Song of Songs

1. DELIGHT IN LOVE (1:1–2:7)

The book starts in the middle of the lovers’ story, which is never brought to an end. We observe their relationship at various points in its development. The poetry engages our emotions and draws us into the lovers’ experience as we learn about love and romance through that vicarious experience.

1:1. The type of construction found in the title “Song of Songs” is often used to indicate a superlative idea (e.g., “king of kings” or “holy of holies”). If Solomon was the author, perhaps this was his greatest composition; if not, the poem may be so designated because of its artistry or theme (see “Date, Authorship, and Structure” in the introduction to Song of Songs).

1:2–4. This woman is not passive, waiting for the man to act; she participates fully in their romantic activity, often initiating it. Her words convey the energy and urgency of her desire (1:2). “Caresses” often refers to lovemaking, and she finds the euphoric and intoxicating effect of his love to be even greater than that of wine. As is typical of love poetry, the poetic wording throughout the Song leaves the exact nature of the love/lovemaking ambiguous.

To pour out perfume (1:3) would more broadly disperse the fragrance. Perhaps hearing her lover’s name produces this effect. A person’s character was often associated with his or her name, and perhaps the woman’s reflection on his noble qualities triggers the delight described here. “The king” (1:4) may refer to Solomon (either a literary figure or the historical individual) or may reflect the way the woman sees her lover (he is her king). “Chambers” can refer to different kinds of rooms, including bedrooms, and ambiguity remains regarding the couple’s intention.

1:5–7. The woman’s words are probably directed to women whose skin reflects the benefits of never having worked outside (1:6). She indicates that her skin is dark because she has had to work in the vineyards. This suggests that she is from a poor family and may have been viewed as incompatible with beauty. Sometimes in the Song “vineyard” or garden refers to a literal one, and at other times it refers to the woman’s body. Both meanings are evident here.

The man is described as a shepherd (1:7), as is the woman in verse 8. The shepherd motif is common in love poetry, though it is also a metaphor for the king in the ancient Near East. She wants to know where he will be so that she can be with him during the day.

1:8–11. The man has feelings for her like those she has for him and thinks she is the “most beautiful of women” (1:8). He is interested only in her—no matter how much others may love him—and he will obviously welcome her visit. The man regularly calls the woman “my darling” (1:9a). It is a term of endearment that can have an intimate sense or a more general one (the masculine form of this Hebrew word means “friend, companion”).

Horses were used primarily for war, and seeing these animals pulling war chariots would have been impressive, suggesting qualities like nobility, beauty, and strength. But even warhorses can be allured and distracted by a mare (1:9b). The woman here has that effect on her lover.

1:12–14. The scent of the woman’s perfume (1:12) causes her to think of her lover as “a sachet of myrrh” (1:13). En-gedi was a beautiful and fertile oasis in the barren desert; the woman expresses that her lover stands apart from other men in as dramatic a way as En-gedi contrasts with the surrounding desert (1:14).

1:15. The man describes his lover by using words that she will echo back to him in verse 16 and reinforces his compliment by repeating the word “beautiful.”

1:16–2:1. The forest and the beauty of nature remind the woman of the special delight she finds in her lover, and nature is a fitting context for the couple as they find delight in each other (1:16–17). The “wildflower” (2:1) may be a crocus or meadow saffron, and the woman may be comparing herself to a beautiful wildflower or saying that she is only a common wildflower. “Lily” may refer to a lotus (see the CSB footnote), a symbol of life and regeneration in ancient iconography; in this case she would be making a very positive statement about herself.

A necklace from Syria from the fourth or fifth century BC.

2:2. The man turns the woman’s words into a compliment by telling her that she stands out from the other women like a beautiful flower in a field of thorn bushes.

2:3–7. The woman’s desire for her beloved has made her lovesick, and she asks for raisins and apricots, fruits symbolic of love (2:5). The refrain in 2:7 occurs again in 3:5 and 8:4. The woman warns others not to force love or to arouse it lightly; it is too powerful and requires a framework of commitment. The refrain probably also warns about the physical expression of love prior to a commitment in marriage, which in the Bible establishes the proper context for full physical intimacy.

The woman in Song of Songs calls herself “a wildflower of Sharon” (Sg 2:1). Sharon was a fertile plain to the south of Mount Carmel, often referred to symbolically (Is 33:9; 35:2; 65:10). The apostle Peter ministers in this region (Ac 9).

2. SEPARATION AND ANTICIPATION (2:8–3:5)

This long speech by the woman consists of 2:8–17 and 3:1–5. The first part captures the woman’s excitement as she anticipates the arrival of her lover. His excitement is also evident as he waits outside her house, hoping to catch a glimpse of her. Both of these poems begin with the two apart, and they come together in the course of the poem. In the second poem, the woman diligently seeks her lover until she finally finds him (see also the introductory comments on 5:2–6:3). The section ends with the same adjuration to the daughters of Jerusalem found in 2:7.

2:8–9. The woman regularly calls her lover “my love” (2:8). The term can also mean “brother” or “cousin” and in the plural can mean “love” or “lovemaking.” Its use in the book makes it clear that this is a term of great intimacy and endearment. The expressions “Look!” (2:8) and “See” (2:9) indicate something present and immediate. Energy and immediacy dominate verses 8–9. The woman is excited and filled with anticipation. The image of gazelles or stags bounding over the hills generates feelings of excitement and delight (2:9). A homonym for “gazelle” means “beautiful” and is likely part of what the metaphor is meant to communicate.

2:10–14. When the man is outside the woman’s house and separated from her by walls and windows, he describes her as a dove in a place inaccessible to him (2:14): the softness and color of the dove convey the idea of gentleness, and the sound the bird makes is soothing. He wants to see her and to hear her sweet voice. The word translated “face” actually means “form” (see the CSB footnote); he wants to experience the delight of looking at her and hearing the sound of her voice.

2:15–17. At the center of this relationship is the mutual commitment of the couple to each other, and this constitutes the foundation that makes growth toward maturity possible. While details are sparse, it is likely that such commitments were publicly formalized through covenants of betrothal and marriage. The woman recognizes that the man finds delight, satisfaction, and nourishment in her charms, and clearly this is mutual (2:16).

The woman envisions her lover as “a gazelle” or “young stag” (2:17), just as she did toward the beginning of this section (2:9). It is unclear whether her exhortation to “turn around” expresses her wish for him to return home or is an invitation for him to spend the night. If the context for this episode is prior to marriage, the exhortation may reflect the fact that, despite her passion and desire, this is not the time or place for the full physical expression of their love, so she reluctantly sends her lover away as they await the future. While “divided mountains” could refer to hilly terrain characterized by numerous ravines, it could also refer to her breasts and express her desire or invitation for sexual intimacy. The Hebrew term for “divided” might also be the name of a town near Jerusalem (see the CSB footnote).

3:1–5. These verses may describe a dream or something the woman imagines as she longs for her absent lover at night. Despite her desire and fervent search, she could not find him (3:1). This likely describes the common fear of losing someone precious, which seems even more ominous at night, as imagination runs wild. The mention of conception (3:4) raises the possibility that the woman’s goal was a sexual encounter with her lover and perhaps reflects what she imagined as she fantasized about the full physical expression of their love in marriage. In 3:5 the refrain from 2:7 is repeated.

Gazelles in the Judean desert. The woman compares her lover to a gazelle (Sg 2:17), an agile antelope that leaps and bounds across the terrain.

3. WEDDING AND CONSUMMATION (3:6–5:1)

3:6–11. This passage describes a royal wedding. Nothing explicitly connects it to the marriage of the man and the woman in the Song, but the best way to integrate the section with the rest of the book seems to be to understand it as describing their wedding, which through their eyes is a royal one. The poem suggests that in the eyes of each lover the other is royalty. The luxury, extravagance, and excitement described suggest the value they place on committed love.

The author captures the excitement and anticipation of observers as they strain to see an approaching procession (3:6). They cannot make out the particulars, and it is only as the entourage comes closer that they begin to discern specific details. The “smoke” rising in the distance heightens the mystery and raises the excitement as they watch the procession approach. “Myrrh,” “frankincense,” and “fragrant powder” create an aura of luxury and extravagance and add a sensory dimension to the experience.

The word translated “carriage” is used in later Hebrew for the enclosed platform on which a bride was carried in a wedding procession (3:9–10). The splendid and extravagant nature of this piece of furniture is reflected in the costly and exotic material used to make it. The crown (3:11) was probably a headpiece worn by a groom rather than a royal crown. Isaiah 61:10 also mentions the headdress of a groom on his wedding day.

4:1–7. The opening phrase, “How beautiful you are, my darling” (4:1), defines 4:1–7, and the unit ends with similar wording. The veil may support the idea that a wedding is being described. It was removed in the privacy of the bridal chamber, and the guests saw her face only after she came out of the chamber. As the man here looks at his beloved through the veil, which is obviously intended to conceal, his words may relate to earlier descriptions of her as a dove in inaccessible places in the rocks (2:14). The metaphor of goats descending down a hillside suggests dark, wavy hair gently flowing over her shoulders and down her back and perhaps recalls similar scenes the two have enjoyed in the country. The man praises both the whiteness and the evenness of the woman’s teeth (4:2)—something that would have been unusual in antiquity, where modern dental practices did not exist.

The comparison to “a slice of pomegranate” may reflect the pattern or colors he sees as he observes her through the veil (4:3). The pomegranate was known for its sweetness and is frequently found in ancient Near Eastern literature and imagery as a symbol of love, fertility, and fruitfulness; sexual and erotic nuances are probably also reflected in his description. The “tower of David” (4:4) was likely part of the defensive structures of some city and was impressive, beautiful, and strong.

In 4:5 the man describes her breasts using the same metaphor that she has used to describe him (2:16–17). Twin fawns grazing in a flower-filled meadow stir up feelings of softness, tranquility, and delight. “Mountain” and “hill” are metaphors for her breasts, while perfumes and spices capture the pleasure and delight he anticipates as they make love (4:6).

4:8–11. Amana, Senir, and Hermon, mountains in the Lebanon or Anti-Lebanon range to the north of Israel, are impressive but somewhat inaccessible. They are noted for their awe-inspiring beauty but are full of danger because of the terrain and animals such as lions and leopards (4:8). The metaphor reflects the woman’s fears that make her, despite her passionate desire for her lover, reluctant to give herself fully to him. He sees her awesome beauty but recognizes that she remains inaccessible.

The “sister” language (4:9) is a term of endearment indicating the closeness of the lovers’ relationship. Her beloved is overwhelmed by the sight of her and by her presence. A single glance or the sight of a single stone from her jewelry is enough to sweep him off his feet. In 4:10 the man repeats her praise for him in 1:2–3 and expands on her words. Her love/lovemaking and the exhilarating fragrance of her perfume are intoxicating and better than fragrant spices. [Song of Songs and Sexual Morality]

4:12–15. Gardens were places of relaxation and pleasure and produced an abundance of delightful sights, tastes, and smells (4:12–14). Love poetry often uses garden as a metaphor for female sexuality, as is the case here. Abundant water is necessary for a garden to flourish, and the lover describes his beloved as a garden, a spring, and a fountain (4:15). She is, though, a “locked garden” and a “sealed spring” and remains inaccessible to him (4:12). Despite his passion for her, he wants her as a willing partner in their lovemaking and awaits her invitation before enjoying the full delights of her love.

4:16. The man’s praise is interrupted by her invitation to come into her garden—which she now describes as his garden—to enjoy its delights. Genuine love is characterized by a profound respect for the other; it must be freely and graciously given and received as a gift.

5:1. This verse is the midpoint of the book in terms of verses, and many see it as the high point of the book. The lover accepts his beloved’s invitation, enters the previously locked garden, and enjoys its delicacies to the full (5:1a). Their sexual encounter is described in a way that elevates the experience above the coarse and purely sensual.

The invitation to eat and drink in 5:1b is likely directed both to the couple and to the book’s audience; it stands as an invitation to learn about God’s order from what they see and hear as they observe the lovers. They are to put into practice the attitudes and actions that are displayed here.

4. FRUSTRATION AND PURSUIT (5:2–6:3)

The woman’s speech (5:2–8) is followed by two units of dialogue between her and the daughters of Jerusalem (5:9–16 and 6:1–3). Like 2:8–3:5, this section recounts an experience where the woman was dreaming at night about her absent lover. Her distress over his absence prompted her to seek him in the city, where she encountered watchmen and the daughters of Jerusalem. Both sections include the man standing outside her house/door, desiring to be with her. Differences exist in the role of the daughters of Jerusalem and in the response of the watchmen. Both sections include the woman’s affirmation of the couple’s mutual commitment (2:16 and 6:3). This section also contains a poem in which the woman praises her lover’s body. The woman’s hesitation in responding to him results in separation, followed by her diligent search for him. She ends the section with a statement reflecting her confidence about their commitment.

Middle Eastern spices. The references to spices heighten the sensual imagery of Song of Songs.

5:2–8. The expression “I was sleeping, but my heart was awake” (5:2) leaves it uncertain whether this is an actual experience or a dream. The text gives no reason for the man’s appearance, except to find respite from the uncomfortable conditions of the evening. The word “open” occurs three times in the passage (5:2, 5, 6), each time without an object, giving it a suggestive tone.

The reference to thrusting his hand through the opening describes his attempt to open the door from the outside (5:4). His persistence has apparently increased her desire for him and prompted her to respond to his request. Myrrh (5:5) was often associated with love or lovemaking and suggests that romantic passions have been aroused. The woman’s distress at his absence (“my heart sank,” 5:6) caused her to seek him immediately, despite the risk of wandering through city streets late at night. Perhaps the guards beat her (5:7) because they assumed that no woman except a prostitute would be alone in the city at such a late hour.

5:9–14. The woman responds to the questions by the daughters of Jerusalem (5:9) with a poem celebrating her beloved’s worth and noble virtues (5:10–16). Her description would probably provide little help in recognizing him but reveals how she views him. He has taken on larger-than-life qualities in her eyes. His strength is impressive; his beauty breathtaking; his worth immense. This man is too wonderful for her not to pursue him and do whatever is necessary to protect their relationship; he is too valuable to lose.

By comparing her lover with precious metals (5:11) and rare and beautiful stones (5:12b), she affirms that he is truly one in a million (5:10). She describes his eyes (5:12a) as he has described hers in 1:15 and 4:1, adding “beside flowing streams,” perhaps to suggest peace and tranquility. The connection between myrrh and lovemaking in the Song makes it likely that she is thinking about his kisses in 5:13. Lapis lazuli (5:14) is beautiful blue stone (from the northeastern part of what is today Afghanistan) that was highly prized in the ancient world.

5:15–16. Cedar from Lebanon (5:15) was valued by kings for their building projects. Its aromatic quality makes it resistant to dry rot and damage from insects, and it was renowned for its strength. The metaphor affirms the man’s magnificent and breathtaking appearance as well as his strength.

Using words similar to those he uses of her in 4:11, in 5:16 the woman reiterates the delight that she finds, possibly in his words, but more likely in his sweet kisses. In 4:7 he describes her as “absolutely beautiful,” and here she makes a similar point, calling him “absolutely desirable,” which emphasizes his attractiveness and value. She is emphatically saying to the daughters of Jerusalem, “This is what my beloved is like! This is why he is so special! Now do you see why I cannot let anything undermine this relationship?”

Cedar from Lebanon (Sg 5:15), a highly valued building material, was used in constructing the temple in Jerusalem as well as David’s and Solomon’s palaces (2 Sm 5:11; 1 Kg 5–7).

6:1–3. The women’s inquiry about where the woman’s beloved has gone (6:1) is not unexpected, since they want to search for her lover, but her response is surprising because it implies that she now knows where he is (6:2). This is poetry, and the logic of other genres is not to be expected. Her reply picks up on a number of expressions used earlier in the book. The woman herself is likely the garden, and she knows that he can be found with her grazing and gathering lilies, terms that imply intimacy. Her reflection about her lover has reaffirmed his immense worth to her and reminded her of a central reality in their relationship (6:3).

5. PRAISE OF BEAUTY (6:4–7:13)

This section begins with another poem praising the woman’s beauty and describing its effect on the man (6:4–10). It is perhaps his response to her fears about their separation and assures her that he remains irrevocably committed to her. He is overwhelmed by her spectacular beauty, which prompts women, from queens to ordinary citizens, to praise her and call her blessed. The man praises his beloved (7:1–9a) in perhaps the most erotic poem in the book, and the woman responds (7:9b–13) by inviting him to join her in the country, where she will give him her love.

6:4–10. Tirzah was the capital of the northern kingdom for about fifty years (6:4). Jerusalem was located on a hill surrounded on three sides by valleys and would have been an impressive sight. This woman’s stunning beauty creates in the man the same feelings of awe produced when one sees a splendid city like Tirzah or Jerusalem or a powerful army on the move. On 6:5–7, see the comments on 4:1–3. [Banner]

“Sixty” and “eighty” are probably figures for a large number (6:8). The use of the plural “queens” is unusual because a king would normally have only one queen, but the word probably includes all the king’s wives. Concubines were wives of secondary rank. This woman’s qualities surpass even the elite women in society, and even they are forced to acknowledge her excellence (6:9). The man compares her to the sun and the moon, which inspired such awe in the ancient world that they were deified by Israel’s neighbors (6:10).

6:11–12. The woman probably went to the nut orchard to check on the new spring growth, but nuts were often thought to possess both magical and sexual properties, and the same is true with vines and pomegranates in the Song (6:11).

6:13. The Hebrew word for “Shulammite” looks like a feminine form of “Solomon.” It may be related to the word shalom and mean something like “perfect one” (see the CSB footnote). It could be another way of saying that the man finds no blemish in her (cf. 4:7; 5:2). On the lips of the friends, it may reflect sarcasm.

7:1–5. The man again praises the woman’s beauty (7:1–9a), and his desire to enjoy the delights found in her is clear. Feet are not normally considered erotic or stimulating, but in the man’s view every part of her body is beautiful (7:1). Chapter 1 suggests that the young woman is from the ordinary citizenry rather than from the country’s elite, so “princess” probably means “noblewoman” (see the CSB footnote) and reflects how the lover sees her. Wheat and wine represent nourishment and sustenance (7:2). Thus the man is praising the woman for her ability to bring refreshment and new life to him and to bring children into the world.

He likely praises her elegant and exquisite beauty and the delicate workmanship reflected in the smoothness of her neck (7:4a). He could also be describing a beautiful and valuable ivory necklace that adorns her neck. The metaphors for the woman’s nose and head perhaps describe something dominating and impressive (7:4b–5). They may also reflect the value of products from Lebanon and Carmel. The dye used to produce purple color was obtained from a certain shellfish, and because it was so expensive, its use was limited to royalty and the very rich. “A king” likely refers to her lover, who is captivated by her luxuriant hair.

7:6–9a. Song of Songs 7:6 includes the same words with which the subsection began in verse 1 (“How beautiful”) and introduces the next subunit, which describes his intention to enjoy these delights to the full. The woman is tall and stately like the date palm, which sometimes reaches a height of eighty to a hundred feet (7:7). Her breasts are like sweet dates, and he wants to taste and kiss them (7:8).

7:9b–13. The woman affirms her fundamental commitment to the man, and elsewhere (2:16; 6:3; and likely 8:6) his commitment to her is affirmed in similar terms (7:10). She recognizes his strong sexual desire for her, and as the following verses make clear, the desire is mutual.

Springtime, gardens, budding plants, pomegranates, and vineyards are regularly associated with love in the Song and combine to create a picture of the spectacular delights the couple anticipate sharing together (7:11–12). Mandrakes have a long root similar to a potato and have long been used in folk medicine and as an aphrodisiac (7:13).

6. THE POWER OF LOVE (8:1–14)

This entire section lacks thematic coherence. It is possible that 8:1–4 belongs in the previous section, since the warning in verse 4 has previously ended sections.

8:1–4. Verses 1–4 describe the woman’s frustration over social constraints about expressing their love. Kissing one’s brother in public was apparently acceptable, while kissing a lover—or even a spouse—was not. “Sister” was used earlier as a term of endearment (e.g., 4:9–12; 5:1), but here “brother” refers to a blood relative (8:1). The woman imagines giving her lover spiced wine and the nectar of her pomegranates, with its erotic associations, likely as a prelude to intimacy (8:2). The refrain of 2:7 and 3:5 is again repeated in 8:4.

8:5a. Previously, the warning to the daughters of Jerusalem was followed by the appearance of the beloved (or Solomon’s sedan chair, 3:7–9). This time it is followed by the woman with her beloved.

8:5b–7. “Awaken” and “conceived” (8:5b) have strong sexual connotations, and the woman is likely reflecting back on the time when their love was first stirred.

Verses 6–7 represent the climax of the book’s teaching and deal with the power and nature of true love. Seal impressions were used to indicate ownership of material, and, on correspondence, indicated that a document was authentic and came with the sender’s authority. Putting her seal on his heart may reflect the personal and private nature of their commitment, while her seal on his arm represents a public declaration of it (8:6). “Jealousy” is a synonym for “love,” and God’s jealousy for Israel likely defines what is involved here. Israel had the assurance of God’s passionate commitment, but he also required Israel’s exclusive commitment to him—Israel was to have no other gods before him. The expression “almighty flame” ends with a shortened form of the name Yahweh (“LORD”; see the CSB footnote); this may also be a term for lightning, an appropriate parallel to “fiery flames” in the previous line.

Love resists the most formidable obstacles that can confront a couple (8:7). The author may be suggesting that love can resist even those forces that want to plunge the world into chaos and disrupt life as God intended it. The kind of passion for another person described in the Song is a gift. It cannot be bought or sold, and every attempt to do so will be received with contempt.

8:8–10. Verses 8–10 describe a conflict with the woman’s brothers regarding her readiness for a romantic relationship. The woman’s brothers think their little sister is too immature for marriage and want to guard her chastity (8:8). She and her lover vigorously disagree with them (8:10).

A wall is meant to keep people out and probably represents chaste behavior (8:9). If the brothers see prudent behavior, they will reinforce her inaccessibility and enhance her beauty with a silver barricade. A door lets people in, and if they see inappropriate behavior, they will nail the door shut with cedar boards to protect her virtue.

The woman insists that she is sexually mature and that her virtue is intact (8:10). She may also be asserting her right to make her own decisions about love and romance. The word for “finds” can also mean “brings” (see the CSB footnote), and both meanings may be intended here. Her lover agrees that she is sufficiently mature to bring well-being and contentment to him, but in their relationship she will also find peace/contentment. Bringing and finding shalom (“peace”) may well be a goal of the seeking and finding seen throughout the book.

8:11–12. Verses 11–12 contrast Solomon’s “vineyard” with the couple’s relationship. Song of Songs 8:11 probably refers to an actual vineyard that Solomon placed into the care of managers, perhaps like an arrangement between an owner and a tenant farmer. In the light of verse 12, it is possible that Solomon’s great number of wives are also in view. Presumably, each tenant had to pay Solomon a “thousand pieces of silver” for the use of the vineyard and then received “two hundred” in compensation for the work.

The meaning of “vineyard” changes from verse 11, and the vineyard becomes the woman herself, including her body and sexuality, which she freely gives to the man she loves. Song of Songs 8:12 likely contrasts a relationship based on love and self-giving for the benefit of the other with the king’s affairs (commercial and also harem related), which were managed by others and brought him benefits (income and physical pleasure). The woman’s comments reflect the mutuality of the relationship as seen throughout the poem and celebrate the value of her vineyard over everything Solomon owns. The verse reinforces the idea that love cannot be bought or coerced and affirms the freedom of the woman to make choices about her sexuality on the basis of love rather than having them dictated to her.

8:13–14. Verses 13–14 end the book but leave the story open ended as the woman sends the man away but then calls him back to her as she did in 2:17. She responds to his request to hear her voice (8:13) by inviting him to join her (8:14). The reference to “mountains of spices” is probably an allusion to her breasts, as representative of all her charms and the delight they will bring him. The Song ends without finality or closure.