Definitions

Aaron Aaron is Moses’s older brother and his close associate during the days when God uses both of them to establish his people Israel as a nation. Aaron’s particular importance comes when God selects him to be the first high priest of Israel.

Aaron plays a supportive role in the Exodus account of the plagues and the departure from Egypt. He is at Moses’s side. As previously arranged, Aaron is the spokesperson, acting as a prophet to Moses, who is “like God to Pharaoh” (Ex 7:1).

The event of greatest significance involving Aaron in the wilderness is his appointment as high priest. The divine mandate for his installation is recorded in Ex 28. Aaron does not fare well on the one occasion when he acts independently from Moses. While Moses is on Mount Sinai receiving the two tablets of the law from the hand of God, Aaron gives in to the people’s request to make a calf idol out of golden earrings that they give him.

In spite of Aaron’s sin, God does not remove him from his priestly responsibilities (thanks to the prayers of Moses [Dt 9:20]), the height of which is to preside over the annual Day of Atonement (Lv 16). The incident of the golden calf is not the only occasion when Aaron tries God’s patience. In Nm 12, Aaron and his sister, Miriam, contest Moses’s leadership. Using his marriage to a Cushite woman as a pretext, Moses’s siblings assert their equality. God, however, puts them in their place, affirming Moses’s primacy.

Other tribal leaders question Aaron’s priestly leadership in Nm 17. Moses tells all the tribal leaders to place their walking staffs along with Aaron’s before God at the tent of the testimony. God shows his favor toward Aaron by causing his staff to bud.

Both Moses and Aaron forfeit their right to enter the land of promise when they usurp the Lord’s authority as they bring water from the rock in the wilderness (Nm 20:1–13). Sick and tired of the people’s complaining, Moses wrongly ascribes to himself and Aaron the ability to make water come from the rock, and rather than speaking to the rock, he strikes it twice. For this, God tells them that they will die in the wilderness. Aaron’s death is reported soon after this occasion (Nm 20:22–27).

In the NT, the most significant mention of Aaron is in comparison to Jesus Christ, the ultimate high priest. Interestingly, the book of Hebrews argues that Jesus far surpasses the priestly authority of Aaron, by connecting his priesthood to Melchizedek, a mysterious non-Israelite priest who blesses God and Abram in Gn 14 (see Heb 7:1–14).

Aaron’s Staff Aaron’s staff is his wooden walking stick, which has a significant role in the accounts of the plagues of Egypt. In Moses and Aaron’s first confrontation with Pharaoh, Aaron throws his staff to the ground, and it turns into a snake. Although the Egyptian magicians can mimic this act, Aaron’s snake swallows the snakes produced by their staffs, thus showing the superiority of Aaron’s God over their false gods (Ex 7:8–13). Aaron uses his staff by either extending it or striking the ground in order to initiate other plagues as well.

The staff is not a magical wand but rather a symbol, a portable tree that stands for God’s presence. This is clearly seen in Nm 17. In the face of dissension from tribal leaders, God directs Moses to place a staff from every tribe before him in the tent of the testimony. Aaron’s alone buds into an almond tree, signifying that God is with him. His staff is then placed in front of the testimony in the ark of the covenant (see Heb 9:4).

Staffs were used as walking sticks and as symbols of authority.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities and the Cairo Museum.

Abaddon A transliteration of the Hebrew word for “destruction,” signifying the grave or the underworld. In the OT it occurs primarily with “Sheol” (Jb 26:6; Pr 15:11; 27:20; cf. Ps 88:11; see also Jb 31:12) or “Death” (Jb 28:22). In the NT, the word is used in Rv 9:11 as the equivalent to the Greek word “Apollyon,” which means “Destroyer,” to refer to the angel of the abyss.

Abomination of Desolation The “abomination of desolation” refers to the desecration of the Jerusalem temple. The biblical texts seem to attest to two or three stages of fulfillment of the prophecy in Daniel.

First, Dn 8:11; 9:27; 11:31; 12:11 speak of the actions of the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 BC) against the Jerusalem temple. Antiochus’s ambition was to use the common culture of the Greeks (Hellenism) to unite the diverse Seleucid Empire. In 167 BC, after being repelled from Egypt by the Romans, Antiochus unleashed his fury on Jerusalem. He prohibited all Jewish rites and rededicated the Jewish temple to the Greek god Zeus. In December of 167 BC the first pagan sacrifice was offered in the Jerusalem temple.

Second, Daniel’s prophecy apparently was not completely fulfilled with Antiochus, for Lk 21:20 labels the Roman assault on Jerusalem in AD 70 as the “desolation.” In fact, the Roman destruction of the Holy City and its temple was an intensification of the OT prediction. Those who identify only two stages of fulfillment for Daniel’s prophecy understand Mk 13:14 and Mt 24:15 also to pertain to the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Furthermore, they see in 2 Th 2:4 an allusion to the emperor Caligula’s (Gaius) plan to place a statue of himself in the Jerusalem temple in AD 40 (which, because of his assassination, did not occur).

However, some interpreters would extend the application of the prophecy of the abomination of desolation to the distant future. They contend that the ultimate fulfillment of Daniel’s prediction will occur in connection with the end-time temple to be built by Israel, which the antichrist will desecrate (Mk 13:14; Mt 24:15; 2 Th 2:4; cf. Rv 11).

Acacia An English rendering of the Hebrew word shittim. It is used to refer to a tree (Is 41:19) or as a place name, “Acacia Grove” (Nm 25:1; Jos 2:1; Mc 6:5; many translations render this simply “Shittim”; see the CSB footnotes for these verses). More than likely, the place name resulted from an abundant presence of the trees in that location (Jos 3:1; Jl 3:18).

The acacia tree is readily available in the Sinai and provides a hard wood suitable for crafting objects requiring durability (Ex 35:24). It was used in the construction of the ark of the covenant (25:10; 37:1), the poles for moving the ark (Ex 25:13; 37:4), portions of the tabernacle (Ex 26:15–37; 36:20–36), and parts of the altar of burnt offering (Ex 27:1, 6; 38:1, 6).

Admah One of the cities of the plain, associated with Sodom and Gomorrah (Gn 10:19; 14:2, 8; Dt 29:23). Admah is not specifically mentioned in Gn 19 as being destroyed, but Dt 29:23 and Hs 11:8 note the city’s destruction in passages about divine judgment. Admah was probably located somewhere on the east side of the Dead Sea.

Adoption In regard to the application of salvation, the mighty work of God to take sinful people and embrace them as beloved children into his family forever. Redemption through the Son of God results in their adoption as sons and daughters, together with the reception of the Spirit of adoption, by whom God is called “Abba, Father!” (Rm 8:14–16; Gl 4:4–7). Adoption as children into the family of God means further that Christians are brothers and sisters, united with one another (Gl 3:26–28) and fellow heirs with their brother Christ (Rm 8:17).

Ahasuerus The Hebrew equivalent of the Persian name Xerxes. Ahasuerus was the king of Persia from 486 to 465 BC (Est 1:1–2). He inherited the throne from his father, Darius; his son Artaxerxes was king during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. Esther is wed to Ahasuerus and becomes queen (Est 2:17; in 479 BC), and thus she is in a position to save the Jewish nation from the annihilation plotted by Haman (Est 4:12–17). Additionally, the “enemies of Judah and Benjamin” (Ezr 4:1) write a letter to Ahasuerus when the Jews begin rebuilding God’s temple in Jerusalem (Ezr 4:6).

Ai The Hebrew term for Ai means “the ruin.” Biblical Ai was situated east of Bethel in the highlands of Ephraim overlooking the Jordan Valley. In the Bible, Ai first appears as a landmark in Abram’s travels (Gn 12:8; 13:3). In the book of Joshua, it figures prominently as a lesser city in the initial conquest of Canaan (Jos 7:3; 10:2; but see 8:25). Following Israel’s initial defeat (Jos 7:4–5), Joshua proscribes Ai according to the Lord’s instruction (Jos 8:2), slaying its inhabitants and hanging its king, then reducing the settlement to a ruin (Jos 8:25–28). This strikes fear into the neighboring populations (Jos 9:3–4; 10:1–2). The disproportionate attention given to its capture sets the conquest within a theological framework: victory depends on obedience to God.

Aijalon The Valley of Aijalon provided access from the northern Philistine Plain on the Mediterranean Sea through the foothills to the hill country. The city of Aijalon was near the eastern end of the valley. During Israel’s conquest of Canaan, a confederation of Canaanite cities attacks the Gibeonites, who have made an alliance with the Israelites (Jos 9–10). The Israelites defeat the confederation forces at Gibeon and pursue them west through the Valley of Aijalon (Jos 10:12). Some centuries later, after Jonathan and his armor bearer attack the Philistine outpost at Michmash in the hill country, the Israelites strike them down from Michmash to Aijalon in the valley (1 Sm 14:31). The city of Aijalon is among those given to the tribe of Dan (Jos 19:42; 21:24), but it is later affiliated with Ephraim (1 Ch 6:69) and inhabited by descendants of Benjamin (1 Ch 8:13). Rehoboam builds defensive cities, among them Aijalon, in preparation for the forthcoming attack of Pharaoh Shishak (2 Ch 11:5–12; cf. 1 Kg 14:26).

Amalekites The Amalekites inhabited the Negev territory south of Judah (Nm 13:29). The OT represents the Amalekites as descended from Esau and thus related to the Edomites (Gn 36:12, 16).

The history of relations between the Amalekites and the Israelites is one of perpetual hostility. The Amalekites attack the Israelites shortly after the Red Sea crossing. The outcome of the battle includes a declaration of perpetual war between the Amalekites and the God of Israel (Ex 17:8–16; Dt 25:17–19). There are several subsequent conflicts (Nm 14:45; Jdg 3:13; 6:3, 33; 7:12; 10:12), continuing in the campaigns of Saul (1 Sm 15:1–9) and David (1 Sm 27:8; 30:16–20). The destruction of the remnant of Amalekites in the days of Hezekiah is recorded in 1 Ch 4:41–43.

The final chapter in the historic struggle between Israel and the Amalekites is Mordecai and Esther’s confrontation with Haman, who is identified as an “Agagite”—that is, a descendant of Agag, the Amalekite king spared by Saul (Est 3:1; cf. 1 Sm 15:8).

Amorites One of the nations that occupies part of Canaan and the Transjordan before Israel’s conquest. They appear in lists of the peoples occupying Canaan (e.g., Gn 15:21; Ex 3:8, 17; 23:23; Neh 9:8). According to Gn 10, they are descendants of Canaan, one of the sons of Ham. This territory is conquered by Abram and his forces in Gn 14. Later the Israelites will remain enslaved in Egypt for four generations until the sin of the Amorites has reached its full measure (Gn 15:16).

The Israelites are constantly in conflict with the Amorites, who are to be driven out of Canaan, along with the other peoples (Ex 23:23; 33:2). The Israelites need to go through Amorite territory in order to reach Canaan, but when King Sihon refuses them passage and war ensues, the Israelites are victorious and settle in the land of the Amorites (Nm 21:21–31; Dt 1:4; 2:24–37).

The Amorites are mentioned numerous times in the OT. Sometimes the name simply represents the general population of Canaan (e.g., Jos 24:15), since throughout much of the biblical period Amorites were not so much a specific ethnic or cultural designation but had become assimilated into the general Canaanite population. This Amorite and mixed influence on Israel is expressed in Ezekiel’s allegory of unfaithful Jerusalem (Ezk 16).

Angels The category of creatures that have been created as immaterial (without a body) beings. Whereas humans are created beings consisting of both an immaterial aspect (a soul or spirit) and a material aspect (a body), angels are only immaterial beings (though they can appear in physical, even human, form). They are highly intelligent, moral creatures who wield significant power and authority, and they both worship and serve God, especially providing help for believers (Heb 1:14). Though all angels were originally created good, some rebelled against God, lost their original goodness, and now seek to oppose God and his work.

Anger The disposition of someone (including God) toward persons (including oneself [Gn 45:5]) or situations considered to be seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zch 1:15), and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gn 45:5), hatred (Jb 16:9), jealousy (Rm 10:19), grief (Mk 3:5), and vengeance (Mc 5:15).

Anger may be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in, for example, Moses’s reaction to the golden calf (Ex 32:19). Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph 4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness of his contemporaries (Mk 3:5).

On the other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distorted perceptions or values (Gn 4:5–6). A tendency to anger in oneself needs to be kept in check (Jms 1:19) and in others needs to be handled prudently (Pr 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead to violence and murder (Gn 49:6). In several NT lists anger is associated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy, selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry, sorcery, and bitterness (2 Co 12:20; Gl 5:20; Eph 4:31; Col 3:8).

Anthropomorphic Language With respect to the doctrine of God, a way of speaking about God in human terms. Anthropomorphic language is found in biblical affirmations: God has “eyes,” “ears,” “nostrils” (e.g., Ex 15:8), and “an outstretched arm” (e.g., Ex 6:6). The use of such language acknowledges the limitations of human speech to describe God and his ways. At the same time, the fact that divine revelation uses anthropomorphic language encourages people to embrace the adequacy and truthfulness of such speech and to see in such use of common language God’s commitment to communicate clearly to ordinary people.

Apostle Apostles are primarily the disciples chosen by Jesus to be the foundation of his church. Foremost among these leaders are the original apostles—“the Twelve”—whom Jesus calls to follow him. They are Spirit-empowered eyewitnesses of his life, death, and resurrection. Additionally, “apostle” (Gk apostolos, “messenger”) refers to a few other leaders in the early church, especially Paul, Barnabas, and James (e.g., Ac 14:14; Gl 1:19). The apostles are the first to preach the gospel, and they lead the church in Jerusalem, from which they establish churches in other places. They perform signs and wonders, which confirm their message; they establish authoritative doctrine and practice for the church; and some write letters now revered as Scripture.

Arameans Descendants of Shem (Gn 10:22) and Nahor (Gn 22:21), sometimes identified as “Syrians” (Lk 4:27). According to the patriarchal narratives in Genesis, Arameans originated from Upper Mesopotamia in the early second millennium. Deuteronomy 26:5 suggests that the Hebrews have descended from Arameans.

Their expansion to the west impacts ancient Israel as early as the days of Saul (1 Sm 14:47). David defeats the alliance of the Ammonites with the Aramean king Hadadezer (2 Sm 8:3–8, 10–12). King Asa of Judah makes a treaty with an Aramean king in his war against Baasha of Israel (1 Kg 15:16–22). King Ahab is defeated and killed in his battles with the Arameans (1 Kg 22:1–38). Later, God provides a “deliverer” (possibly an Assyrian king or officer), which relieves Aramean pressures on Israel (2 Kg 13:3–5). This allows Jehoash of Israel to defeat the Arameans and regain previously lost territories. In the eighth century BC the Aramean king Rezin, in alliance with Israel and Tyre, attempts to force Ahaz of Judah into their league to oppose the growing Assyrian threat (2 Kg 16:5–9; Is 7:1–9). By the end of the eighth century, all Aramean territories have become provinces in the Assyrian Empire.

Ararat The name Ararat refers to a mountainous region in eastern Asia Minor. The best-known reference to Ararat is as the location where Noah’s ark comes to rest after the flood. Genesis 8:4 actually speaks of the “mountains of Ararat,” not one particular mountain. Tradition has favored Agri Dag, an extinct volcano rising 16,916 feet on the northeastern border of Turkey, as a viable site for Ararat.

Archangel A leading or ruling angel. Angels are an order of immaterial/spiritual beings (creatures that have been created without a body) that are very intelligent, moral creatures who worship and serve God. Only one angel, named Michael, is referred to as an archangel, or ruler (Gk archē) of angels (Jd 9). He is portrayed as leading an angelic army against the dragon (Satan) and his demons during a war in heaven (Dn 10:13). When Christ returns, his descent from heaven will be accompanied by “the archangel’s voice” (1 Th 4:16). This could be Michael or some other archangel.

Ark of the Covenant A sacred religious object, in the shape of a box, that represents the presence of God among the Israelites. The ark, constructed in wood, measures forty-five inches long, twenty-seven inches wide, and twenty-seven inches high and is transported by means of two poles inserted on either side (Ex 25:10–22; 37:1–9). Only the consecrated Levitical priests can carry the ark, which is covered by three layers of cloth in order to conceal it from the people (Nm 4:5–6, 15, 18–20), who have to remain at least a thousand yards away. In the earliest accounts, the ark becomes the place of atonement, meeting, and revelation between God and Israel and is associated with the centralized place of gathering and worship by the Israelites.

The most important aspects of the ark are the cover, known as the “mercy seat,” and the cherubim attached to the ark cover. Blood is ritually sprinkled on the cover, which is the designated place of atonement. The book of Hebrews contrasts the application of Christ’s own blood in the heavenly holy place with the priestly sprinkling of blood on the “mercy seat” of the ark (Heb 9:1–14).

The expression “the Lord of Armies, who is enthroned between the cherubim,” links God’s roles as king and warrior, reinforcing the ark as God’s throne or his “footstool” (1 Sm 4:4; cf. 1 Ch 28:2; Pss 99:5; 132:7), symbolic of the invisibly enthroned deity. The ark becomes so closely associated with the divine presence that the Israelites assume that the presence of God resides within the ark. However, God’s promise to be present among them does not imply a spatial or corporeal limitation. The portable nature of the ark, and the tent in which it is housed, emphasizes that God’s presence or revelation is not limited to a specific location.

Exodus and Deuteronomy note that the ark serves as a receptacle for the “testimony” or two tablets of the Ten Commandments. Consequently, the ark is often referred to as the “ark of the testimony” (e.g., Ex 25:22; 26:33; 30:6, 26; 31:7). The NT refers to the ark also containing a gold jar of manna and Aaron’s blossoming rod (Heb 9:4; cf. Ex 16:32–34; Nm 17:8–10).

The ark is housed first in the tabernacle, which travels with the Israelites during the exodus (Ex 26:33–34). In the book of Joshua, the ark leads the people in conquest (Jos 3:1–5:1; 6:1–25). Following the entry into the promised land, the ark abides at the Gilgal sanctuary, and eventually it shifts to Bethel and then to Shiloh, where it rests until it is captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4–6). Following a plague inflicted by God on the Philistines, the ark is returned and remains at Kiriath-jearim for twenty years (1 Sam 6:21–7:2).

Eventually, King David transports the ark to Jerusalem. Here it remains in a “tent” until it is placed in Solomon’s temple (2 Sm 6:17; 7:2). The ark disappears sometime during the late monarchical period; its capture is not listed in the temple assets seized by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kg 25:13–17). The ark is never replaced after the return from the Babylonian exile, and Jeremiah declares that the ark should not be remade (Jr 3:16).

Army The army of Israel is primarily a volunteer military force directed by God and his word. Deuteronomy 20 establishes the guidelines for warfare, Nm 1 describes organization, and Nm 2:17 highlights God’s strategic position as commander in the sacred event of war. Israelite warriors are men twenty years and older from the nation’s tribes, clans, and families. The Levites are appointed tabernacle caretakers and not counted in the census for military duties. The priest is responsible for addressing the nation prior to a battle and then leading the battle procession in connection with the ark of the covenant.

The Israelite army structure is not overly developed in the biblical material. Under God as commander in chief is the king, who then works in connection with his commanders and officers to execute God’s will by means of a tribal confederation. Prior to the monarchy, God works through Moses and Joshua to rally the men for battle. Samuel warns the nation that the king will abuse the volunteerism of the army and take their sons and make them render military service with his chariots and horses (1 Sm 8:11–12). This warning is realized under the leadership of Solomon and Rehoboam. Army divisions include a list of family heads, commanders of thousands, commanders of hundreds, and their officers. In addition, a period of their service is noted (1 Ch 27).

Army size is not a matter of importance for success in battle. God as divine warrior leads the nation in battle and determines the outcome in keeping with his sovereign purposes. Only a few Israelites are necessary to defeat thousands (Lv 26:8; Dt 32:8). The defeat of Pharaoh and his army in the exodus and the conquest provide the most dramatic premonarchy illustrations of God’s defiance of the numbers. During the monarchy, God orchestrates the defeat of the vast Aramean army with a smaller Israelite army (1 Kg 20:27). On the other hand, when the Israelites are disobedient to the covenant, they will be put to flight (Jos 7).

Artaxerxes Artaxerxes I was the fourth king of the Persian Empire (464–424 BC). An appeal by provincial officials to Artaxerxes at the beginning of his reign brings a halt to an early attempt to repair the walls of Jerusalem (Ezr 4:7–23). Ezra goes up to Jerusalem in the seventh year of his reign (458 BC; Ezr 7:7). The appearance of beneficence in Artaxerxes’s decree (Neh 7:11–26) is spoiled by the revelation of the self-serving political motivation behind its apparent generosity (Neh 7:23). Ezra’s nonuse of the sweeping powers given to him by Artaxerxes further suggests that Persian royal assistance might not be the kind of help really needed by God’s people. Nehemiah returns to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes’s reign (445 BC; Neh 1:1). The positive impression made on the reader by Artaxerxes’s personal favoritism toward Nehemiah, allowing him to return to rebuild the walls of his native city, Jerusalem (Neh 2:3, 5), is undercut by Nehemiah’s disparagement of his royal master (1:11). Nehemiah’s second mission takes place sometime later than the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes’s reign (Neh 5:14; 13:6) but before the king’s death.

Ascension The visible and bodily ascent of Jesus from earth to heaven concluding his earthly ministry, which then continues through the promised Holy Spirit, given at Pentecost. A detailed historical account of the ascension is given only by Luke (Lk 24:51; Ac 1:4–11 [cf. Mk 16:19]). The event, however, is anticipated in John’s Gospel (Jn 6:62; 20:17).

The ascension is frequently implied throughout the NT by reference to the complex of events that begins with the death of Jesus and ends with him being seated at the right hand of God in glory. Paul writes of Christ’s ascent to the heavenly realms as the beginning of his cosmic reign (Eph 1:20–23) and the basis for holy living (Col 3:1–4; 1 Tm 3:16). In Hebrews, the ascension is a crucial stage that marks off the completed work of Jesus on earth (Heb 9:24–26) from his continuing work in heaven as our great high priest (Heb 4:14–16; 7:25). Peter makes the most direct reference to the ascension, explaining that Jesus is resurrected and “has gone into heaven” (1 Pt 3:22). Just as Jesus has been vindicated by God, so too will his people be.

Ashdod One of five principal cities of the Philistines (Jos 13:3). Ashdod was situated in the coastal plain of Canaan, roughly two and one-half miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea, near the main coastal route sometimes called the “Way of the Philistines.”

Ashdod is mentioned in relation to both the overall success of the Israelite conquest of Canaan (Jos 11:22; the feared Anakim remain only in Philistine territory [see Nm 13:28]) and its unfinished nature (Jos 13:3). Joshua 15:46–47 lists Ashdod in the territory allotted to Judah. That this territory remains largely unconquered by Israel features prominently in the narrative of Judges and Samuel. When the ark of the covenant is captured by the Philistines (1 Sm 4), it is taken to Dagon’s temple at Ashdod (1 Sm 5:1–2).

Asherah A cult object as well as a goddess attested throughout the Levant. In the OT, “Asherah” refers primarily to a wooden religious object (see Dt 16:21). That these were objects and not trees is evident from descriptions of their being “made” (1 Kg 14:15) and “built” (1 Kg 14:23). The Israelites were instructed to destroy the Asherah poles upon entering Canaan (Ex 34:13; also Dt 7:5; 12:3). Instead, they fashioned their own (1 Kg 14:15, 23), assimilating them into worship of Yahweh (2 Kg 23:6). Later efforts at removing the poles were sporadic and temporary (compare 2 Kg 18:4 with 2 Kg 21:3, 7).

In a handful of instances, “Asherah” denotes a deity. In Jdg 3:7 “the Asherahs” (here indicating “goddesses”) is grammatically parallel to “the Baals”; likewise “Asherah” corresponds to “Baal” in 2 Kg 23:4, designating a specific deity. In 1 Kg 18:19 Elijah speaks of the “prophets of Asherah,” who presumably speak in the goddess’s name.

Ashkelon One of five principal cities of the Philistines (Jos 13:3). It was situated approximately midway between Ashdod (north) and Gaza (south) on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

Ashkelon is listed among the territory still to be conquered at the end of Joshua’s life (Jos 13:3). Judah takes the city but ultimately is unable to keep it (Jdg 1:18–19). The OT subsequently reckons Ashkelon as part of Philistine territory, beginning with Jdg 14:19, which recounts one of Samson’s exploits.

Ashkelon shares in the affliction visited on the Philistines for taking the ark of the covenant, which they attempt to forestall by reparations or “sympathetic magic” (1 Sm 6:17 [the “gold tumors” are likely meant to bear away the source of the Philistines’ suffering]). Ashkelon and Gath represent the Philistines overall as David anticipates their response to news of Saul’s and Jonathan’s deaths (2 Sm 1:20).

Ashtoreth A goddess attested in Syrophoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt. In the Bible, the singular form, “Ashtoreth,” occurs exclusively in connection with “the goddess of the Sidonians,” whom Solomon worships (1 Kg 11:5, 31, 33). Josiah later destroys the shrine that Solomon built for Ashtoreth (2 Kg 23:13). “Ashtoreths,” the plural form of the deity’s name, broadly designates goddesses whom Israel pursues rather than Yahweh. It typically occurs in conjunction with “the Baals” (Jdg 2:13; 1 Sm 12:10) or with the gods of neighboring peoples (Jdg 10:6; 1 Sm 7:3). In 1 Sm 31:10 is mentioned a Philistine temple devoted to “the Ashtoreths.”

In Ugarit, Ashtoreth was known as Astarte, El’s daughter and Baal’s consort or counterpart. Astarte is identified with the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar in pantheon lists. She is often seen as a fertility goddess. In Egypt, adoption of Semitic deities such as Astarte became widespread during the New Kingdom period (after 1570 BC). Among the Phoenicians, veneration of Astarte was also widespread. She became the predominant female deity at Tyre and Sidon, overshadowing devotion to Asherah.

Ashurbanipal In 668 BC Ashurbanipal (Osnappar is the Aramaic equivalent; Ezr 4:10; see the CSB footnote) succeeded his father, Esar-haddon, in Assyria, while his brother Shamash-shum-ukin became the ruler of Babylon. Esar-haddon had made his vassals swear loyalty to the two sons before his death. They were able to rule peacefully alongside each other for seventeen years, with Ashurbanipal as the superior. Then a civil war broke out between them in 651 BC, which Ashurbanipal won, though at great cost. Less is known of him after this victory, and perhaps the decline of Assyria begins at that point.

Early in his reign he conquered Egypt as far south as Thebes, while to the east he defeated the Medes, which helped pave the way for the rise of the Persians. He may be the king who captured Manasseh (2 Ch 33:11–12).

Atonement In Christian theology, atonement concerns how the death of Christ on the cross achieved reconciliation between God and sinful humanity. The need for atonement comes from the separation that has come about between God and humanity. Because of human fallenness, a sacrifice for sin is necessary to avert condemnation and restore people to God. In both Testaments there is the understanding that God has distanced himself from his creatures on account of their rebellion (e.g., Is 59:2; Rm 5:10). Atonement is the means provided by God to effect reconciliation. The atonement is required on account of God’s holiness and justice. Old covenant sacrifices made provisional atonement, looking forward to the work of Christ: his death brought propitiation, expiation, redemption, and reconciliation.

There are various models of the atonement in Christian theology. (1) Penal substitution: Christ died in the place of sinners to pay the penalty for their sin. (2) Satisfaction: Christ’s death restored the honor of which God had been robbed through people’s sin. (3) Cosmic victory: Christ defeated Satan and triumphed over all created things.

Authority The prerogative possessed by God, people, or institutions to establish laws, give orders, demand obedience, and mete out rewards and punishments. Because God is the sovereign King, he is the source of authority in the creation; indeed, all human authority derives from him (Rm 13:1–2; 1 Pt 2:13–17). Ideally, human authority reflects divine authority, being oriented toward human flourishing. Christians are to pray for the increase of this authority (1 Tm 2:1–2). When authority is abused and oriented toward evil, Christians are to follow Jesus’s example and submit to those over them (1 Pt 2:18–25) while standing against injustice.

Authority of Scripture A property of Scripture whereby it possesses the right to command what believers are to do and prohibit what they are not to do, so that believers should not only hear the Word but also do as it instructs (Jms 1:22). Such authority is a corollary of inspiration: because God is its author, Scripture possesses divine authority. Evidences of biblical authority include the prophets’ messages (e.g., “This is the Lord’s declaration,” Is 41:14), Jesus’s attitude toward the Bible (“The Scripture cannot be broken,” Jn 10:35), and Paul’s consciousness of writing from divine imperative (1 Th 4:1–2).

Avenger of Blood One who avenges (repays) the death of a murdered relative by executing the murderer (Nm 35:19). This is in line with the OT principle of “eye for eye” and “tooth for tooth” (Ex 21:24; Lv 24:20; Dt 19:21). Punishment is to be in proportion to the degree and severity of a crime. In the NT, this role of justice is assigned to government authorities (Rm 13:4).

The procedure for justice for the avenger of blood is found in Nm 35:9–27; Dt 19:11–13; Jos 20. If a person is found guilty of intentional murder on the testimony of two or three witnesses (Dt 17:6; 19:15), the avenger of blood serves as executioner. In cases of accidental manslaughter, the accused can flee to one of six cities of refuge, where the city assembly will judge the case and provide protection from the avenger of blood (Nm 35:6–34; Dt 4:41–43; 19:1–14; Jos 20:1–9). Numbers 35:12 designates that “you will have the cities as a refuge from the avenger, so that the one who kills someone will not die until he stands trial before the assembly” (cf. Jos 20:9). Deuteronomy 19:4–7 explains the necessity of this protection: the avenger may be filled with rage and take revenge without concern for whether the death was accidental or intentional. If the accused leaves the city of refuge, the avenger of blood can take his life (Nm 35:27). This holds true until the death of the high priest, at which time the accused can leave the city without fear of reprisal. The primary purpose of the laws related to the avenger of blood is to provide consistent justice and so reduce blood feuds and continued cycles of retaliation and revenge.

Azazel The Hebrew word azazel occurs four times in Lv 16 (vv. 8, 10 [2x], 26) but appears nowhere else in the Bible. The precise meaning of this term is difficult to determine with certainty, and there is no consensus regarding how it is to be translated. There are three major views on how to understand this term: (1) Azazel could be a compound word combining a word for “goat” with a word that means “to go away.” Thus the meaning would be “the goat that goes away.” The Septuagint, an ancient Greek translation of the OT, translated azazel with a Greek word that means “the one to be sent off.” Leviticus 16:21–22 explains that Aaron was to place his hands on this goat’s head, confess Israel’s sin, and then have the goat sent away. The English word “scapegoat” can be used to communicate this meaning: the goat that carries away the sin of Israel. (2) Azazel could be the name of a “demon of the wilderness.” In this case azazel would be translated as a proper name (Azazel). Yet note that Lv 16:22 just says that the goat is to be released in a desolate area; there is no mention of offering the goat to a demon. Thus this option is unlikely. (3) Azazel could be understood as meaning “jagged rocks” or “steep cliff”; azazel thus refers to the location to which the goat will go. Leviticus 16:22 adds some additional clarification as to the destination of the goat (“to a desolate land”). Combining the nuances of “jagged rocks” with “desolate land” leads to a translation such as “uninhabitable place.” Thus Leviticus 16:8 would be designating one goat for the Lord and one for an uninhabitable place.

Azekah Between the hill country of Judah and the coastal plain lies a range of rolling hills cut through by valleys. Toward the western end of the Valley of Elah stands the strategic location of Azekah.

As Joshua and the Israelites routed the Jerusalem confederation (Jos 10), the enemies of Israel fled westward from the central Benjamin plateau, through the Valley of Aijalon, and south beyond Azekah. Some centuries later, the Philistines on the coast sought to expand their control into the hill country; they camped on the south side of the Valley of Elah between Socoh and Azekah, opposite the Israelites. After David killed the Philistine champion, Goliath, the Philistines fled west past Azekah toward Ekron (1 Sm 17).

After Solomon’s death, Rehoboam fortified a ring of cities to protect the southern kingdom, including Azekah (2 Ch 11:5–12). At the end of the Judean monarchy, the Babylonians attacked Jerusalem and the other cities that were still holding out. Lachish and Azekah were the only fortified cities left in Judah (Jr 34:6–7).

Baal “Baal,” meaning “lord,” was a proper name for a deity perhaps as early as the third millennium BC. Second millennium texts from the ancient city of Ugarit depict Baal as a god of weather and storm whose provision of precipitation ensures the seasonal cycles of crops. The Baal Cycle from Ugarit also depicts him defeating Yamm, the god of the sea, and Mot, the god of death.

Some of these associations shed light on polemics against Baal in the OT. Yahweh’s withholding rain at Elijah’s request (1 Kg 17:1), for example, undermines Baal’s claim to control the weather. Further, descriptions of Yahweh as a storm god, such as Ps 29, may be understood as polemical statements that Yahweh, not Baal, is the one who really controls the storm.

The worship of Baal alongside Yahweh receives official sponsorship in Israel under Ahab (1 Kg 16:31–33) and in Judah under Manasseh (2 Kg 10:18–27). The worship of this deity is grounds for the exile of Israel (2 Kg 17:16).

Babylon Babylon (Babel) was the capital city of Babylonia, an ancient kingdom located in Mesopotamia, the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, an area now in the modern country of Iraq. The city of Babylon was located on the banks of the Euphrates River, about fifty-five miles from the modern city of Baghdad. Babylon plays a major role in the Bible, especially during the time of the OT prophets. Babylon also appears at the very beginning of the biblical story (Gn 10–11) as well as at the very end (Rv 14; 16–18; cf. 1 Pt 5:13).

Genesis 10:10 states that Babylon was one of the first centers of the kingdom of the mighty warrior Nimrod. A better-known incident in Genesis is the story about the tower of Babylon (Gn 11:1–9). Thus, the city of Babylon carries negative connotations from the beginning of the biblical story as a symbol of human arrogance and rebellion against God. Later in Israel’s history the city of Babylon will continue to have negative associations.

The books of 1–2 Kings tell the tragic story of how Israel and Judah turn away from God. The northern kingdom, Israel, is thus destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BC. However, the southern kingdom, Judah, continues to worship pagan gods. Prophets such as Jeremiah repeatedly proclaim that if Judah and Jerusalem do not repent and turn from their idolatry and acts of injustice, then God will send the Babylonians to destroy them (see esp. Jr 20–39). Jeremiah personally experiences the terrible Babylonian siege and destruction of Jerusalem (Jr 39; 52; cf. 2 Kg 24–25). Thus, in 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar and his army completely destroy Jerusalem, burning the city and the temple to the ground and carrying off most of the population into exile in Babylonia.

Babylon appears in the OT prophetic literature in another context as well. The prophets preach judgment on Israel and Judah for their apostasy, but they also preach judgment on the enemies of Israel and Judah for exploiting or attacking and destroying God’s people. Jeremiah, for example, prophesies against numerous nations and cities (Jr 46–49), but he focuses especially on Babylon (Jr 50:1–51:58).

Babylon appears again at the end of the biblical story. In Rv 17–18 John describes the enemy of God’s kingdom as a harlot dressed in scarlet and riding on a beast. One of the titles written on her head is “BABYLON THE GREAT” (17:5). Many scholars maintain that the harlot of Rv 17–18 symbolizes ancient Rome, not a modern rebuilt Babylon. They argue that the term “Babylon” is used symbolically in Revelation. Supporting this view is the apostle Peter’s apparent use of the term “Babylon” to refer to Rome in 1 Pt 5:13 (“she who is in Babylon . . . sends you greetings”). Most NT scholars conclude that in this verse “she” is a reference to the church and that “Babylon” is a coded or symbolic reference to Rome.

Balaam Toward the end of the forty years of wandering in the wilderness, Moses leads the people of Israel to the plains of Moab, across the Jordan from Jericho (Nm 22:1). From this place, Israel would soon cross into the promised land. However, Israel has just defeated Sihon and Og (Nm 21:21–35), two Transjordanian kings, putting fear in the minds of the Moabites and their king, Balak.

To counteract the threat, Balak tries to enlist the aid of a well-known diviner, Balaam, who lives in Pethor, a site in northwest Mesopotamia (Nm 22:5). The king wants to weaken Israel by having Balaam curse the Israelites. Balaam at first refuses to go with the Moabite messengers, but after being enticed by an even bigger payment, he leaves for Moab. At Balak’s urging, he tries to curse Israel four times, but each time he delivers an oracle of blessing. The final oracle directed to Israel (Nm 23:15–19) contains the most memorable words of Balaam as he predicts, “A star will come from Jacob, and a scepter will arise from Israel” (Nm 24:17), which comes to fulfillment in the rise of the Davidic dynasty.

Later Scripture holds him up as a negative example of a false teacher who cares about only money (Jd 11; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). The Israelites kill him along with many other Midianites (Nm 31:8).

Banner A flag, streamer, emblem, or carved object raised on a pole. On the ancient battlefield, raised banners and blown trumpets served as the primary tools for mass communication. They could indicate troop movements and serve as rallying points (Is 18:3). Once the battle was won, banners proclaimed victory. Cloth banners usually were colored and carried symbols to represent a particular group, whether it was a military unit, clan, tribe, or nation (Nm 2:2; cf. Ps 60:4).

The earliest reference to a banner in the Bible occurs after the Israelites defeat the Amalekites at Rephidim. To commemorate the victory, Moses builds an altar and names it “The Lord Is My Banner” (Ex 17:15). In Numbers, when Moses places the bronze serpent on a pole, he raises it as a banner for the Israelites to look upon it and be healed (Nm 21:8). Jesus draws a parallel between the raised serpent and the raising up of the Son of Man (Jn 3:14); metaphorically, Jesus is a banner lifted up to proclaim salvation for the world. An interesting use of “banner” is in Sg 6:4, where the woman is described as “awe-inspiring as an army with banners.” The man is so in awe of his beloved that it mesmerizes him and causes his heart to race.

Banquet A banquet is a joyful celebration of a special occasion, usually involving wine, abundant food, music, and dancing (e.g., Gn 14:18–19; 26:26–30; 29:22; 1 Ch 12:28–40; 2 Ch 7:8; Ps 23:5; Mk 6:21; Lk 15:23–24; Jn 2:1–11; Rv 19:9). Banquets also symbolize one’s status and wealth, since they are by invitation only, and the seating arrangement corresponds to social status (Lk 14:8–9).

In the OT, the image of a banquet anticipates a future occasion when God will remove the reproach of his people (Is 25:6). It also becomes a metaphor for special access to God, who protects, blesses, and honors his people (Ps 23:5). The plot of the book of Esther revolves around banquets, culminating with a great banquet that is the prototype for an annual banquet celebrating the Jews’ victory over their enemies, Purim (Est 9:2–32).

Jesus uses the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (Mt 9:14–17; Lk 14:15–24), especially through the parable of a king who has planned a wedding banquet for his son (Mt 22:1–10). Jesus also uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final future manifestation of the kingdom (Mt 25:1–13). At the Last Supper, he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing bread and wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and to anticipate his future coming (Mt 26:26–29). This future banquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, the church (Rv 19:6–9).

Baptism The initiatory ritual of Christianity. Baptism carries an equal measure of symbolism and tradition, evoking a connection between OT covenantal circumcision and ritual cleansing and NT regeneration and redemption.

The immediate precursor of Christian baptism is the baptism of John the Baptist (Mk 1:4). The origins of John’s rite of baptism for the forgiveness of sins are obscure. Jews practiced ritual washings before worship or in the reception of proselytes. These, however, were self-washings and were practiced repeatedly, whereas John’s baptism was once for all and administered by a second party. John’s baptism thus signified an action of God and the moral and spiritual regeneration necessary to enter into a covenant relationship with God in preparation for the coming of the Messiah.

When Jesus himself is baptized by John to allow Jesus to identify with sinful humanity, Jesus becomes the firstfruits of the new covenant (Mt 3:13–17; Mk 1:9–11; Lk 3:21–22; cf. Jn 1:29–34). John emphasizes that his baptism with water is inferior to the baptism that Jesus brings (Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16; cf. Mk 1:7; Jn 1:27). Jesus’s disciples continue John’s baptism during his earthly ministry (Jn 4:1–2).

Baptism is important in the early church. Jesus commands the disciples to “make disciples . . . , baptizing them” (Mt 28:19). Peter’s first sermon proclaims, “Repent and be baptized” (Ac 2:38). The apostles baptize new believers in Christ immediately (Ac 8:12–13, 38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:15, 33; 18:8; 19:5; 22:16). For the apostle Paul, baptism represents a participation in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rm 6:3–4; Col 2:11–12).

Baptism in the Spirit The outpouring of the Spirit that is prophesied in the OT to take place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of the Messiah. The OT prophets speak of both the Spirit of God coming upon the Messiah (e.g., Is 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out of the Spirit in the last days (e.g., Is 32:15; 44:3; Ezk 36:27; 37:14; 39:29; Jl 2:28).

John the Baptist predicts that Jesus will baptize people with the Spirit (or the Spirit and fire, Mt 3:11; Lk 3:16) in contrast to his own water baptism (Mk 1:8; Jn 1:33). Jesus later predicts that the disciples will receive Spirit baptism (Ac 1:5), which occurs at Pentecost when tongues of fire rest on each of them and they are filled with the Holy Spirit and speak in other tongues (Ac 2). Peter connects the giving of the Spirit with Jesus’s being received by the Father and being granted messianic authority (Ac 2:33–38). The experience of Cornelius in particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Ac 10:45) with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16). In 1 Co 12:13, Paul says, “For we were all baptized by one Spirit into one body.” Thus, Christians form one body through their common experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

Barrenness A barren woman is one who is infertile and without children. The biblical world placed great value on the blessing of having children. Being without children brought despair. This can be seen in Rachel’s despondent plea (Gn 30:1) and in the fact that wives would offer a servant in their place to bear a child (Gn 16:3; 30:3, 9).

In most of the stories about women and infertility, God reverses their circumstances: Sarah (Gn 11:30), Rebekah (Gn 25:21), Rachel (Gn 30:22), Samson’s mother (Jdg 13:2–3), Hannah (1 Sm 1:2), the Shunammite (2 Kg 4:16), and Elizabeth (Lk 1:7). For Michal, barrenness appears as a punishment (2 Sm 6:23).

Bashan Bashan lay in the Transjordan, to the east and northeast of the Sea of Galilee and north of Gilead. It was a high plateau (Ps 68:15), proverbial for oak forests (Is 2:13; 33:9; Ezk 27:6; Zch 11:2) and fat livestock (Dt 32:14; Ps 22:12; Ezk 39:18; Am 4:1). After Israel’s defeat of King Og of Bashan (Nm 21:31–35; Dt 3:1–11), Bashan was allocated to Manasseh (Nm 32:33). Israel retained Bashan until Solomon’s time (1 Kg 4:13), but later it became disputed territory (2 Kg 10:32–33). The prophets longed for a permanent return to its pasturelands (Ps 68:22; Jr 5:19; Mc 7:14).

Beer-sheba Located in the biblical Negev, this city is significant for the patriarchs and continues as the recognized southern boundary of the political entity of Israel. Beer-sheba means both “well of the seven” and “well of the oath.” The narrative of the encounters between Abraham and the Philistine leaders, having to do with water rights, incorporates both meanings of sheba (Gn 21:22–34; cf. 26:12–33). When Abimelech’s servants seize a well that Abraham has dug, Abraham offers seven lambs to Abimelech, and the two make a treaty. Abraham remains there for a long time, returning to Beer-sheba after the test on Mount Moriah (Gn 22:19). Beer-sheba continues to be a center for the seminomadic patriarchs. Isaac lives there with his family; after Jacob tricks Esau out of Isaac’s blessing, Jacob leaves Beer-sheba and heads for Haran (Gn 28:10). Near the end of his life, as he sets out for Egypt, Jacob stops in Beer-sheba (Gn 46:1–5).

From the period of the judges until the end of the united monarchy, the expression “from Dan to Beer-sheba” indicates the extent from north to south of Israel (e.g., Jdg 20:1; 1 Sm 3:20; 2 Sm 3:10). After the secession and demise of the northern kingdom, Beer-sheba still indicates the southern boundary (e.g., 2 Ch 19:4; 30:5). In the postexilic period the people of Judah inhabit territory from Beer-sheba to the Hinnom Valley (Neh 11:27–30).

Bel Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, became the chief god of the pantheon, and he was given the title “Bel.” Consequently, the term became interchangeable with his name. Bel occurs three times in the Bible, all of them within the context of the prophetic condemnation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (Is 46:1; Jr 50:2; 51:44). Thus, in Scripture Bel stands as a representative of Babylon and its rulers.

Belial The Greek word translated “Belial” occurs in the NT only once (2 Co 6:15). The related Hebrew word has a mythological connotation in the OT associated with Sheol, chaos, and death (2 Sm 22:5; Ps 18:4; cf. Ps 41:8), and it could also mean “worthlessness,” “ruin,” or “wickedness” (1 Sm 25:25). The term is widely attested in Second Temple Jewish literature, referring to God’s archenemy, whose domain is darkness. Paul employs this conviction to show that the eschatological conflict is between Christ, who is the light, and Belial, who is the darkness (2 Co 6:15; cf. 2 Co 4:4).

Benediction Literally the “good word” that activates for its recipients such divine benefits as keeping, favor, grace, and peace (Nm 6:24–27). Whether invoked by fathers (Gn 27; 2 Sm 6:20), priests (Gn 14:18–19; Lv 9:22), or the community (Ru 2:4), benedictions signal God’s rule over all of life, as does Jesus’s command to bless our enemies. In the NT, benedictions may be condensed (“Grace be with you”) or expanded with divine references and joined to doxologies or prayers (Col 1:2–14; 4:13).

Beth-aven A village close to Ai and Bethel (Jos 7:2). The wilderness of Beth-aven also serves as a boundary marker for the tribe of Benjamin (Jos 18:12). By the time of the prophet Hosea (Hs 4:15; 5:8; 10:5), the term “Beth-aven” has become a derogatory epithet used for the pagan shrine built at Bethel. Hosea indicates that because of its idolatry and rebellion against God, Bethel (“House of God”) has become Beth-aven (“House of Iniquity”).

Bethel Bethel’s situation and importance are explained by its copious springs and its location at the intersection of major north–south and east–west highways.

In Gn 12:8, on his entry into the promised land Abram camps “east of Bethel” and erects an altar there. On his return from a stay in Egypt, Abram again camps at that spot and worships (Gn 13:3). Jacob gives the location (formerly Luz) the name Bethel, meaning “God’s House,” due to the dream he receives there Gn (28:10–19). God later speaks to Jacob, identifying himself as “the God of Bethel,” instructing him to return to his native land (Gn 31:13). Later God specifically instructs Jacob to settle in Bethel (Gn 35:1–6). Deborah, Rebekah’s nurse, dies in Bethel and is buried there (Gn 35:8). God appears to Jacob a second time in Bethel, reiterating the promise to give him the land of Canaan (Gn 35:9–15; cf. 28:13).

Bethel is mentioned in the account of Joshua’s capture of Ai (Jos 7). The king of Bethel is listed as defeated by Joshua (Jos 12:16). The city is apportioned to Benjamin (Jos 18:13, 22), but the Canaanites repopulate it after the near extinction of this tribe (Jdg 20–21). Bethel is reconquered and incorporated into Ephraimite territory (Jdg 1:22–25; 1 Ch 7:28), and later it becomes a fortress on its southern tribal border. Under the judgeship of Samuel, Bethel is a regular stop in his yearly circuit (1 Sm 7:16) and continues throughout this period to be a sanctuary where offerings are made (see 1 Sm 10:3). This long-term religious association explains the choice of Bethel as one of the two chief sanctuaries of the northern kingdom, the other center being in Dan (1 Kg 12:26–33).

The southern king Abijah captures Bethel from Israel (2 Ch 13:19), but then it later returns to northern control. The unnamed “man of God” in 1 Kg 13 predicts the destruction of the Bethel altar by King Josiah (1 Kg 13:1–3; cf. 2 Kg 23:4, 15–18). Bethel is visited by Elijah before his translation to heaven (2 Kg 2:2–4), and a company of prophets dwells there. Elisha revisits Bethel after his master’s translation (2 Kg 2:23–25).

Hosea condemns the great wickedness of Bethel, presumably because of false worship (Hs 10:15), but more positively, he recalls that God talked with the patriarch Jacob there (Hs 12:4). Jeremiah explains the sad fate of Israel to be a result of their trust in Bethel (Jr 48:13). Amos ironically calls to the people, “Come to Bethel and rebel” (Am 4:4), but later he drops the irony and predicts its destruction (Am 5:6; cf. 3:14). Amos is told to no longer prophesy in Bethel because it is where the king takes sanctuary (Am 7:10–17).

The city is destroyed by the Assyrians about the time of their capture of Samaria (722 BC), but the shrine is revived at the close of the Assyrian period by the foreign peoples deported to the area (2 Kg 17:24–41). Some descendants of the inhabitants of Bethel are among those who return from Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:28; Neh 7:32), and these Benjamite returnees resettle in their hometown (Neh 11:31).

Beth-horon A city allotted by Joshua to the Levites (Jos 21:22). The city was divided into two parts, Lower Beth-horon and Upper Beth-horon. The twin city of Beth-horon, first mentioned in Jos 10:10–11, is located in the mountains of Judah in the Valley of Aijalon. During the Israelite conquest of the land, many Amorites are killed at Gibeon and others pursued as far as Beth-horon. In the distribution of the land, Lower Beth-horon is allotted to Ephraim, while Upper Beth-horon is on the border between Ephraim and Benjamin (Jos 16:3, 5; 18:13–14). During Solomon’s reign, Beth-horon is rebuilt after being burned by the Egyptians during one of their northern incursions (1 Kg 9:15–17).

The Chronicler reveals that the city was built by Sheerah, granddaughter of Ephraim (1 Ch 7:24). Lower and Upper Beth-horon are described as “fortified cities with walls, gates, and bars” (2 Ch 8:5). The last mention of Beth-horon is made in conjunction with some Israelite troops who killed three thousand Judeans from Samaria to Beth-horon (2 Ch 25:13).

Bethlehem The well-known town about four miles south of Jerusalem in Judah, situated on a couple of hills about 2,300 feet above sea level. The ancient name was Ephrath or Ephrathah (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ru 4:11; Mc 5:2).

Bethlehem first enters biblical history when Jacob’s wife Rachel dies there while giving birth to Benjamin (Gn 35:16–19). After the conquest, the town is inhabited by Ephrathites descended from Caleb, one of whom “fathered Bethlehem” (in the sense of being a civic leader; 1 Ch 2:51; 4:4; cf. 2:54). It is from Bethlehem that Elimelech’s family sets out for Moab (Ru 1:1), and to Bethlehem that Ruth and Naomi return (Ru 1:22). Two generations later, it is into this same family that the future king David is born (Ru 4:18–22; 1 Sm 16:1).

Bethlehem is mentioned frequently as David’s hometown (e.g., 1 Sm 17:12, 58; 20:6). Bethlehem is later fortified by David’s grandson Rehoboam (2 Ch 11:6). In the eighth century the prophet Micah promises that although Judah’s defeat is inevitable, a new king will arise from this otherwise insignificant town to save the whole of Israel (Mc 5:2). Both the place and the clan retain their identity through the exile, and 123 men of Bethlehem return to Judah (Ezr 2:21; see also Neh 7:26).

Luke stresses that Jesus is born in David’s city (Lk 2:4; cf. 2 Sm 7:12–16); Joseph has taken Mary to his ancestral home, Bethlehem, for a Roman census. The angels announce Jesus’s birth to some shepherds in the vicinity of town (Lk 2:1–20). Matthew makes a more specific connection to Micah’s prophecy; indeed, it is on the basis of this prophecy that Herod decides where to send the magi (Mt 2:1–8) and where to slaughter the baby boys (Mt 2:16). Matthew sees in this slaughter a fulfillment of Jeremiah’s prophecy that Rachel, who died at Bethlehem, would mourn her children (Mt 2:18; Jr 31:15). Ironically, some Jews reject Jesus because he comes from Galilee (Jn 7:42).

Bethsaida A town located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, near the Jordan River, about five miles east of Capernaum, although the precise location is disputed.

Bethsaida is the third-most-mentioned town in the Gospels, and it is at the heart of Jesus’s ministry. It is the birthplace of Peter and Andrew and the home of Philip (Jn 1:44; 12:21). Jesus performs several miracles at or near the town. Near Bethsaida Jesus walks on water (Mk 6:45–52) and feeds the five thousand (Mk 6:30–44; Lk 9:10–17). In Bethsaida Jesus heals a blind man (Mk 8:22–26). Unfortunately, the miracles do not seem to have much effect on the inhabitants, and in Mt 11:21 (cf. Lk 10:13) Jesus denounces the city along with Chorazin for its lack of repentance.

Beth-shean Beth-shean (also Beth-shan) is first mentioned in the Bible in connection with Joshua’s division of the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. Although located within the territory of Issachar, it is portioned to the tribe of Manasseh (Jos 17:11) but remains under the control of the Canaanite inhabitants because they possess iron chariots. When the Israelites gain strength, they put the Canaanites to forced labor but do not drive them out (Jos 17:12–13, 16; Jdg 1:27).

During the period of the monarchy, after the Israelites are defeated in battle on Mount Gilboa, the Philistines fasten the bodies of Saul and his three sons to the wall of Beth-shean and place Saul’s weapons in the temple of Ashtaroth. When news of this atrocity spreads, men from Jabesh-gilead retrieve the bodies and bury them (1 Sm 31:7–13). David later retrieves the bones of Saul and his sons and reburies them in Zela (2 Sm 21:14). Although Beth-shean was under the control of the Philistines during Saul’s reign, it is listed within one of Solomon’s administrative districts (1 Kg 4:12).

Beth-shemesh The name Beth-shemesh means “House of the Sun,” which suggests the presence of a temple to a sun god at that location. A city allocated to the tribe of Dan, in Jos 19:41 it is called “Ir-shemesh,” which means “City of Shemesh.” It is also described as being located on the northern boundary of Judah (Jos 15:10), as one of the cities that Judah allots to the Levites (Jos 21:16), and as being “in Judah” (2 Kg 14:11). Beth-shemesh is best known for its role in the story of the Philistine capture of the ark of the covenant (1 Sm 6).

Beth-togarmah A place mentioned twice in Ezekiel. First, Beth-togarmah appears as one of several trading partners of the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezk 27:14); Beth-togarmah’s goods were “horses, war horses, and mules.” Second, Beth-togarmah, “from the far north,” is named as one of the military allies of Gog of Magog (Ezk 38:6). Scholars generally identify Beth-togarmah with Armenia. Togarmah, who settled in the area subsequently known as Beth-togarmah, was a son of Gomer and a great-grandson of Noah (Gn 10:3; 1 Ch 1:6).

Bildad Bildad is the second of Job’s friends introduced in Jb 2:11, where he is said to come from an otherwise unknown place, Shuah. Bildad’s speeches reflect his staunch conviction that God deals with people (including Job) exclusively through the principle of retributive justice: God punishes sin and rewards good.

Birthright The birthright consists of the material blessings of a father being passed on to his sons. By right, the oldest son received a double portion of the inheritance received by the children (Gn 25:29–34; Dt 21:15–17; Lk 15:11–32). The birthright is often connected to, but needs to be distinguished from, the blessing. The blessing generally involved more of a focus on a spiritual allotment, but it crossed paths with the birthright with respect to future leadership and authority of the person (Gn 27; 49). Royal succession was also a birthright, though God could countermand this privilege (1 Kg 2:15; 2 Ch 21:3).

In the NT, Jesus’s birthright includes the throne of David, a position of honor as God’s unique Son, and creation itself (Rm 8:29; Col 1:18; Heb 1:4–6). The low regard with which Esau viewed his birthright is also used as a warning in Hebrews to encourage Christians not to take their spiritual inheritance lightly (Heb 12:16–17).

Blasphemy Any contemptuous expression that rejects God’s authority and questions his nature. Blasphemers include wicked enemies who mock God (Pss 10:3, 13; 74:18) and God’s people who reject the authority of his word (Is 1:4; 5:24).

This provides the foundation for the NT material. When the Pharisees wrongfully attribute Jesus’s power to drive out demons to Beelzebul, Jesus declares that every sin and blasphemy will be forgiven, even speaking a word against the Son of Man, but not blaspheming or speaking against the Holy Spirit (Mt 12:22–32). The Spirit’s work is evident in the powerful demonstration they have seen. To attribute Jesus’s work to Satan is a complete affront to the majesty of God.

Stephen is accused of speaking words of blasphemy against Moses and God (Ac 6:11), and Saul of Tarsus, in his vendetta against Christians, goes from one synagogue to another trying to force early Christians to blaspheme (Ac 26:11). Later, knowing that he is “the worst of sinners,” he acknowledges that he was a “blasphemer, a persecutor, and an arrogant man” (1 Tm 1:13–16). Knowing the seriousness of the offense, Paul declares that he handed Hymenaeus and Alexander over to Satan so they would be taught not to blaspheme (1 Tm 1:20).

The source of all blasphemy will make its appearance in the final eschatological confrontation: on the heads of the beast will be a blasphemous name (Rv 13:1; cf. 17:3), and it will utter blasphemy against God, his temple, and his people (13:5, 6). Paul describes this same scenario in 2 Th 2:3–4, where “the man of lawlessness” sets himself up in God’s temple, proclaiming himself to be God. Finally, when the bowls of wrath are poured out on the earth, those who refuse to repent will curse God (Rv 16:9, 11, 21), the final blasphemy.

Blemish The physical defect on a sacrificial animal that makes it an unacceptable offering to the Lord (Lv 22:17–25), or the physical defect on a priest that disqualifies him from performing certain priestly functions (Lv 21:17–24). In the NT, Christ is the once-for-all sacrificial lamb without blemish or defect (1 Pt 1:19). In Christ, Christians are presented to God as holy and without blemish (Eph 5:27; Col 1:22; Heb 9:14; 1 Pt 1:19).

Blindness Blindness was a common ailment in the ancient world. Some causes included old age (Gn 27:1), trauma, or divine punishment (Jn 9:2). Israel is given special instructions to care for the blind (Lv 19:14); misleading them is a serious violation (Dt 27:18).

In figurative language, the Bible frequently describes the spiritual condition of people in terms of blindness. Isaiah capitalizes on the metaphor of blindness to describe rebellious and apostate prophets, priests, and rulers (Is 43:8; 56:10; 59:10; cf. Zph 1:17).

Jesus highlights the onset of the messianic age by fulfilling Isaiah’s promise to proclaim “recovery of sight to the blind” (Lk 4:18). Most references to blindness in the NT are Gospel stories of healing. Because Jesus’s ministry is one of opening blind eyes (cf. Is 42:7, 16, 18), calling the Pharisees “blind guides” is a sharp description (Mt 15:14; 23:16, 24; cf. Jn 9:39–41). Spiritual blindness as applied to unbelievers describes the failure or hard-heartedness of some to accept the true identity of Jesus Christ (2 Co 4:4). Nearsightedness and blindness can also be used to describe believers who have grown dull to the truth (2 Pt 1:9) or tepid in their faith (Rv 3:17).

Bloodguilt The guilt that results from the shedding of innocent blood, the taking of an innocent life (Dt 19:13; 21:9). The person who incurs bloodguilt is considered not only morally but also ritually impure; this impurity attaches not just to the person, for the land is made ritually impure as well. The only way this impurity can be removed is by the execution of the guilty individual (Nm 35:29–34). The person responsible for carrying out the sentence is referred to as the “avenger of blood” (Nm 35:19–27; Dt 19:6–13). This responsibility falls to the slain person’s nearest kin. For those whose taking of innocent life is accidental (manslaughter), there are cities of refuge established to which the accused can flee from the avenger, and a judicial process is set up to determine innocence or guilt.

Boils A skin disease caused by inflammation of hair follicles. Boils are the sixth plague sent by God on the Egyptians (Ex 9:8–12), described as “festering boils” and causing pain. These boils, along with the other plagues, show God’s power so that his name is declared in all the earth (Ex 6:1–7; 9:16). As a contracted skin disease, boils are examined by a priest in order to determine if someone who has them is ritually clean or unclean (Lv 13:18–23). In one case, God hears King Hezekiah’s prayers and heals the boil that has afflicted him (2 Kg 20:7; Is 38:21). Boils are employed as one of the covenant curses for disobedience (Dt 28:27, 35).

Bond A bond typically represents a close relationship in Scripture (Gn 2:24). It can carry positive or negative connotations, as do related words such as “bondage” (Hs 10:10). In the sense of “chains,” bonds literally or figuratively hold a slave to the master or a prisoner to the jail (Is 52:2; Jr 30:8). Spiritually speaking, “bond” may describe the firm covenant relationship between God and his people (Ezk 20:37). In the new covenant, believers are freed from bondage to sin and become Christ’s bondspeople (Rm 6:16–22; cf. 8:21). This relationship with Christ in turn joins Christians to one another; in Ephesians this unity is called “the bond of peace” (Eph 4:3; cf. Col 3:14).

Bones Of the 206 bones that compose the adult skeletal structure, the Bible mentions only a few: rib (Gn 1:21–22), hip (Gn 32:25), skull (Jdg 9:53), jaw (Is 30:28), and legs (Jn 19:31–33). Nevertheless, while bones could be isolated, anatomical description tended more toward a holistic sense so that bones could refer to physical and psychological collapse in laments (Jr 23:9) or to the entire person as a corpse (Gn 50:25; 1 Sm 31:13). Overwhelmingly, however, anatomical “units” are used metaphorically for human emotions or attitudes (Jb 4:14; Pr 12:4; 17:22).

Boundary Marker A boundary marker is a stone or an object used to mark the boundaries of property. Boundary markers are to remain in place over generations (Dt 19:14). Moving a boundary marker is a serious offense; those who move boundary markers are cursed in the same breath as those who dishonor their parents and those who lead the blind astray (Dt 27:16–18). Wisdom literature speaks strongly against those who move boundary markers. Job cites the moving of boundary markers as an indication of the depravity of humankind (Jb 24:1–4). Proverbs assures that God will not allow such an act of theft to go unnoticed (Pr 22:28; 23:10).

Branch In several OT passages the term “branch” is used to describe the coming Messiah, often stressing his descent from King David (Is 4:2; 11:1; Jr 23:5; 33:15; Zch 3:8; 6:12–13). Closely connected to the branch imagery of the Messiah are fruitfulness (Is 4:2; 11:1) and the dual concepts of justice and righteousness (Jr 23:5; 33:15). Zechariah 6:12–13 states that the “Branch,” clothed in majesty, will rebuild the temple and take his seat on the throne to rule. In Rm 11:17–24 Paul uses branch/tree imagery to explain how Israel (the natural branch) and the Gentiles (the ingrafted branch) both relate to the overall plan and people of God (the tree with its roots).

Breastpiece of the High Priest A pouch, nine inches square, woven of the same colorful material as the ephod. Gold rings were attached to each corner so that it could be firmly fastened to the ephod with gold cords at the top and blue cords at the bottom. Mounted on its front, in four rows, were twelve precious stones engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel and mounted in gold settings. Since it held the Urim and Thummim by which God revealed his judgments for Israel, it was sometimes called the “breastpiece of judgment.” By wearing it, the high priest signified that he bore the names of all the tribes whenever he entered God’s presence and that he would bring God’s judgments or announce his will to the people (Ex 28:15–30; 39:8–21).

Breath In the OT, the Hebrew words ruah (“breath, spirit”) and neshamah (“blast, spirit”) are the standard terms, even collectively translated “wind.” “Breath/wind” is the invasive power of God—proof of his supremacy—capable of disruption or transformation of human life.

In the OT, human flesh remains dormant and helplessly passive until God breathes; then a living human being is animated (Gn 2:7; 6:17; cf. Pss 33:6; 104:29). Formed of “dust,” the human being must be enlivened by the Creator’s breath. “Breath/wind” is also a powerful force in God’s anger, when a “blast of the breath of his nostrils” can undo and destroy (2 Sm 22:16; cf. Ex 14:21; 15:10).

Themes combining breath, wind, and spirit are also used to describe new creation (Ezk 37:9). The life-generating force of the ruah/spirit emerges in the NT as the Holy Spirit, manifested in wind, a breath, or Spirit (Gk pneuma). At Pentecost “a violent rushing wind came from heaven,” enacting another creation (Ac 2:2). John clearly symbolizes Jesus’s breathing on the disciples (Jn 20:22), which reenacts the enlivening of Gn 2:7. The two creations are connected: God’s enlivening in Gn 2:7 and Jesus’s creation of eternal life following his own resurrection.

Bribe A gift given in order to influence a decision or judgment. The OT law prohibits giving a bribe with the result that a false judgment (the innocent proclaimed guilty or vice versa) is delivered (Ex 23:8; Dt 16:19; 27:25; see also Ps 15:5). Some proverbs (Pr 17:8; 21:14), however, speak more positively about bribes (or gifts; cf. Pr 18:16). Perhaps the circumstance of a gift is the issue. The giving of a gift in order to circumvent justice is wrong, but there are some situations where bribes can open doors to good ends.

Brick Bricks are first mentioned in the Bible at Gn 11:3 (the tower of Babylon), a note that rings true to geographical differences in the use of bricks. In Mesopotamia fire-hardened bricks could be used for monumental structures; thousands of these have survived. Bricks were made of mud or clay, often mixed with straw (Ex 5:7), and could be dried in the sun for rudimentary purposes. Making bricks was hard labor, fitting for slaves (Ex 1:14; 2 Sm 12:31). Brick altars, like those of hewn stone, were not permitted in the worship of God (Ex 20:24–25; Is 65:3).

Mud bricks made with straw

© Rémih / Wikimedia Commons, CC-by-sa-3.0.

Bride Socially, marriage was of particular import for a woman in the ancient world, for her well-being usually depended on her place within the house of either her father or her husband. Because inheritance was passed down through the male line, women without connection to the house of a man were in a very tenuous state. Inheritance itself was also an important issue in the ancient world, and so great value was placed not just on marriage but also on bearing children. Associated with these social functions of marriage in ancient Israel is the fact that the OT permits and records a number of instances of polygamy (always polygyny, never polyandry). This afforded social security to widows and helped ensure the line of inheritance. It should be noted, however, that neither the welfare aspect of marriage nor the related acceptance of polygamy is based on the biblical foundation for marriage in Gn 2, and, consequently, polygamy does not reflect the biblical ideal for marriage. The fundamental importance of the marriage relationship is also highlighted by the severity of the penalties for adultery (e.g., Ex 20:14; Dt 5:18; 22:22–24).

In both Testaments of Scripture, marriage is used to illustrate the relationship between God and his chosen people. Isaiah and Jeremiah portray Israel as the bride of Yahweh, sometimes to emphasize his love for her, sometimes to lament her unfaithfulness to him. Isaiah says that the Lord will one day rejoice over Israel like a bridegroom over his bride (Is 62:5; cf. Is 61:10). Jeremiah expresses God’s disappointment that his bride (Israel) has lost her first love for him and even forgotten him (Jr 2:2, 32). Hosea uses this metaphor repeatedly to proclaim the Lord’s undying love for his adulterous wife, the people of Israel (Hs 1–3).

In the NT, the church becomes the bride of Christ, both in Paul’s Letters and in the book of Revelation (Rv 21:2, 9; 22:17). Paul compares the church to a bride expressly in Eph 5, where the love of Christ for his church sets an example for ordinary husbands: they must love their wives like Jesus loves the church, that is, sacrificially (Eph 5:25). In Revelation the church adorns herself with righteous acts for the sake of Christ, her groom (Rv 19:6). Further along in Revelation, the new Jerusalem itself becomes the “bride” of Christ, inhabited by his saved people, the church (Rv 21:9–10).

Broad Wall In Neh 3:8; 12:38, a section of the rebuilt Jerusalem city wall is called the Broad Wall. The name is now also used for the twenty-three-foot wide, eighth-century-BC wall apparently constructed by Hezekiah (2 Ch 32:2–5; Is 22:10), excavated in the 1970s.

Bronze Snake An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God in rescuing his people from their sins. During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lies in the path of the Israelites. The Israelites request permission to pass through Edom, which the Edomites strongly deny (Nm 20:14–21). Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, the Israelites begin to complain yet again (Nm 21:4–5; see also Ex 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responds by sending venomous snakes that kill many people (Nm 21:6). When the people admit their sin and ask Moses to pray to God on their behalf, God commands Moses to do a strange thing: he is to make a snake and put it on a pole (Nm 21:9).

This seemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite history resurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroys the bronze snake during his purification of the land of Judah from idolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent, which has come to be called Nehushtan, has itself become an idol, as the Israelites have been burning incense to it (2 Kg 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze snake in his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speaking of his impending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man, must be lifted up from the earth like the bronze snake (Jn 3:14). Those who believe in Jesus will have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is, crucified (see Jn 12:32–34). Jesus’s reference to the bronze snake emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ. Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze snake, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physical death, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look to the perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from spiritual death.

In the ancient world, snakes were considered to have healing or protective powers. This bronze serpent that was found in Timnah, Israel, may be similar to the bronze snake made by Moses (Nm 21:9).

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv, Israel.

Brotherly Love The word for “brotherly love” in Greek is philadelphia (“love,” philia, and “sibling,” adelphē, adelphos). Paul instructs the church at Rome to love like family (Rm 12:10) as a part of his description of the Christian life. He recognizes the supernatural origin of this new love among believers, compliments them on their success in this area, and yet appeals to them to continue loving even more (1 Th 4:9–10). The author of the book of Hebrews, writing to a church that was already counting the cost of persecution and was even then being tempted to give up the Christian faith, says simply to keep loving each other (Heb 13:1). Peter addresses this same topic (again to a persecuted church), admonishing them to love deeply, but also reminds them how this love needs to be built on a response of the will to the truth of the gospel and to flow from a right heart (or “purified”) attitude (1 Pt 1:22). Peter also offers still another appeal to press on in this area (1 Pt 3:8).

Burial “Burial” can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment. Burial practices and locations varied by time and culture. In Egypt, Jacob and Joseph received specialized embalming, which preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gn 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Dt 21:1–9, 22–23; 1 Kg 13:24–30). In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Lk 23:56; Jn 19:40). Placed on a bench, the body was covered in wrappings and also had a special facecloth (Jn 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Ac 8:2; cf. 1 Kg 13:29–30; Jr 9:17–22). Certain mourning practices, however, were forbidden, such as self-mutilation (Lv 21:1–6; cf. Am 6:6–7).

In the OT, burial occurred in cemeteries, shaft tombs, rock-hewn tombs, or natural caves. The wealthy procured burial sites for their posterity (Gn 23:3–20). In a process known as secondary burial, older remains were moved to a repository in the rear of the cave or to a charnel pit beneath the bench to clear room for a new corpse (cf. Mt 8:21–22). Stone markers and other landmarks, such as trees, identified the graves of others (Gn 35:8, 19–20; 1 Sm 31:11–13). The poor usually were consigned to public cemeteries. The Herodian period employed a strategic entrance guarded with a rolling stone four to five feet in diameter, like that used for Jesus. During the Roman periods, stone sarcophagi were used. Later, bones were placed in ossuaries (boxes for bones) after the corpse had decayed in the burial niche.

Burnt Offering The burnt offering (Hb olah; Lv 1:1–17; 6:8–13) is the basic OT sacrifice connected with atonement for sin (Lv 1:4). When rightly offered, it is accepted as “a pleasing aroma to the LORD” (Lv 1:9). The worshiper brings a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, or young pigeon) without blemish, lays a hand upon it, and then kills it. After the priest sprinkles some of the blood on the altar, the rest is burned up.

Caesar The family name of the Roman emperors following Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). Emperors after Nero retained the title “Caesar,” although they no longer belonged to the family line. The NT alludes to four Caesars. (1) Augustus, also called Octavian (r. 31 BC–AD 14), calls for the census (Lk 2:1) that brings Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem prior to Jesus’s birth. (2) Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) is named in Lk 3:1 and is the Caesar ruling when Jesus is questioned about paying taxes to Caesar (Mt 22:17–21; Lk 20:22–25). (3) The famine predicted by Agabus occurs during the tenure of Claudius (r. AD 41–54) (Ac 11:28), the emperor who prompted Aquila and Priscilla’s relocation to Corinth (Ac 18:2) when he expelled the Jewish population from Rome (AD 49). (4) Nero (r. AD 54–68) is the Caesar to whom Paul appeals (Ac 25:10) and from whose household Paul sends greetings to the Philippians (Php 4:22).

Caesarea Built by Herod the Great between 22 and 10/9 BC and named in honor of Caesar Augustus, Caesarea was a major international seaport located on the Mediterranean coast about fifty-five miles northwest of Jerusalem. Also known as Caesarea Maritima or Caesarea Palestinae (not to be confused with Caesarea Philippi), it was built on the site of an earlier Phoenician trading station and town known as Strato’s Tower.

After Herod’s death in 4 BC, his eldest son, Archelaus, succeeded him as king. Augustus removed Archelaus from power in AD 6, and his kingdom, including Caesarea, was absorbed into the Roman Empire. The city was then made the seat of Roman government in the province of Judea. Pontius Pilate governed Judea from Caesarea when he presided over Jesus’s trial.

Caesarea figures prominently in the book of Acts. Philip appears to have brought Christianity to the city (8:4–40). Caesarea is where the centurion Cornelius and his household become the first Gentile converts, and where Peter receives God’s revelation regarding the acceptance of Gentiles (10:1–48).

Caesarea appears to have been an urban center for the early Christian movement. Paul comes to the city at the end of his second and third missionary journeys (Ac 18:22; 21:8). On his way to Jerusalem, Paul stays with Philip, who lives in Caesarea (8:40; 21:8–9). It is in Caesarea that Paul makes his decision to go to Jerusalem, despite Agabus’s prophecy and the urging for Paul not to go (21:10–13). Following Paul’s arrest, he is sent to Caesarea to appear before the governor Felix and remains imprisoned there for two years (24:27), until Paul appeals to Caesar and is sent to Rome (25:1–12).

Caesar’s Household Members of the Roman imperial palace staff who carried out the various logistical duties necessary to facilitate the emperor’s rule over the empire. Such persons often were wealthy and influential beneficiaries of imperial favor, but the staff also contained large numbers of slaves as well. Inscriptions exist naming members of “Caesar’s household,” including many of the same names that appear in Rm 16. Paul closes his Letter to the Philippians with greetings from himself and “Caesar’s household,” thus indicating Rome as the probable origin of that letter (Php 4:22).

Caiaphas High priest from AD 18 to 36/37. He is best known for presiding over the Jewish trial of Jesus. The Bible mentions him explicitly in Mt 26:3, 57; Lk 3:2; Jn 11:49; 18:13, 24, 28; Ac 4:6. Gratus, a Roman prefect of Judea, appointed Caiaphas to the office, and Vitellius, a Roman legate of Syria, removed him from it. According to Jn 11:49–52, Caiaphas prophesied about Jesus’s death. He appears several times in the writings of Josephus, though conspicuously rarely considering the length of his tenure.

Call A call or calling is God’s summons to live one’s life in accordance with his purposes. In the universal sense, the notion of calling includes the ordinances that God established at creation: work (Gn 2:15), marriage (Gn 2:18, 24), building a family (Gn 1:28), and Sabbath rest (Gn 2:2–3). Since God showers his blessings on everyone alike (common grace), all human beings participate in this universal call (Ac 17:25–26).

After the fall, the promise of God to bring deliverance through a descendant of Eve established the provision for individuals to be “called” back into a relationship with him (Gn 3:15). This call is first made explicit in God’s call to Abram (Gn 11:32–12:1). In response, Abram believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness (Gn 15:6). Later, God called Abraham’s descendants by means of a covenant to be his own special people and to set their lives apart for God by living according to his commands (Ex 19:5–6). This general call was also the means God used to bring his people into existence (Hs 11:1).

The NT indicates there is a general call to all people to believe in Christ (Mt 11:28; Ac 17:30) that becomes effective in the ones that God has already chosen (Mt 22:14; Ac 13:48; Eph 1:4–5), which theologians identify as the “effectual call” (Rm 8:29–30).

God also calls particular individuals to fulfill his purposes for them. In the OT, prophets often receive a call from God, such as Moses (Ex 3–4), Samuel (1 Sm 3), and Jeremiah (Jr 1:4–10). The NT teaches that God has endowed each individual Christian with particular gifts and calls each one to use those gifts (Mt 25:14–30; 1 Pt 4:10). These callings include one’s occupation, place of residence, status as married or single, involvement in public life, and service in the local church. One’s particular calling is progressive, unfolding through the different seasons of life (Eph 2:10; 1 Co 7:20, 24).

Cana A village of uncertain location, though Khirbet Qana, nine miles north of Nazareth, is a likely candidate. Cana is mentioned only in John’s Gospel. Though undistinguished (its name is always qualified as “Cana in Galilee”), it is given prominence as the place where Jesus performs his first and second signs (Jn 2:1, 11; 4:46). Nathanael, its only known citizen (Jn 21:2), raises its status further by becoming the first to confess Jesus as the Son of God and King of Israel (Jn 1:49).

Land of Canaan A region generally identified with the landmass between ancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southern Phoenicia (modern Lebanon).

In the Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan” finds primary expression in Genesis through Judges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants will inherit the land of the Canaanites (Gn 15:18–21) is the theological focal point of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout these biblical books. Once that inheritance is achieved and Israel becomes a viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the double purpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of the nature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets draw on the term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, in both its positive (Is 19:18) and negative (Is 23:11; Zph 2:5) connotations. The term “Canaan” is transliterated twice in the NT in the recounting of OT history (Ac 7:11; 13:19). One further connection in the OT is the apparent association of the land of Canaan with corrupt trade practices. The tradesmen of Canaan were of such disrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that “Canaanite” became a synonym for “unjust trader” (Jb 41:6; Ezk 16:29; 17:4; Zph 1:11; Zch 14:21).

Candace This term, from the Greek Kandakē, is not a proper name but rather a title (similar to “Pharaoh” or “Caesar”) borne by a series of Ethiopian queens. The Kandake under whom the Ethiopian eunuch was treasurer (Ac 8:27) was probably Amantitare, who ruled in AD 25–41 in Meroe, located on the Nile in Upper Nubia.

Capernaum A fishing town on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee (Mt 4:13) that was on an important trade route and was a center for commerce in Galilee. There may also have been a military garrison in Capernaum, since the town’s synagogue was built by a centurion (Mt 8:5–13; Lk 7:1–10).

Capernaum serves as Jesus’s base of operations during his Galilean ministry (Mt 9:1; Mk 2:1; 9:33). In Mark’s Gospel, Jesus’s teaching and healing ministry begin here (Mk 1:21–34). In Capernaum, Jesus calls Levi (Matthew) (Mk 2:13–17; Mt 9:9–13; Lk 5:27–32). Peter and Andrew, although originally from Bethsaida (John 1:44), live and fish in Capernaum (cf. Mk 2:1–12). Jesus later pronounces judgment against the town, together with Chorazin and Bethsaida (Mt 11:23–24; Lk 10:15).

Mount Carmel A wooded mountain promontory on the Mediterranean near modern Haifa. It forms a northern barrier to the coastal plain of Sharon. Mount Carmel provides the perfect stage for its most significant event, the confrontation between Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kg 18), the god of storms and therefore agricultural produce. The mountain’s high elevation meant that it was lush until a drought. When the prophets threaten that Carmel will wither, conditions are extreme (Is 33:9; Am 1:2; Nah 1:4).

Census There are several censuses in Scripture, and their concern is not simply to account for the number of people or the number of men available for military service; they also have a literary and theological function.

In the book of Numbers there are two census accounts (actually, military registrations). These are important to the structure and theme of the book. The theme of Numbers has to do with the judgment on the first generation (the object of the census in Nm 1) and the hope for the second generation, which will enter the promised land (the object of the second census).

David conducts a census to measure his military power, but this is condemned by God and regarded as satanic (2 Sm 24:1–17; 1 Ch 21:1–30). For the Chronicler, any attempt to account for the total number of Israelite men twenty years and older, similar to the census in Numbers, is regarded as challenging God’s promise to make Israel as numerous as the stars (1 Ch 27:23–26).

Ezra and Nehemiah contain census lists of the returnees from exile: under Zerubbabel, 42,360 men return (Ezr 2:1–66; Neh 7:4–73), and under Ezra, 1,496 men (Ezr 8:1–14).

In the NT, Jesus participates in the universal census that encompasses the entire Roman world (Lk 2:1–7). The census motif reaches its fulfillment when a great multitude from every nation, tribe, people, and language will stand before the throne and in front of the Lamb, symbolized by the 144,000 from the twelve tribes of Israel, 12,000 from each tribe (Rv 7:4–10).

Centurion A commander of one hundred soldiers (a “century”) in a Roman legion, with various tactical and logistical duties, including management of supplies and leadership in battle. Having the best training and most experience in battle, the sixty centurions of each legion served as the backbone of the Roman army. Centurions in the Bible include the centurion who, according to Jesus, has more faith than anyone in Israel (Mt 8:5–13; Lk 7:2–9); Cornelius the generous God-fearer and supporter of the Jewish people of Caesarea Maritima (Ac 10); the centurion in charge of the soldiers at Jesus’s crucifixion (Mt 27:54; Mk 15:39, 44–45; Lk 23:47); and the various named and unnamed centurions throughout Acts (see Ac 22–27).

Cherethites Although their name indicates they may have originated from Crete, they were a Philistine group (Ezk 25:16; Zph 2:5) whose territory apparently was south of the main Philistine region, with an identifiable area within the Negev (1 Sm 30:14). A group of them serve as troops under David (2 Sm 8:18; 20:7, 23; 1 Kg 1:38, 44; 1 Ch 18:17) and are notable for their loyalty to him during Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sm 15:18–23).

Cherubim “Cherubim” is the plural form of “cherub” (Hb kerub), a winged heavenly creature, apparently different from an (or a certain type of) angel. Scholars are uncertain as to the original meaning of the word, but it is probably related to a word that means either “gatekeeper” or “intercessor.” Cherubim appear as attendants around the throne of God or in some cases as gatekeepers, guarding the way to the presence of God.

God stations cherubim to guard the entrance to the garden of Eden after he expels Adam and Eve from the garden (Gn 3:24). In this sense, the garden of Eden is a prototype of the temple, where the presence of God can be encountered. Later, in accordance with God’s instructions, golden cherubim are constructed and placed on either side of the mercy seat on the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:18–22).

The decorations of the tabernacle and the later Solomonic temple incorporate artwork depicting representations of cherubim (Ex 26:1, 31; 1 Kg 6:23–29; 7:29, 36; 8:6–7; 2 Ch 3:14). Isaiah 37:16 describes God as sitting between the wings of the cherubim, and Ps 18:10 describes him as flying on the wings of the cherubim.

The prophet Ezekiel gives an extensive description of “four living creatures” flying around the throne of God (Ezk 1:4–21). Later, the prophet identifies these same creatures but refers to them as cherubim (Ezk 10:1–22).

Circumcision The custom of cutting the foreskin of the male genitalia as a religious rite. Egyptians practiced circumcision, as did the Ammonites, Edomites, Moabites, and nomadic Arabians (Jr 9:25–26). Philistines, Assyrians, and Gentiles in general were uncircumcised (Jdg 14:3; Ezk 32:17–32; Eph 2:11).

Circumcision is first mentioned in the Bible as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17:10). God commands that every male be circumcised at eight days old (Gn 17:12; cf. 21:4; Lv 12:3; Lk 1:59; 2:21). Circumcision is required for a male to participate in the Passover (Ex 12:48) or worship in the temple (Ezk 44:9; cf. Ac 21:28–29).

Metaphorically, circumcision goes beyond the physical sign (Rm 2:28). Ultimately, the enemies of God, whether circumcised or not, will be slain and laid in the grave with the uncircumcised (Ezk 32:32). Physical circumcision is of no avail if the heart remains “uncircumcised” (Jr 9:25–26; cf. Rm 2:25). Circumcision of the heart is accomplished when one loves God completely (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jr 4:4; Rm 2:29), but uncircumcised ears are disobedient (Ac 7:51). The circumcision accomplished by Christ occurs when the sinful nature is rejected (Col 2:11). In him neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value; what counts “is faith working through love” (Gl 5:6).

Controversy began in the NT church over whether Gentile believers should be circumcised (Ac 15:1–12). Evidently, a group existed that demanded circumcision (Ac 15:1; Ti 1:10). Paul argued that circumcision was not essential to Christian faith and fellowship (Gl 6:15; Col 3:11).

Cleanness A holy God wants a holy people (cf. Ex 19:5–6). Holiness comes, in part, by keeping the law; an important part of the law is the concept of cleanness. When God explains the laws about clean and unclean food, he tells the Israelites twice to “be holy because I am holy” (Lv 11:44–47). “Cleanness” does not refer to good hygiene, nor is it synonymous with morality, since a person can be unclean and still righteous. Cleanness allows the OT believer to live a holy life and enables that person to be made increasingly holy by God (Lv 20:8; cf. 21:8, 15, 23; 22:9, 16, 32; 31:13).

Ritual impurity travels along four channels: sexuality (e.g., nocturnal emission, menstruation, childbirth), diet (e.g., eating certain types of animals), disease (e.g., skin diseases, mildew), and death (i.e., contact with animal or human corpses). Impurities occurring naturally and unavoidably in the course of life (e.g., menstruation) are tolerated, representing no danger to the person or community as long as they are promptly addressed. They are removed by washing or through burial, burning, or removal from the camp. Some require sacrifices, perhaps accompanied by ritual actions.

Other impurities have to be avoided at all costs or else grave consequences result. One prohibited impurity arises from eating food declared off-limits by God, such as meat that has not been thoroughly bled (Gn 9:3–4; Lv 17:10–14; Dt 12:16, 23) or animals declared unclean (Lv 11; Dt 14:3–21). Other prohibited impurities include what might be more readily identified as sinful acts, such as sexual immorality (Lv 18:6–25), idolatry (Lv 20:2–5), consulting mediums (Lv 20:6), and murder (Nm 35:33–34).

Why did God declare certain things clean and others unclean? While we may not know for certain, we can see how these laws helped God’s people become holy. First, these laws made possible access to the sanctuary. Only the clean could approach a holy God and participate in the rituals that demonstrated and developed their holiness. Second, these rituals fostered holiness by teaching the Israelites about impurity. Third, these laws taught the Israelites about the holy God, whom they were to imitate. If even innocent and otherwise good experiences prevented their association with him, God must be very holy indeed. These laws also reinforced God’s authority over every aspect of their lives and reminded Israel that it was this same God who had provided a way to be clean and thereby holy. Fourth, a practical consequence of these laws was to keep the Israelites separate so they would not be corrupted by their neighbors (cf. Dt 7:1–6; 14:1–3).

Ceremonial cleansing appears in the Gospels. Mary undergoes the required purification rituals after Jesus’s birth (Lk 2:22–24), and Jesus cleanses people from leprosy, instructing them to carry out the purification rituals (Mt 8:2–4; Mk 1:40–42; Lk 5:12–14; 17:11–19; cf. Mt 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27; 7:22). Jesus also signals a departure from the purity laws by declaring all foods “clean” (Mk 7:15–19). Peter’s rooftop vision (Ac 10) reflects this same perspective, as does the church’s decision regarding Gentile conversion (Ac 15; cf. Rm 14:14, 20–21).

The NT identifies the church as God’s holy people, called to be holy as he is holy (1 Pt 1:16). Holiness still requires purity, now manifested more ethically than physically. In the OT, purity comes through ritual actions such as sacrifice and washing, with the assistance of a priest. So it is in the NT, though the sacrifice is now the once-for-all offering of Christ on the cross (Heb 9:13–14; 1 Jn 1:7) as applied in the waters of baptism (Eph 5:26; 1 Pt 3:21) and assisted by Jesus the great High Priest and by the priesthood of believers (2 Co 7:1; Heb 4:14; Jms 4:8; 1 Pt 1:22).

Clouds The OT depicts God as riding on a cloud (Jdg 5:4; Pss 18:11–12; 68:4; 104:3; Is 19:1) and as the creator and sender of clouds (Zch 10:1 [see also 1 Kg 18:44; Pss 135:7; 147:8; Pr 8:28; Is 5:6; Jr 10:13]). Divine judgment is pictured as a dark storm (Is 30:30; Lm 2:1; Nah 1:3; Zch 1:15).

At several crucial points God manifests his presence among the Israelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillar of cloud” of Ex 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Ex 19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Ex 40:34), in the temple at Jerusalem (1 Kg 8:10), and frequently in the visions of Ezekiel (e.g., Ezk 1:4; 10:3).

The NT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divine presence in the story of the transfiguration (Mt 17:5; Mk 9:7; Lk 9:36) and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Mt 26:64; Rv 14:14 (see Dn 7:13). Jesus is hidden by a cloud when he ascends (Ac 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds at his return (1 Th 4:17; Rv 11:12).

Common Grace The universal favor that God grants to all people, both believers and unbelievers. This grace is termed “common” to distinguish it from “saving” grace. Thus, common grace is not designed to save sinful people. Rather, it consists of the blessings of God given to all his image bearers in many realms: intellectual (e.g., scientific discoveries), artistic (e.g., musical talents), social (e.g., governments; Rm 13:1–7), relational (e.g., families), athletic (e.g., sprinters), physical (e.g., rain for crops; Ac 14:16–17), and moral (e.g., the conscience; Rm 2:12–15). Common grace prompts unbelievers to embrace the gospel, and it evokes thanksgiving from believers.

Compassion Love for those who suffer. The OT often refers to God’s compassion, especially toward those who, because of their sinfulness, deserve the opposite treatment. In Ex 33:19 the Lord takes pity on the Israelites after they have rebelled. He renews his covenant with them, but he reminds them of his sovereignty: “I will be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion” (cf. Rm 9:15).

The NT also points to God’s compassion. Jesus himself has compassion for the crowds (Mt 9:36), healing their sick and feeding them miraculously (Mt 14:14–21; cf. 15:32). The same connection between compassion and healing occurs on an individual level (Mt 20:34; Mk 1:41). The apostle Paul underscores this attribute of God, the Father of compassion (2 Co 1:3). James says that the Lord is filled with compassion (Jms 5:11), and John depicts God as one who will wipe away every tear (Rv 7:17; 21:4). Because God is always dealing with broken sinners, his compassion for them coincides with his love (see Ps 145:8), and this rescuing of the guilty sets an example for his people. They must go and do likewise, loving the unlovely, unwise, and even unrighteous.

Concubine A concubine is a woman whose status in relation to her sole legitimate sexual partner is less than primary wife. It is best to understand the function of concubines more broadly within marriage terminology. For example, following Gideon’s death, both concubines and wives lay claim to his authority (Jdg 8:30–9:2).

Biblical reference to concubines is largely found in the Pentateuch (e.g., Gn 22:24; 36:12) and historical books (e.g., Jdg 19; 2 Sm 5:13; 1 Kg 11:3). The genealogies show that succession can move through concubines (Gn 22:24; 1 Ch 3:9). The kings have concubines (1 Ch 11:21) who are often guarded by eunuchs (2 Sm 20:3; Est 2:14). Therefore, access to the royal concubines functions as a daring claim to the throne, exploited by interlopers (2 Sm 12:11–12; 1 Kg 2:22–25). While concubines do care for the household (2 Sm 20:2), their lower status is observed when David flees into exile, leaving the concubines “to take care of the palace” (2 Sm 15:16), a role too dangerous for the royal wives.

Conscience An internal sense of right and wrong, and the perception of moral accountability that accompanies it. God has created everyone with a conscience and expects them to follow it by doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong (Rm 2:12–16). In the case of failure, a guilty conscience convicts of wrongdoing; repeated violations of conscience may render it seared (1 Tm 4:2). Believers are to live with a clear conscience (1 Pt 3:16), follow and not violate their own conscience when making decisions, encourage freedom of conscience, and not bind the conscience (theirs or others) beyond scriptural commands and prohibitions.

Covenant A pact/compact or an agreement that binds parties together or obligates one party to the other. Covenant is more than a contract. “Contract” suggests negotiation and terms, has generally to do with goods or services, and is task oriented. “Covenant,” while it is not without terms, is a bonding between two parties that has a mutual relationship as its goal. It is best understood as a relationship with related legalities. Some covenants are between persons of equal status (parity treaties); others are between a master and a servant (suzerainty treaties), between nations, between clans, and between a husband and a wife (Mal 2:14). To “cut a covenant” at any level of society implies a solemn commitment to a relationship.

The most significant covenant relationship in the biblical material is the one between God and humankind. There are five major covenants recorded in the Bible: Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and new. Through the Mosaic covenant, Israel has a unique covenant relationship with Yahweh in contrast to all surrounding nations (Dt 32:8–9). Although God gave the nations their inheritance, he selected Israel for his own personal care. The Mosaic covenant addresses every aspect of Israelite life, so that the prophetic charges against the nation’s transgressions are on the basis of covenant violations.

Covenant is a dominant theme that gives cohesiveness to the structure of the OT and distinguishes the history of Israel. The phrase “covenant history” can be used to describe the biblical literature that recounts the events and episodes of Israelite life. Individual books within this narrative corpus are noted for the attention they give to various aspects of the covenant relationship. Covenant history is a realistic presentation of the tensions associated with the covenant relationship between the Lord and the nation of Israel.

Although the covenant theme is less pervasive in the NT, its christological significance is profound. The NT highlights the significant messianic role of Christ in relation to the covenants. Each celebration of the Lord’s Supper reminds us that the shed blood of Christ is the blood of the new covenant. The new covenant is cut in connection with or on the basis of his death, burial, and resurrection (1 Co 11:25). The book of Hebrews gives detailed attention to how the new covenant functions in contrast to the old Mosaic covenant: Jesus is the guarantor of a better covenant (Heb 7:22; 8:6–7). Paul indicates that we are now considered ministers of the new covenant ministry (2 Co 3:6).

Cupbearer A high-ranking official in ancient Near Eastern courts. The cupbearer was responsible for serving wine at the king’s table. Because of the possibility of plots and poisoning, a trustworthy individual was required for this position. At times, he would be required to taste the wine before serving it to verify it was safe. His closeness to the king often gave him opportunity for great influence.

The “chief cupbearer” in the Joseph story (Gn 40:1–2) likely supervises a staff. Although Joseph asks the cupbearer to mention his plight to the pharaoh when the cupbearer is restored to his position, he forgets about Joseph for two years (Gn 40:14, 23; 41:9–13). The cupbearer’s closeness to the pharaoh, however, eventually allows him to be influential in Joseph’s rise to power. Nehemiah is the cupbearer to Artaxerxes (Neh 1:11) and highly esteemed. Nehemiah’s financial resources (Neh 5:10, 17) may indicate that the position is well compensated.

Damascus A major city in ancient Syria (Aram) and the capital of modern Syria. Damascus is located fifty miles inland from the Mediterranean, east of the Anti-Lebanon mountains, northeast of Mount Hermon, and west of the Syrian Desert.

During the united monarchy, David incorporates Damascus into his kingdom after defeating the Arameans from the city (2 Sm 8:5–6; 1 Ch 18:5–6). Later, Solomon’s adversary Rezon son of Eliada gathers a band of rebels, goes to Damascus, and takes control of the city (1 Kg 11:23–25). After the division of the kingdom around 928 BC, little is known of Damascus until the report that Asa of Judah appeals to Ben-hadad I in Damascus for help in his war against Baasha of Israel (1 Kg 15:16–22; 2 Ch 16:2).

Contacts between Ahab and Ben-hadad II of Damascus are recounted in 1 Kg 20 and 22. Ben-hadad gathers a coalition of kings to besiege Samaria, but Ahab is able to defeat them. A second encounter leaves Ben-hadad requesting Ahab’s mercy, offering to restore previously captured Israelite towns and to give Ahab access to Damascus. A third engagement pits Ahab of Israel and Jehoshaphat of Judah against the Arameans at Ramoth-gilead and results in Ahab’s death.

During and after Ahab’s reign, both Elijah and Elisha become involved in the political affairs of Damascus. Elijah travels to Damascus to anoint Hazael as future king of Aram (1 Kg 19:15). Later, Ben-hadad II, informed of Elisha’s presence in Damascus, sends his servant Hazael to inquire whether he will recover from an illness (2 Kg 8:7–15). When he rules as king (ca. 842–806 BC), Hazael successfully expands his empire into the territories of Israel and Judah during the reigns of Joram (2 Kg 8:28–29; 9:14–15), Jehu (2 Kg 10:32–33), and Jehoahaz of Israel (2 Kg 13:1–9), as well as Joash of Judah, who pays tribute to Damascus (2 Kg 12:17–18; cf. 2 Ch 24:23).

After Hazael’s death the kingdom of Aram, ruled by his son Ben-hadad III, no longer remains the dominant power of the region. Jehoash of Israel is able to recapture Israelite territory (2 Kg 13:25), and the Assyrians besiege Damascus and make the king pay tribute (ca. 796 BC). Aram’s weakened state is also apparent during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel, who expands Israel’s border back to Damascus (2 Kg 14:28).

Rezin, Aram’s last king (ca. 740–732 BC), forms a coalition that includes Pekah of Israel to fight Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria. When Rezin and Pekah attack Ahaz of Judah, Ahaz appeals to Assyria for help by sending gifts. Tiglath-pileser III complies and attacks Damascus, deporting its inhabitants, putting Rezin to death, and annexing Aram into the Assyrian Empire (2 Kg 16:5–9). From that point on, Damascus would remain under control of the Assyrians and then the Babylonians and then serve as a provincial capital under the Persians.

Damascus is notable in the NT as the city to which Paul (then Saul) is traveling to persecute Christians when he encounters the risen Christ. After his conversion Paul stays in Damascus until he has to escape the city by night because Jews are plotting to kill him (Ac 9:1–27; 22:3–16; 26:12–23; 2 Co 11:32–33). Paul also visits Damascus after his journey to Arabia (Gl 1:17).

Dancing The dancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positive and is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments. Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned most often in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Ex 15:20; Jdg 11:34; 1 Sm 18:6). The women of Shiloh “come out to perform the dances” (Jdg 21:21) at an annual festival, which implies some manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughter probably is erotic (Mt 14:6; Mk 6:22), and the dancing of the Israelites around the golden calf probably is laden with sensuality as well (Ex 32:19).

Day of Atonement The Day of Atonement is observed once a year on the tenth day of the seventh month (September–October). It includes a ritual involving (1) the sacrifice of animals, by which the sanctuary is cleansed, and (2) the transference of sins onto a goat, whereby the sins of Israel are sent away. The people fast and deny themselves, stopping all labor as they would on the Sabbath day.

The most extensive explanation of the Day of Atonement is found in Lv 16 (also Lv 23:26–32; Nm 29:7–11). Aaron and subsequent high priests are free to enter the most holy place only on this day. In preparation, the high priest must first cleanse his entire body and put on special linen garments, the holy vestments. He then brings a bull to offer as a sin offering for him and his family. After the bull is killed, the high priest enters the most holy place with coals and incense to produce smoke to shield him from God’s presence. He then sprinkles the mercy seat seven times with the blood of the bull.

At this point, the entire congregation brings two male goats to the high priest; lots are cast to select one for a sin offering, and the other is to be sent into the wilderness. The first goat is sacrificed, and its blood is also sprinkled in the most holy place. Then the blood of the bull and the goat together are put on the horns of the altar outside the tent. This sprinkled blood cleanses the various parts of the sanctuary. The high priest then places his hands on the live goat and confesses all the sin and rebellion of the nation, symbolically transferring the sins onto this goat. Finally, a designated person leads the goat into the wilderness, thus carrying the sins of the people away.

In the NT, Heb 9:6–7 points out that the Day of Atonement sacrifice had to be repeated every year, illustrating that it was not really effective at removing sin. In contrast, Christ has become the High Priest, entering heaven, the perfect sanctuary, and offering his own blood in a perfect sacrifice that satisfies the need for atonement forever.

Day of the Lord The “day of the Lord/LORD” refers to the coming time when God will intervene powerfully and decisively in human history to bring about his promised plan.

Included in this “day” are several significant prophetic actions by God: (1) the imminent judgments on Israel and Judah by the hand of the Assyrians and the Babylonians (Is 3:18–4:1; Am 5:18–20); (2) God’s judgment on the foreign nations that have conspired against Israel and Judah (Is 13:1–22; Ob 15); and (3) a time of glorious future restoration and blessing that God will establish both for Israel/Judah and for the nations (Is 11:10–12; Jl 3:14–18). In this final context the “day of the LORD” is often tightly interconnected with the messianic promise.

In the NT, the phrase “day of the Lord” is used in much the same manner as in the OT. The OT messianic prophecies connected to the day of the Lord sometimes find fulfillment in events surrounding Christ’s first coming (as seen in the NT), while some await his future, second coming.

Deacon Deacons provide practical, hands-on ministry in the local church. Originally, the term “deacon” (diakonos) simply meant “servant.” Diakonos and related words are used frequently to refer to nonreligious service, such as Martha’s meal preparation (Lk 10:40), or in reference to a servant or attendant in one of Jesus’s parables (e.g., Mt 22:13). In the development of the NT church, diakonos gradually became a technical term to refer to a specific office, such as in Paul’s greeting in Php 1:1 and in the list of qualifications in 1 Tm 3:8–13. The standard understanding of the deacons in the NT church structure is that they assisted the elders/overseers in practical ways (probably on the model of the seven men in Ac 6:1–6).

Demons Whereas the OT provides sparse information about Satan and his angels/demons, the NT opens with an intensity of activity. Demons are also called “unclean” or “evil spirits” (e.g., 1 Sm 16:14–16; Mt 10:1; 12:43–45; Mk 3:11; 7:25; Lk 8:2) and they are associated with physical illness, madness, and fortune-telling. Jesus’s miracles demonstrate his lordship over Satan’s regime as the demons flee in terror before him (Mk 1:23–26; 5:1–15). According to Paul, Christians are temples of the Holy Spirit (1 Co 6:19), and John urges believers to “test the spirits to see if they are from God” (1 Jn 4:1), assuring them that they need not fear Satan or his forces, “because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world” (1 Jn 4:4). On judgment day Satan will be cast into the lake of fire (Rv 20:14–15) along with all of God’s enemies.

Divine Council The idea of the divine council appears throughout the ancient Near East, including the OT. It generally involves numerous deities or heavenly beings subservient to an overall divine figure—for example, Yahweh in the OT. Some forms situate the council on the cosmic mountain, which connects the heavens and earth. The messenger or prophet is often conceived of as someone who has been granted access to the divine council, frequently by vision, and who is charged to communicate the council’s decisions.

For example, in Ps 82 God “stands in the divine assembly” and upbraids the lower gods for not executing their ruling tasks properly. This also reflects the common notion of lower gods ruling over peoples or other aspects of creation (see also Dt 32:8–9). Another example of the divine council, in 1 Kg 22:5–28 (// 2 Ch 18:4–27), highlights the role of the prophet as one granted access, through vision, who proclaims its decisions. Job 1–2 and Zch 3 also provide glimpses of the divine council interacting. See also the “Let us” or “us” passages from the divine voice in Genesis, wherein Yahweh communicates with the rest of the council about actions to undertake (Gn 1:26; 3:22; 11:6–7). In the Second Temple period and within apocalyptic thought, the lower deities begin more consistently to be conceived of as angels. The Bible generally assumes the existence of other deities but views them as creatures rather than the Creator and restricts worship to the one true God.

Doctrine Christian belief based on Scripture. Examples include God is triune, Jesus is both God and man, and salvation is by divine grace. Doctrine is believed, confessed (publicly recited), lived, and taught. Sound doctrine is associated with Christian maturity (Eph 4:14) and the responsibility of church leadership (1 Tm 4:6). Negatively, an outsider “teaches false doctrine and does not agree with the sound teaching of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Tm 6:3; see also 2 Tm 4:3). Sound doctrine, or orthodoxy, which reflects in summary what Scripture teaches and what the church is bound to believe, contrasts with heresy, which contradicts it.

Edom “Edom” denotes Esau (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19), or the Edomites collectively (Nm 20:18, 20–21; Am 1:6, 11; 9:12; Mal 1:4), or the land occupied by Esau’s descendants, formerly the land of Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:20–21, 30; Nm 24:18). Edom was renowned in Israel for its wisdom (Jr 49:7; Ob 8), and the book of Job seems to reflect an Edomite setting.

The region stretched from the Zered Valley to the Gulf of Aqaba (about one hundred miles) and extended to both sides of the Arabah, the great depression connecting the Dead Sea to the Red Sea (Gn 14:6; Dt 2:1, 12; Jos 15:1; Jdg 11:17–18; 1 Kg 9:26). The area is dry and mountainous, with peaks rising to 3,500 feet. Though not a fertile land, it has cultivable areas (Nm 20:14–18). The name is derived from the Semitic root meaning “red, ruddy,” perhaps because of the reddish color of the sandstone in that region.

Following the OT, it seems that Esau’s descendants migrated to the land of Seir and in time became the dominant group, incorporating the original Horites (Gn 14:6) and others into their number. Esau had already occupied Edom when Jacob returned from Haran (Gn 32:3; 36:6–8; Dt 2:4–5; Jos 24:4). Tribal chiefs emerged here quite early (Gn 36:15–19, 40, 43; 1 Ch 1:51, 54), and the Edomites had kings “before any king reigned over the Israelites” (Gn 36:31; 1 Ch 1:43–51).

After the exodus, Israel was denied permission to travel by the King’s Highway (Nm 20:14–21; 21:4; Jdg 11:17–18). Still, Israelites were forbidden to abhor their Edomite brothers (Dt 23:7–8). Joshua allotted the territory of Judah up to the borders of Edom (Jos 15:1, 21), but the Israelites were not allowed to encroach on their lands.

Despite the brotherly relationship between Edom and Israel, their relationship was one of continuous hostility from the time of the Israelite kings. King Saul fought the Edomites (1 Sm 14:47), and David conquered Edom and put garrisons throughout the land (2 Sm 8:13–14). Edom was subjugated by Israel during the time of David but seems to have regained independence in the eighth century BC.

The prophets of Judah were very bitter against later Edom because of its stance in the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon (587/586 BC), and they predicted Edom’s destruction (e.g., Obadiah). The oracle of Mal 1:2–4 indicates that by the time of its writing, Edom was in ruin. The archaeological evidence supports the fall of Edom by the end of the sixth century BC, and there is evidence that the Nabateans (an Arabian tribe) forced their way into Edom and replaced the Edomites, many of whom went westward to southern Judea (later Idumea), while others may have been absorbed by the newcomers. By 312 BC the area around Petra was inhabited by Nabateans.

Elder The office of elder (presbyteros) is one of the most common in the early church. This office is based on the model of elders in the Jewish synagogue. Paul and Barnabas appoint elders in every church as early as their first missionary journey (Ac 14:23). James instructs the sick to call on the elders of the church to pray over them (Jms 5:14). The best job description for elders is in 1 Tm 5:17, where there are two major emphases: first, directing the affairs of the church, and second, preaching and teaching. Elders apparently always function in a plurality in Scripture, never as solo leaders.

Election The choice or selection of a person or group, especially God’s determination of who will be saved. The language of being “elect” is used as a description of Christ (1 Pt 2:6). It is also used in Scripture as a synonym for believers (Mt 24:31; 1 Pt 1:1). Other passages are more explanatory in nature and imply a definite and active place for God’s involvement in the salvation process (1 Pt 1:2). This raises the key question of how we should understand the role of God’s foreknowledge. Some argue that God is able to look forward and know ahead of time who will exercise faith and be saved, so salvation is simply based on a purely human decision after all. On the other hand, in Romans Paul gives his summary of election: “So then, it does not depend on human will or effort but on God who shows mercy” (Rm 9:16). He rests his case with the classic OT illustration of God’s hardening of Pharaoh (Rm 9:17) before concluding, “So then, he has mercy on whom he wants to have mercy and he hardens whom he wants to harden” (Rm 9:18).

The proper balance in Scripture seems to involve both God’s sovereignty and human involvement. Peter captures some of this need for balance: “Therefore, brothers and sisters, make every effort to confirm your calling and election, because if you do these things you will never stumble” (2 Pt 1:10). Election is ultimately God’s work, but at the same time there is a human involvement in it. Charles Spurgeon’s illustration seems appropriate here. Human will and predestination are like the two rails on a railroad track: everywhere we look they are separate and distinct and thus irreconcilable; yet it is only off in the distance (really in the mind of God himself) that these two complementary truths come together in their perfect resolution. There is no question that “elect” and “election” are biblical terms; the key question is how to understand this difficult topic and to work out all the logical implications in terms of sharing the gospel with others in a meaningful and appropriate manner.

Elihu The son of Barakel who mysteriously appears and restarts the discussion after Job and his three friends have finished. His lengthy speeches emphasize God’s sovereignty and set up God’s final response from the whirlwind.

Eliphaz Identified as a Temanite (Jb 2:11; 4:1). Teman is one of the sons of Esau’s son Eliphaz (Gn 36:11). The participation of Eliphaz in the wisdom discussion of Job is appropriate, as the line of Teman was known elsewhere in the Bible for its sages (Jr 49:7). Eliphaz is prominent among Job’s three friends, and God speaks to Eliphaz as a representative of the three friends (Jb 42:7).

Ephod The ephod is a garment, perhaps a vest or tunic, worn over the shoulders and extending at least to the waist, covering front and back. It is most closely associated with the Israelite priesthood. The eighty-five priests at Nob wear linen ephods (1 Sm 22:18), and the expression “to wear an ephod” is used as a virtual synonym for “to serve as a priest” (1 Sm 2:28; 14:3). The boy Samuel, who assists the aging priest Eli at the sanctuary at Shiloh, also wears a linen ephod (1 Sm 2:18). When King David dances before God upon bringing the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:14), he wears a linen ephod.

Most references to the ephod are found in the instructions and descriptions of the garments worn by the Israelite high priests, Aaron and his descendants. This elaborate attire consists of “a breastpiece, an ephod, a robe, a specially woven tunic, a turban, and a sash” (Ex 28:4), and it has regal associations (Ex 28:2; cf. Ezk 28). The “robe of the ephod,” which lies under the ephod itself, is to be of blue cloth (Ex 28:31).

The high priestly ephod itself is made of “gold, of blue, purple, and scarlet yarn, and of finely spun linen” (Ex 39:2). Closely associated with the ephod is the jewel-studded breastpiece that overlays it (Ex 25:7; 28:28) and is fastened by blue cords to rings on the ephod. On the shoulder pieces of the ephod are set two onyx stones engraved with the names of the Israelites (Ex 28:9–12). The breastpiece contains the Urim and Thummim, used for determining the will of God (Ex 28:30; Lv 8:8). This oracular function is sometimes attributed to the ephod (1 Sm 23:9–12; 30:7–8).

The idolatrous golden ephod that Gideon makes and places in Ophrah (Jdg 8:27) may be a more solid object, with similar oracular function. Another deviant ephod is mentioned along with household idols in a shrine established by the Ephraimite Micah (Jdg 17:5). This ephod, along with Micah’s priest, is carried off by the Danite tribe (18:14–21).

Evangelism The activity of engaging non-Christians with the gospel. Jesus himself evangelizes, announcing salvation especially to his people, the Jews (Jn 1:11), with some exceptions (e.g., Mt 15:21–28; Jn 4:1–42). During his ministry, Jesus sends his disciples to evangelize the Jews rather than the Samaritans and Gentiles (Mt 10:5–6). At the climax of this ministry, he gives the Great Commission to be the global task of making disciples (Mt 28:18–20) empowered by the Holy Spirit (Ac 1:8). Accordingly, the church proclaims the good news everywhere, knowing that “faith comes from what is heard, and what is heard comes through the message about Christ” (Rm 10:17).

Evil The absence or opposite of good, or anything that is bad or damaging. Evil is unquestionably real from the biblical perspective, but the origin and nature of evil remain mysterious. The Bible is replete with references to evil, starting with the temptation and fall (Gn 3) and the toll that it exacted on human existence. Humans not only suffer inwardly and reciprocally but also are now hopelessly and irredeemably inclined to evil. The Bible is the unfolding story of redemption through the sacrificial death of Christ, the ongoing battle in the lives of believers against the power of evil, and the eventual conquering of evil by the divine power vested in the risen Christ, who is to come as the cosmic ruler.

Evil-merodach The son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Reigning in the years 562/561–560 BC, he pardons King Jehoiachin of Judah, who has been imprisoned by Nebuchadnezzar. Thereafter, Jehoiachin dines at the king’s table (2 Kg 25:27–30; Jr 52:31–34).