nonetheless take no chances and will warn David to cross the Jordan River as soon as possible. If he delays and if Absalom changes his mind and begins the pursuit immediately, David will be in grave danger. Following their prearranged plan, Hushai sends word to David through the sons of Zadok and Abiathar (17:15–16). Unfortunately they are spotted and have to hide in a well on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives. In a ruse similar to that used by Rahab (Jos 2:5), the woman hiding the men sends the pursuers on ahead (17:17–20). This enables the two messengers to avoid capture and to cover the fifteen miles to the Jordan River. Near the fords of the Jordan the men urge David to cross the river at once lest Absalom attack him before daybreak (17:21–22).
17:23–29. Convinced that Absalom will lose the war with David and that he and the other leading rebels will be put to death for treason, Ahithophel decides to commit suicide (17:23). It is a tragic end for one whose counsel has been sought so avidly. His death is a sign to Absalom and his followers that their cause is doomed.
Meanwhile, David heads for the city of Mahanaim, north of the Jabbok River, the same city that Ish-bosheth used as his capital (2:8). By this point Absalom has brought a sizable army across the Jordan, led by Amasa, a cousin or half cousin of both Joab and Absalom (17:24–26). Cut off from the luxury and resources of Jerusalem, David and his men receive valuable supplies from Machir and Barzillai, wealthy Israelites in the Transjordan (17:27–29). David will never forget their kindness (1 Kg 2:7). More surprising is the aid he receives from the son of the king of the Ammonites, whose brother David defeated in battle (see 2 Sm 10).
18:1–8. As the battle draws near, David’s men are commanded as usual by his nephews Joab and Abishai (10:9–10), but this time a mercenary contingent is led by Ittai from Gath. David volunteers to go with them but is dissuaded in view of the fact that the enemy wants above all to see him dead (18:1–3). As the troops march out to battle, David urges them to be gentle with Absalom (18:4–5). Since David and his men are outnumbered they choose the rugged terrain of “the forest of Ephraim” as the battle site. Aided by this unusual setting, David’s men outmaneuver the army of Israel and kill twenty thousand (or twenty “companies” of) men (18:6–8). Experienced and intensely loyal to David, his men win a decisive victory and save the throne for him.
18:9–18. During the course of the battle Absalom somehow becomes separated from his men, and his head—or possibly his thick hair—is caught in a low-hanging oak tree. Unable to extricate himself, Absalom is soon at the mercy of Joab, who plunges three spears into his heart (18:9–14). In spite of David’s specific order not to harm Absalom, Joab likely realizes that without Absalom the revolt will collapse. Although Joab had been instrumental in bringing Absalom back from exile (14:1–20), after his revolt Joab clearly felt no pity for the handsome prince. Absalom’s body is thrown into a large pit, and a pile of rocks is heaped over him (18:15–17). The irony of this ignoble burial is not lost on the historian; he points out that Absalom previously erected “a pillar . . . for himself” near Jerusalem (18:18).
David’s forces battle Absalom and the army of Israel in the “forests of Ephraim” (1 Sm 18:16), which may have been the forested area on either side of the Jabbok River, shown here.
18:19–29. Whenever an important battle was in progress, the people who sent out the troops anxiously awaited news of the outcome. Naturally everyone hoped for good news, and the messenger was called “the one who takes the good news.” Sometimes, however, the news was anything but good, such as the time Eli was told about Israel’s crushing defeat (1 Sm 4:12–17). As Joab prepares to dispatch a messenger, he realizes that from David’s perspective the news about Absalom’s death is bad (18:19–20). For this reason, Joab hesitates to send Ahimaaz son of Zadok, who has served as a messenger before (cf. 2 Sm 17:17, 21). If David sees him coming, he will anticipate good news, and Joab does not want the king to get his hopes up. So Joab sends a foreigner, a Cushite, to take the news, although a little later he allows Ahimaaz to run behind him. By taking a different route, Ahimaaz outruns the Cushite and reaches David first (18:21–23). He tells the king about the victory but is unaware of Absalom’s fate. Judging from his questions, David seems to be more interested in Absalom’s condition than the outcome of the battle (18:24–29).
18:30–19:4. When the Cushite arrives, he gives David the information he wants in an indirect but clear way. David is crushed and begins to mourn his son’s death. The pain is so great that David wishes he had died instead of Absalom (18:30–33). Over the years the tension between father and son has been great, but clearly David has no desire for such a violent outcome. Though the troops return in triumph, their shouting and celebrating are quickly stilled in response to David’s mourning. Instead of congratulating his men, David continues to grieve uncontrollably over the death of Absalom (19:1–4).
19:5–8. Although David’s response is understandable in his capacity as a father, it ignores his responsibilities as the king and military leader. For this reason Joab confronts David and rouses him from his despondency. In a short and sarcastic speech, Joab accuses David of ignoring the fact that his soldiers have just risked their lives to win a crucial victory and that they deserve the king’s profound thanks. By behaving as if he has lost the battle, David stands the chance of losing the support of the very men who have been so loyal to him (19:5–7). David responds to Joab’s plea, and his presence in the city gate consoles the men (19:8).
19:9–15. After the rebellion collapses, the people in the northern tribes blame themselves for what has happened. They reflect on all the good things David has done for the country and decide they want him to return as king (19:9–10). When David hears about this sentiment, he sends word to the elders of his own tribe of Judah to see how they feel. Although the rebellion was launched in Judah, David is willing to forgive them for their actions. In fact David even announces that he will make Absalom’s general Amasa the new commander of his army (19:11–13). It is possible that David has found out about Joab’s role in the death of Absalom and decided to punish his military chief. Encouraged by David’s forgiving spirit, the men of Judah enthusiastically urge him to return (19:14–15).
19:16–23. When David reaches the eastern banks of the Jordan River opposite Jericho, he is met by the man who cursed him as he fled from Jerusalem. This time Shimei is accompanied by a thousand (or a “company” of) other Benjaminites, who may fear that Shimei’s disrespect will bring David’s wrath on the whole tribe (19:16–18a). Bowing low, Shimei apologizes for his earlier behavior and begs David’s forgiveness. David’s men are not impressed by Shimei’s “repentance” and urge the king to execute him (19:18b–21). But in light of the end of the civil war and David’s restoration to power, he determines that this is a time for conciliatory action, not revenge (19:22–23). David never fully forgives Shimei, however, and on his deathbed asks Solomon to find a way to put him to death (1 Kg 2:8–9).
19:24–30. Another piece of unfinished business has to do with Mephibosheth, Jonathan’s son, who was accused of participating in the revolt. He wanted to join David in exile but was left behind by his steward Ziba. Since the time David left Jerusalem, Mephibosheth has remained in an unkempt condition as a sign of deep mourning (19:24–27). Aware that, as a descendant of Saul, he does not deserve David’s favor, Mephibosheth nonetheless politely asks David to rethink his decision to give Saul’s estate to Ziba. Uncertain as to who is telling the truth, David decides to divide the inheritance between Ziba and Mephibosheth (19:28–29).
19:31–39. On a more pleasant note, David says good-bye to Barzillai, who sustained him during the difficult days in the Transjordan. Although David wants him to live in Jerusalem, Barzillai declines the invitation because of his advanced age. At eighty he is too old to appreciate the finer things of life in the capital (19:31–36). He does agree to send Chimham (probably his son) to Jerusalem, and David is glad to oblige (19:37–38). The king never forgets the help Barzillai gave him, and he asks Solomon to treat his sons well even after David’s death (1 Kg 2:7).
19:40–43. The split between David and Absalom is symptomatic of the more basic division between north and south, the ten tribes of Israel and the tribe of Judah. As the various tribes scramble to be present when David crosses the Jordan and reenters the promised land, some of the northern tribes have not yet arrived (19:40–41). Apparently the men of Israel feel that the absence of these tribes could be interpreted as lack of support for David. There remains the lingering suspicion that David is partial to his own tribe, whereas the ten tribes constitute the bulk of the nation (19:42–43). So, at a time when David seems to have won back the hearts of the people, friction is already developing between the north and the south.
20:1–7. In spite of their recent affirmation of loyalty to David, the ten northern tribes are quick to defect under the leadership of Sheba. Using a rallying cry that will be repeated when the kingdom is divided after Solomon (1 Kg 12:16), Sheba reasserts the power the tribe of Benjamin lost after the death of Saul (20:1–2). David enters Jerusalem without fanfare and tries to deal with the new crisis. But first he dismisses his ten concubines from the palace and places them under guard in separate quarters since they are linked with the first rebellion, when Absalom slept with them (20:3).
True to his promise, David appoints Amasa commander over the army and orders him to take action against Sheba. When Amasa moves too slowly, David asks the veteran general Abishai to take charge, again ignoring his strong-headed nephew Joab (20:4–6). Yet when the troops are sent out, one contingent is “Joab’s men” (20:7), and before long Joab will lead them himself. The other troops include the Cherethites and Pelethites, who were loyal to David during Absalom’s rebellion.
20:8–13. About six miles north of Jerusalem Amasa catches up with the army, presumably bringing additional troops. As Joab steps forward to greet him, he stabs Amasa in the stomach with a dagger, once again eliminating someone who threatens his position as commander in chief (20:8–10a). Joab knows how deeply obligated David is to him. As in the case of Shimei, David in his dying days finally asks Solomon to punish Joab for his treachery (1 Kg 2:5–6). After the death of Amasa, Joab takes charge of the army, placing his brother Abishai in the familiar role of second in command (20:10b–13).
20:14–22. Meanwhile, Sheba shows respect for David’s army by retreating to Abel of Beth-maacah, a city north of the Sea of Galilee. After gathering additional troops, he takes refuge inside the walls of the city (20:14). When Joab reaches Abel of Beth-maacah, he surrounds the city and tries to batter down the wall. Usually this was accomplished by repeatedly hitting the wall with a large metal-tipped wooden beam. When the people inside the city see the damage being done, they are understandably upset. The city is known for the wisdom of its residents, so one of the wise women asks to speak to Joab (20:15–16). Joab explains what he wants, and the woman sees to it that the head of Sheba is thrown over the wall (20:17–22). The refusal to extradite a political foe was a legitimate reason for war in the ancient world, and earlier David himself was forced to leave a walled city to avoid being handed over to Saul (1 Sm 23:7–13).
Without a leader the revolt collapses, and the northern tribes acknowledge David as their king. They continue to serve David and his son Solomon for more than forty years, until they revolt successfully under Jeroboam I in about 930 BC.
20:23–26. Each of the major divisions of 1 and 2 Samuel ends with a list of the officials of Saul or David (1 Sm 14:49–52; 2 Sm 8:15–18), and each list is slightly longer than the previous list, indicating the gradual development in the size of the royal cabinet. The major change in the list in 20:23–26 is the addition of Adoniram, who “was over forced labor” (20:24). As the kingdom expands, David employs Canaanites and prisoners of war in various building projects, and during Solomon’s reign even some Israelites will be used on occasion for this purpose. Adoniram continues in this position throughout Solomon’s reign, so he must have been appointed in the final years of David’s rule. Another administrative change is the appointment of Ira the Jairite as “David’s priest” (20:26), whose role may have been closer to that of a royal adviser.
4. EPILOGUES (21:1–24:25)
Like the book of Judges, the two books of Samuel end with nonchronological epilogues arranged in a chiastic A-B-C-Cʹ-Bʹ-Aʹ pattern. There are two incidents describing God’s wrath against Israel (chaps. 21, 24) and several short accounts of the victories of David and his men (21:15–22; 23:8–39). Between these two clusters of heroic achievements are two poems written by David praising the Lord for his deliverance (22:1–23:7). Although their overall purpose remains opaque, the function of the two middle sections, David’s song and last words, is transparent, as is that of the final chapter, which prepares for Solomon’s building of the temple in 1 Kg 5–6.
A. The Gibeonites’ revenge (21:1–14). 21:1–6. Because of the possible reference to this chapter in 16:7–8, it is likely that the Gibeonite problem was resolved prior to the revolt of Absalom. There is no clue in 1 Samuel as to when Saul became involved with the Gibeonites.
When Joshua was conquering the promised land, he was tricked into making a treaty with the Gibeonites, guaranteeing that they would not be put to death (Jos 9:15, 20). Since the city of Gibeon was located in the tribal territory of Benjamin, not far from Saul’s capital, at some point during his reign Saul violated this treaty by attacking and killing some of the Gibeonites. As punishment, the Lord afflicts Israel with three years of famine during David’s reign (21:1–2a).
When David discovers the reason for this famine, he confers with the Gibeonites who have survived. Since the death of the guilty can turn away God’s wrath, David agrees with the Gibeonites’ request that seven of Saul’s male descendants should be killed at Gibeah, Saul’s capital (21:2b–6). The number seven was probably chosen because it represented completeness.
21:7–14. As David assumes the responsibility of handing over Saul’s descendants, he spares Jonathan’s son Mephibosheth in light of the covenant they made. But David turns over to the Gibeonites the two sons of Saul’s concubine Rizpah and the five sons born to Saul’s daughter Merab (21:7–8). Ironically, Merab should have been David’s wife as a reward for killing Goliath. The seven are put to death in April during the barley harvest, and the family of Saul is effectively wiped out (21:9).
Normally the dead were buried quickly, but not in the case of those whose bodies were exposed “in the presence of the LORD” (21:6) to atone for sin involving the whole nation (cf. Nm 25:4). So Rizpah heroically guards the exposed bodies of her sons until the rains pour down as an indication that the drought that has caused the famine is over (21:10). David then orders that the bones of the deceased be buried in the tomb of Saul’s father, and he shows his respect for the whole family by transferring the remains of Saul and Jonathan from Jabesh-gilead to Benjamin (21:11–14).
B. Victories over the Philistines (21:15–22). Revenge is also the motive in a series of battles between the Philistines and Israelites. Ever since David’s victory over Goliath, the Philistines have tried to take revenge, but without success. Four specific Philistine warriors are mentioned, and each of them—like Goliath—is tall and powerful. All four are “descendants of the giant” (21:16), which is probably a reference to the gigantic Rephaim (or “Raphah”; see the CSB footnote for 21:16; cf. Dt 2:11; Jos 12:4).
According to 21:19 a man named Elhanan “killed Goliath” of Gath. If this is not a different Goliath from the warrior in 1 Sm 17, we seem to have a competing account of his death. In the parallel passage in 1 Ch 20:5, this difficulty is smoothed out by specifying that Elhanan “killed Lahmi the brother of Goliath.”
C. David’s song (22:1–51). 22:1. Just as 1–2 Samuel begins with Hannah’s song of thanksgiving for the birth of Samuel (1 Sm 2), it ends with David’s song of praise for God’s deliverance from his enemies. The song appears in almost identical form in Psalm 18. In both passages the same historical heading referring to Saul and other enemies introduces the hymn.
22:2–4. When David was fleeing from Saul he was forced to take refuge in a number of caves. These hideouts are sometimes called “strongholds”; the same word is applied to the Lord in 22:3. David thus acknowledges that God is the true source of his security and the one on whom he can call for help.
22:5–7. In words that anticipate the experience of Jonah, David describes his difficulty as if he had been drowning. The cords of death were wrapped around him like seaweed (22:6; cf. Jnh 2:5). Because of his extreme danger, death seemed close indeed. In his predicament, David called out to the Lord for help, and in his heavenly temple God heard his cry (22:7; cf. Jnh 2:7).
22:8–16. Verses 8–16 describe a theophany—the coming of God to defeat his foes. The imagery is similar to the description of God’s appearance on Mount Sinai, when he descended in a thick cloud amid thunder and lightning. The earth shook as God spoke with Moses before the awestruck Israelites (Ex 19:16–19). So powerful was God’s voice that it sounded like thunder (22:14). In Judges the Lord sent a thunderstorm to bog down the chariots of Sisera and give Israel a surprising victory (Jdg 5:4–5, 20–21). There may also be an allusion in 22:16 to the demise of the Egyptians at the Red Sea, where the waters were rebuked by a strong wind (Ex 14:21). The cherubim, mentioned in 22:11, are said to be transporters of the throne of God in Ezk 10, and this throne symbolizes the authority of the mighty king.
22:17–20. Just as God delivered his people in times past, so he reached down and rescued David from his powerful enemy (22:17–18). Instead of being hemmed in and confined, David was brought “to a spacious place” (22:20) and given freedom from danger and oppression.
22:21–30. Grateful for God’s intervention, David reflects on God’s goodness to those who serve him and live righteously. David’s assertion of innocence does not mean that he is claiming to be sinless but indicates that he is seeking to live in accord with God’s word (22:23–24). Since David is the king, he has an obligation to set an example for the rest of the nation and to lead a godly life. His realization that God brings down the proud and exalts the humble (22:28) repeats an underlying theme of 1–2 Samuel. In his own struggle with Saul, David becomes well aware of what pride can do to a king out of touch with God.
David also knows that God responds in kind to the attitudes and actions of human beings (22:26–27). Those who are hostile toward God will eventually find that God will be hostile toward them (Lv 26:27–28). Those who seek first God’s kingdom and his righteousness will discover that he will bless them in remarkable ways (Mt 6:33). Because of David’s faithfulness as king, God has given him military victories, fame, and fortune (22:30).
22:31–46. Returning to the themes introduced in verses 2–4, David spells out in greater detail what God has done for him. With a sense of exuberance David tells how the Lord gave him strength, speed, and stability, enabling him to overwhelm the enemy (22:31–37). David describes the plight of his foes, who were crushed and trampled under his feet. When they cried for help the Lord did not answer; no one came to their rescue (22:38–43).
God delivered David from his enemies within the borders of Israel and in foreign lands. Though it had seemed that he was on the verge of dying, David was made “head of nations” (22:44). As his enemies fell before him one by one (22:45–46), the kingdom of Israel grew into an empire stretching from Egypt to the Euphrates River. The covenant blessing promised by Moses has become a reality.
22:47–51. David knows that he does not deserve the credit for his success, so in the final verses of this song he exalts “God, the rock of my salvation” (22:47). Through the prophet Nathan, God made a covenant with David, promising that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sm 7:12–16); and David acknowledges that the Lord’s “loyalty” (22:51) was a guarantee that the covenant would remain valid. Such a faithful God is one whom David wishes to praise “among the nations” (22:50).
D. David’s last words (23:1–7). The second song contained in the appendixes is much shorter than the first and gives us the last poetic piece attributed to David. Many psalms associated with David are in the book of Psalms, but this brief poem is not paralleled in the Psalter. As in chapter 22, David acknowledges God’s blessing on his life and in particular refers to the way the Spirit of the Lord spoke through him (23:2). Ever since David was anointed as king, the Spirit has rested on him and inspired him to write and sing the psalms loved by believers down through the millennia.
Empowered by the Lord, David has been able for the most part to rule in righteousness, bringing peace and prosperity to the whole nation (23:3). His rule became the standard against which all other rulers of Israel and Judah are judged and the pattern for at least some messianic expectations. As his own life comes to an end, David rejoices that God has made with him “a permanent covenant” (23:5), assuring his descendants of continuing rule. According to 23:6–7 and Ps 110, this will ultimately mean the destruction of wicked men when Christ places his enemies under his feet.
E. David’s mighty men (23:8–39). Like any commanding general, David knows the value of faithful, dedicated followers. Without the help of skilled warriors, he could not have established a powerful kingdom. Thirty-seven of his men deserve special credit for their courage and commitment.
23:8–12. A group called “the Three” (see the CSB footnote for 23:8; see also 23:9, 18–23) fought so valiantly that they are singled out above the rest. Josheb-basshebeth killed eight hundred men at one time (23:8). In another memorable battle against the Philistines, Eleazar son of Dodo single-handedly struck down the Philistines after the rest of the Israelites had retreated (23:9–10). The third hero, Shammah son of Agee, performed a similar exploit against the Philistines. Refusing to flee with the rest of the troops, Shammah stood his ground and successfully fought the enemy by himself (23:11–12).
23:13–17. Another story about three heroes—probably not the same three just mentioned—tells how they broke through Philistine lines to get water from the well near the gate of David’s hometown of Bethlehem (23:16a). The incident may have occurred while David was a fugitive from Saul or just after he had been anointed king over all Israel. When the three men brought the water to David, he refused to drink it and poured it out as an offering before the Lord (23:16b–17). By doing this he acknowledged God’s goodness in giving him followers who would risk their lives for him.
23:18–23. Two other men performed exploits that were comparable to those of “the Three.” David’s nephew Abishai once saved David’s life by killing a Philistine giant who had threatened David (21:16–17). Here we are told that he was also responsible for killing three hundred men in battle (23:18–19).
Benaiah son of Jehoiada (23:20–23) was in charge of the Cherethites and Pelethites, two valuable mercenary bands that constituted the royal bodyguard; later Benaiah will replace Joab as commander of Solomon’s army (1 Kg 2:35). On the way to becoming a leader, Benaiah gained fame for killing two of Moab’s finest soldiers and “an Egyptian, an impressive man” who was first disarmed and then killed with his own spear (23:21). In the best tradition of Samson, Benaiah also killed a lion in “a pit on a snowy day” (23:20).
23:24–39. While not quite attaining the stature of the aforementioned heroes, an additional thirty warriors constituted an elite group of mighty men. They came from many parts of Israel, including Saul’s capital city of Gibeah (23:29). Most of the individuals are otherwise unknown in Scripture, except for Joab’s brother Asahel (23:24), who died in the civil war against Abner (2:23); Uriah the Hittite (23:39a), the husband of Bathsheba; and Bathsheba’s father, Eliam (23:34). The figure of thirty-seven given in 23:39b apparently includes “the Three,” Abishai and Benaiah, and possibly Joab, the indefatigable commander of the whole army.
F. David’s census (24:1–25). For the second time in the appendixes David has to face the wrath of God (cf. 21:1–14), but this time he bears more of the blame. It is a hard lesson for David and his people, though the chapter ends on a note of worship that paves the way for the building of the temple.
24:1–9. Sometimes the taking of a census was perfectly acceptable (Nm 1; 26), so David’s sin must here involve the motivation behind the census. In all probability David is guilty of pride as he glories in the size of his armies and the numerous victories he has won. Backed by faithful, highly skilled troops and courageous leaders, David may be overlooking his need to trust in the Lord, the one who gave Goliath into his hands. Even Joab recognizes that it is wrong to take this census, but David insists that he go ahead with it (24:3–4).
For almost ten months Joab and the other commanders travel throughout Israel, starting in the Transjordan and then counting all the able-bodied men west of the river (24:5–8). The total comes to eight hundred thousand (or eight hundred “companies of men”) from Israel and five hundred thousand (or five hundred “companies of men”) from Judah (24:9).
24:10–14. After Joab and his men return David recognizes how wrong he has been and confesses his sin before the Lord (24:10). Earlier he repented of his adulterous relationship with Bathsheba when the prophet Nathan confronted him (12:13). This time the prophet Gad is sent to David, offering the king a choice of three calamities (24:11–12). Faced with the prospect of three years of famine, three months of military defeat, or three days of plague, David chooses the final option, believing that the Lord will somehow be merciful in spite of the plague (24:13–14).
24:15–17. True to his word the Lord strikes Israel with a plague more severe than that connected with the Baal of Peor episode in Nm 25. Seventy thousand (or seventy “clan groups”) die as the angel of the Lord moves through the land, bringing relentless judgment (24:15). When the angel comes to Jerusalem the Lord has mercy on his chosen city as David cries out on behalf of the people (24:16–17). The place where David sees the angel is the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, located north of Jerusalem on a hill overlooking the city. Chronicles refers to this hill as Mount Moriah, and it will become the very site on which Solomon later builds the temple (2 Ch 3:1).
24:18–25. The prophet Gad orders David to build an altar to the Lord there at the threshing floor of Araunah (24:18–19). When David asks Araunah for permission to buy the threshing floor, the Jebusite agrees and even offers to give it to David along with oxen and wood for the offering (24:20–23). But David insists on paying for it, refusing to sacrifice burnt offerings that cost him nothing. He pays fifty shekels of silver for the threshing floor and the oxen (24:24), and according to 1 Ch 21:25 he pays six hundred shekels of gold for the whole site.
When the altar is built, David presents burnt offerings and fellowship offerings as a symbol of his renewed commitment to the Lord (24:25a). These two offerings were also presented in the midst of an earlier national calamity during the time of the judges (Jdg 20:26), and Solomon will sacrifice numerous burnt offerings and fellowship offerings at the dedication of the temple. Coupled with David’s confession and repentance, the sacrifices make atonement for sin, and God answers his prayer in behalf of the land. The plague ends as the Lord has mercy on his covenant people (24:25b).
Threshing sledge and fork on a threshing floor. David buys the threshing floor of Araunah to build an altar to the Lord (2 Sm 24:18–25).
© John A. Beck.