Proverbs

1. FOREWORD (1:1–7)

Proverbs 1–9 serves as the theological introduction to the canonical book, giving a foundational introduction to biblical wisdom—its nature, sources, acquisition, and value. Chapters 10–29 build on this foundation, offering a plethora of illustrations of what wisdom and its opposite, folly, look like in everyday life. In effect, Pr 1–9 offers the “Wisdom 101” course, while Pr 10–29 presents “Wisdom 201.” Proverbs 1 is introductory both to the book as a whole and to the prologue in particular, introducing all of the prominent elements of chapters 1–9. Within this theological introduction, 1:1–7 forms the foreword, giving the book’s title, purpose, and central theme. [Wisdom]

1:1. The title presents King Solomon as the primary author, raising the possibility of an initial edition of the book that contained only Solomonic proverbs, perhaps ending at 22:16. Interestingly, outside of this preface and the titles to the Solomonic collections (10:1; 25:1), the word “proverb” occurs only in 26:7, 9.

1:2–3. The purpose statements in 1:2–6 are grammatically linked to verse 1: these Solomonic proverbs are presented in order to achieve specific pedagogical and behavioral goals. Verse 5, which interrupts the sequence, describes how wise individuals will respond to this challenge. Verses 2a and 3–4 refer to the contents of the instruction.

The book of Proverbs is designed to help its readers experience wise discipline, the theory and practice of proper living. Appropriately, the first wisdom term employed here (1:2a) is the general term “wisdom” (Hb hokmah; there are almost one hundred occurrences in Proverbs of this or a related form of the word). “Discipline” designates the process of learning to live consistently according to wisdom principles through training, modeling, and correction.

Proverbs 1:2b and 1:6 suggest that one must also learn the skill of interpreting and properly applying various wisdom forms, something that the fool is unable to do (26:7, 9). Proverbs 1:3b indicates that biblical wisdom is not simply the art of successfully navigating around the twists, turns, and submerged boulders of life; it also involves the pursuit of justice, equity, and fairness in interpersonal, especially legal and commercial, relationships.

1:4–6. Proverbs 1:4 introduces those potentially benefiting from this instruction. The primary addressees are the “inexperienced,” who presumably are also “young.” The “inexperienced” are simple, even naive, the stereotypical freshmen, but also open-minded and not yet set in their ways. Even the beginner in wisdom’s school can receive the necessary instruction to meet life’s challenges.

A distinguishing characteristic of the truly wise is that they continually augment their wisdom resources (1:5). The wise individual devotes special attention to the various subgenres through which the insights of the wise are expressed, including enigmatic sayings that need to be solved (“riddles,” 1:6; cf. Jdg 14:12 and 1 Kg 10:1).

1:7. Proverbs 1:7a concludes the foreword by introducing the foundational theological principle or motto of the book of Proverbs. The phrase “the fear of the LORD” also occurs in 9:10, thus bracketing the book’s introductory section (also 1:29; 2:5; 8:13, and nine times in chaps. 10–31). To fear the Lord is not to cower in terror before an unknowable deity; rather, it entails a life lived in constant awareness of one’s dependence on and obligation toward the sovereign Creator. This expression distinguishes biblical wisdom from all other types of human learning. Ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature outside of Israel never presents wisdom as rooted in one’s relationship to a deity. The “beginning” refers to the essential foundation without which no growth in understanding can take place.

Proverbs 1:7b concludes the preface by distinguishing fools, who alone despise the benefits of wise discipline (cf. 1:2), from those addressed in these introductory remarks.

2. PROLOGUE: INTRODUCING THE WAY OF WISDOM (1:8–9:18)

A. The initial appeals of the parents and Lady Wisdom (1:8–33). Proverbs 1:8–19 contains the first parental lesson out of ten (or more) in the prologue, exhibiting the basic structural features that the additional lessons will follow. The following three features are typical in these lessons: (1) the exordium, or introduction, consisting of an address to the audience, an exhortation to hear and remember the teachings, and motivational statements that extol the teachings’ excellence and value to their possessor; (2) the lesson, or teaching proper; and (3) the conclusion, or summary statement, which generalizes the lesson’s principle.

1:8–9. This first lesson contains three addresses to the son (1:8, 10, 15), each followed by imperatives (commands or prohibitions), thus dividing the instruction into three sections (1:8–9, 10–14, 15–19).

Proverbs 1:8–9 contains the introductory call to attention and the benefits of doing so. The command to “listen” (1:8a) occurs at least twelve times in Proverbs, eight of these in chapters 1–9, and emphasizes the importance of being receptive to the guidance of a parent or sage. In conformity to the ancient Near Eastern instructional genre, Proverbs is directed at young sons, preparing them to lead an effective public life of service, perhaps in the royal court (since Solomon is the designated author). The Egyptian texts, however, never refer to a mother’s instruction, as in 1:8b, which suggests that the home is the setting for such training. The lessons learned there will adorn the youth like a garland or wreath (1:9; cf. 4:9) or decorative chains (Sg 4:9).

1:10–14. Verses 10–14 offer an anticipatory warning against yielding to the temptation to join a violent gang. Those unambiguously labeled as “sinners” seek comrades in their devious, violent, unprovoked, and unjustified actions, for which they possess an enormous appetite (1:10–12), offering the enticing promise of sharing the battle “plunder” (1:13; cf. Dt 20:14 and Jos 11:14, which use the same word).

1:15–19. Verses 15–19 present the admonition proper, followed by reasons for heeding it. Proverbs 1:15 introduces the major image and theme of the two ways in Proverbs, which can refer either to specific decisions or actions or to one’s general life choices or lifestyle. Paul quotes this description of frivolous bloodshed (1:16) in Rm 3:15. Proverbs 1:17 introduces a proverbial saying that suggests that a bird is cleverer than these evil schemers, who in setting an ambush for others are actually lying in wait (1:18; cf. 1:11) for their own lives!

1:20–33. In 1:20–33, wisdom is presented not simply as an abstract capacity or skill but as a person who directly addresses those most lacking in wisdom. The figure of Lady Wisdom is best understood as both a poetic personification of a divine attribute and a foil, or conceptual antithesis, to the promiscuous or foolish woman. Lady Wisdom embodies the fullness of wisdom qualities. The presence of a female figure justifies the use of the language of romantic love, as the author portrays the acquisition of wisdom as something profoundly personal, enjoyable, beneficial, and lifelong.

In this section, Lady Wisdom is presented as a prophetlike figure who seeks to rescue fools from the error (and consequences) of their ways, in effect assuming a mediatorial role between God and humanity. According to the fourfold description of Lady Wisdom’s location (1:20–21), she calls out to those engaged in the business of everyday life, where commerce, communication, and legal affairs are conducted. She rebukes both the naive and the hardened mockers for clinging to their folly and repeatedly spurning her corrective counsel (1:22–27). As a result of their resistance, when “calamity” strikes, the roles will be reversed (1:26). These youths will then call out for help (1:28a; cf. 1:24), only to be ignored and mocked by her and abandoned to bear their self-inflicted—and potentially fatal—troubles alone (1:28b–33).

B. The commendation of wisdom (2:1–4:27). With chapter 2, the parental speaker begins a positive recommendation of wisdom, which encompasses three lengthy exhortations (chaps. 2–4). Chapter 2 lays the foundation, describing the source and primary benefits of wisdom, while chapters 3–4 offer more-detailed descriptions of the values of wise behavior. One striking emphasis in chapter 2 is the acquisition of wisdom as the result of both intensive human effort and divine endowment, while the remaining instructions focus on the first of these two, human effort.

2:1–4. Verses 1–4 assume that the son sincerely desires to obtain wisdom. Three (or four) conditions for obtaining wisdom are set forth here. A clear progression is discernible in the sequence of verbs employed, moving from passive to active engagement. The first step is receptivity: “accept” (2:1a; cf. 1:3; 4:10; 8:10; 10:8; 21:11; 24:32). The child must welcome the parental instruction and store it up as valuable and authoritative “commands” (2:1b; cf. Ps 119:11). Proverbs 2:2 describes holistic engagement involving the ear and heart, while 2:3 notes the urgency of the undertaking, as one cries aloud for wisdom. Proverbs 2:4 forms the climax of the quest for wisdom; the same persistence required of one seeking precious metals is demanded of the one who wishes to become wise (cf. Jb 28).

2:5–8. Verses 5–8 portray initial rewards for persevering in one’s quest for wisdom and the general protection that wisdom offers to all who attain it. The first result is somewhat surprising. Rather than becoming exceedingly wise or successful, one first must develop true piety, understanding what it means to fear the Lord (2:5). The quest for true wisdom inevitably leads first to God, since according to 2:6, he is its ultimate source, and it is his exclusive prerogative to grant wisdom to every earnest seeker.

Wisdom’s primary benefit according to this instruction is protection during one’s journey through life. Remarkably, the quester has been transformed in the process. What God “stores up” for those who “store up” the parents’ words (2:1) is “success” (2:7). God also serves as a protective shield for the blameless, perhaps an allusion to his earlier promise to Abraham (Gn 15:1), of whom he made a similar demand (Gn 17:1).

2:9–11. Following the general protection of wisdom in verses 5–8, verses 9–19 portray the specific protection that wisdom offers. Wisdom’s second benefit is described in 2:9–11 (“Then . . .”). In seeking wisdom, one develops not only an intimate relationship with God but also an intimate understanding of moral rectitude (2:9; cf. 1:3). Since wisdom now pervades the command center of one’s life and acquiring knowledge has become an enjoyable task (2:10), personal discretion assumes the role previously carried out by God (2:8) of protecting the youth from the dangers brought about by wrong choices and missteps (2:11). Divine wisdom will help the youth get on the right path and stay on it.

2:12–19. Verses 12–19 then describe the two primary threats to the moral integrity of the youth: perverse men (2:12–15) and seductive women (2:16–19). These two groups are described in a similar fashion, with emphasis on their habitual modes of speaking and the good that they leave behind (2:13, 17).

In 2:16, the dangerous woman is introduced for the first time in Proverbs; a fuller portrait of this woman is given in chapters 5–7. The descriptions of this individual in chapters 1–9 suggest that she is a married, adulterous woman who is estranged from her husband and from society in general because of her promiscuity. More significantly, she represents all forms of socially destructive sexual behavior. Unlike the wicked men of 2:12–15, who do not present a direct threat to the son unless he joins them on their “crooked” paths that presumably will not reach the desired destination, a single encounter with the seductress can be fatal, and 2:19 expresses this threat comprehensively.

2:20–22. Verses 20–22 introduce the ultimate benefits of staying on the right path: good companions (2:20), long life in the land (2:21), and avoiding the fate of the wicked (2:22). These verses use language reminiscent of the covenantal promises and threats regarding the land. (For example, Dt 28:63 uses the same rare verb translated “ripped out” in Pr 2:22.) In effect, covenantal promises to the nation are being extended to the individual who embraces wisdom. Such an individual will remain in the land under God’s favor rather than be cut off (see Lv 7:20, 21, 25, 27; 17:4, 9–10, 14; 18:29).

3:1–4. Chapter 3 continues the positive recommendation of wisdom. Based on thematic development, the chapter can be subdivided into four subsections: 3:1–4, 5–12, 13–26, 27–35. Verses 1–4 set forth additional advantages of preserving wisdom instruction.

The words “teaching” and “commands” (3:1; also in 6:20) are commonly paired with reference to Mosaic law (cf. Ex 24:12; Jos 22:5). Parental instructions are authoritative, not simply good advice. To “forget” involves not simply letting something slip one’s mind; it entails failing to act accordingly. Observing this exhortation, the son is assured, will result in a long and satisfying life (3:2; cf. Ex 20:12; Eph 6:1–3). This promise is problematic, since many people know someone who lived a wise, God-fearing life only to die young. Proverbs teach the ABCs of morality, emphasizing their ultimate validation in the future despite temporary exceptions (see the overview in the introduction to Proverbs).

“Loyalty and faithfulness” (Hb hesed and emet; cf. Pr 14:22; 16:6; 20:28) should be publicly displayed (“tie . . . around”) and permanent traits (“write . . . on,” 3:3). Such fidelity to one’s divine-human and human-human commitments will lead to divine and human favor (3:4; cf. Lk 2:52). These two relationships are in turn further unfolded in 3:5–12 and 27–35, respectively.

3:5–8. Verses 5–10 continue the pattern of verses 1–4, the odd-numbered verses containing commands and the even-numbered verses promised results. Proverbs 3:5–6 encourages complete reliance on God and his revealed will—rather than on oneself—in all decisions and actions. As a result, God will help one to head straight for the goal and avoid unnecessary detours.

Verses 7–8 continue the theme of life direction, with verse 7a paralleling verse 5b. To not be wise “in your own eyes” is a question of whose approval one values (3:7a; cf. 3:4). Ironically, although Proverbs repeatedly emphasizes the quest for wisdom, the greatest folly is to assume that one has arrived, for that fosters self-reliance. Proverbs 3:7b underlines the inseparable relationship between wisdom, piety, and obedience. Reverence for God compels a person to avoid all that is displeasing to God (8:13; 16:6; 23:17; cf. 13:19), and living a life that thus avoids destructive behavior will enhance one’s physical well-being (3:8; cf. 4:22).

3:9–12. Verses 9–10 imply that trusting God completely includes trusting him with one’s material needs by returning a portion of one’s wealth. Proverbs 3:9 contains a rare mention of sacrifices in Proverbs; the offering of firstfruits is described in Ex 23:19 and Dt 18:4. The assurance in 3:10 speaks of abundance but not necessarily of miraculous multiplication (cf. Israel’s corporate covenantal promises: Lv 26:3–5; Jl 2:23–24).

Proverbs 3:11–12 serves as a counterpart to verses 5–6, encouraging the youth, as in verse 1, to be receptive to instruction. Here the Lord is compared with a loving parent who, of necessity, dispenses both discipline and corrective rebuke (the pair appears nine times in Proverbs, always in this order; cf. Dt 8:5; Heb 12:5–6).

3:13–26. A threefold recommendation of wisdom is given in 3:13–26. First, the person who finds personified wisdom will experience a happy, pleasant, and lengthy life (3:13–18; “happy” begins and concludes these verses). By use of several richly evocative metaphors, wisdom is described as incomparably more profitable than precious metals or gems, as offering tranquil paths, and as a life-giving and life-enhancing tree (11:30; 13:12; 15:4; cf. Gn 2:9; 3:22, 24; Rv 2:7). [Tree of Life]

Second, the very same treasures that a person can “find” or “acquire” (3:13) were foundational when God created the cosmos (3:19–20; Pr 8 expands on this claim). Divine knowledge is reflected in God’s superintendence of nature in both catastrophic (Gn 7:11) and everyday (Jb 36:28) circumstances. If wisdom and understanding were essential even for God in carrying out his creational and providential tasks, how much more should we as humans consider their acquisition indispensable for carrying out our responsibilities in God’s world!

Third, the final unit modifies the instructional form by abbreviating the charge (3:21) and expanding the explanation (3:22–26). You should hang on to your specialized skills in advising and decision making, for they literally can save lives (as detailed in 3:23–26; cf. 1:33) and enhance your reputation (3:22; cf. 1:9).

3:27–35. Proverbs 3:27–35 describes the impact of acquired wisdom on interpersonal relationships, thus corresponding to 3:5–12. These verses suggest that one can avoid “the ruin of the wicked” (3:25; both 3:26 and 3:32–34 point to divine causality) by not treating others wickedly. Proverbs 3:27–30 is parallel in formulation, each verse beginning with a negative imperative (“don’t”) followed by a qualifying phrase. The first two verses address good deeds that should not be neglected, while the next two deal with evil deeds to be avoided. (Don’t harm the one who has not harmed you!) The fifth negative imperative (3:31) warns against envying a violent person, presumably because no punishment for such actions is apparent, leading one to copy those ways.

Proverbs 3:32–34 gives the rationale for this prohibition by noting God’s response. Above all, such people are “detestable” to the Lord (3:32). This is the first of twenty-one occurrences of the word toebah in Proverbs, which designates morally or cultically abhorrent practices (e.g., aberrant sexual relationships, idol worship, occult activities, child sacrifice, eating unclean food, sacrificing defective animals, business fraud). The godly, however, are offered friendship with God, literally his “confidential counsel” (see the CSB footnote; cf. Pss 25:14; 55:14; Am 3:7). Various proverbs suggest that one’s behavior can influence the well-being of one’s entire household (3:33)—they often share one’s attitudes and actions and will share also in one’s fate. Five different designations for the “bad” person appear in 3:31–35, as well as four designations for the “good.” Proverbs 3:35 characterizes the preceding actions and attitudes under the general rubrics of wisdom and folly as moral categories and presents their well-deserved consequences: honor or shame.

James 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5 quote directly from the Greek Septuagint translation of Pr 3:34.

4:1–9. Proverbs 4, which concludes the positive commendation of wisdom, consists of three instructions, each of which begins with a direct address (4:1, 10, 20). In 4:1–9, which utilizes several terms from the preceding section, the father passes on counsel from his own father that is marked by another metaphorical presentation of wisdom as a woman. Proverbs 4:1 uses “sons” rather than “my son” for the first time in the book (cf. 5:7; 7:24; 8:32), which, along with the reference to the mother in 1:8 and 6:20, suggests that a parent rather than a professional teacher is speaking here. The call to heed is grounded not in consequences but rather in an awareness of one’s family heritage.

The grandfather’s words are quoted in 4:4b–9. Obedience brings life (4:4b = 7:2a)—this is a promise not of eternal life but of an existence enhanced both qualitatively and quantitatively, as developed in the preceding instruction (3:2, 18, 22). “Get” (Hb qanah, 4:5, 7) is a favored term, used fourteen times in Proverbs. There is an intimate relationship between retaining (godly) parental instruction and acquiring wisdom and understanding, and the latter should be one’s top priority. The metaphorical Lady Wisdom emerges in 4:6–9 (similar to 3:13–18): you should not “abandon” (also 4:2) wisdom but rather lovingly embrace her. In return, wisdom will guard (2:11) and grace you like a crown.

4:10–19. A second instruction follows in 4:10–19, which, like 1:10–19, warns against following the “way” or “path” (i.e., mode of behavior; 4:11, 14, 19) of the wicked rather than wisdom’s way. In a culture in which this-worldly prosperity was often viewed as a sign of divine blessing and an early death as a divine curse, no greater motivation could be given to a youthful audience than the promise of a long, good life marked by steady progress rather than stumbling (4:10–12; cf. 3:6).

Proverbs 4:16–17 explains why one should completely avoid the “path” of evildoers (4:14–15): such individuals are obsessed with carrying out wicked and violent actions. It literally makes their day, being as essential to their existence as bread and wine. Proverbs 4:18–19 offers an additional reason. The way of the righteous person just keeps getting brighter as one proceeds along it, while the way of the wicked is always utterly dark. (Note the poetic justice in the contrasting uses of “stumble” in 4:12, 16, 19.)

4:20–27. This final section of chapter 4 is dominated by positive imperatives, again promising life to those who keep to the right path (4:22, 23; cf. 10, 13). The contrast in 4:21 between losing sight of and retaining these words within the heart involves not simply memorizing them but rather consistently keeping them in mind when deciding what actions to take in a given situation. Sustained health is a frequently emphasized component of the promise of life resulting from wise living (4:22). One should watchfully protect the heart from all harmful influences (4:23), such as twisted talk and crooked conversation (4:24; also 6:12). This must become a top priority, because life-determining decisions flow forth from the heart as control center.

The twofold path is a common motif within the wisdom tradition and is found throughout the OT and the NT (e.g., Pr 12:26, 28; Pss 1:6; 119:29–30; Jr 6:16; 21:8; Mt 7:13–14; 2 Pt 2:15).

Wisdom and folly engage the entire person: ear (4:20), eyes and eyelids (4:21, 25), body/flesh (4:22), heart (4:21, 23), mouth and lips (4:24), and feet (4:26–27). The concluding verses (4:26–27) take up the path metaphor, warning the youth, as in chapter 2, to get on the right track and then to avoid getting sidetracked (cf. Dt 17:20; 28:14; Jos 1:7; 23:6; 2 Kg 22:2; 2 Ch 34:2).

C. Warnings against folly, especially sexual infidelity (5:1–7:27). Proverbs 5–7 forms the second major section of the prologue. Whereas the lessons in chapters 2–4 primarily involve the commendation of wisdom and its benefits, those in chapters 5–7 offer warnings against folly (i.e., against harmful relationships) and its consequences, especially involvement with “the wayward woman.” Instruction regarding sexual issues (5:3–6, 8–20; 6:24–35; 7:16–19) is supplemented by ethical instruction on other topics (6:1–19) and framed by introductory and concluding material (5:1–2, 7, 21–23; 6:20–23; 7:1–4).

5:1–6. Chapter 5 differs from chapters 6–7 in its positive commendation of marital fidelity and its delights. A general warning against the “forbidden” woman (5:3–6), which expands on 2:16–19, follows the usual call to attentiveness (5:1–2). Acquiring discretion (5:2) is critical because the loose woman is so dangerously seductive to those who lack it. Sweet and smooth flattering talk (5:3; cf. 2:16; 6:24; 7:5, 21; see also Sg 4:11) may constitute an irresistible combination, but in 5:4 the woman is unmasked. In reality she is like wormwood and a double-edged sword. “In the end” and similar phrases introduce an important concept in Proverbs (5:4; cf. 5:11; 14:12, 13; 16:25; 23:32). The wise person sees beyond the attractive (or painful) present to the ultimate consequence (or benefit), as summarized in Ec 7:8.

This attractive woman is headed downward toward death (5:5) due to her carelessness (5:6). In Proverbs, ignorance of what one is doing (i.e., staggering down a crooked path like a drunkard [cf. Is 29:9] or a blind person [Lm 4:14]) and of its consequences is characteristic of the foolish individual (see also Pr 4:19; 7:23; 9:13, 18).

5:7–14. A specific warning against this woman follows, with the introductory phrase “so now” calling for an appropriate response to what verses 1–6 have just presented (cf. 7:24; 8:32). The farther away from danger one stays, the less likely one is to be drawn in by her wiles (5:8) and suffer for it (5:9–11).

Three consequences are noted. (1) You will “give up your vitality” (5:9a)—perhaps referring, in light of verse 9b, either to possessions amassed through payment for years of hard work or, more likely, to service rendered to a cruel taskmaster (or an angry husband; cf. 6:34–35)—as a penalty for being caught in the act (5:9–10). (2) With poetic justice, the young man who yields to the “forbidden [literally, “strange”] woman” (5:3) will end up giving his strength to satiate “strangers” (5:10)—the son has more to lose than his virtue! (3) He also will experience physical anguish and debilitation (5:11); venereal disease could be the cause.

The remorseful fool rages angrily (5:12–14). He has learned too late the high cost of rejecting discipline and correction (cf. 1:7, 30) offered by parents or teachers (financial and physical ruin and social ostracism), barely avoiding an even worse fate (e.g., death).

5:15–23. In verse 15, the speaker shifts abruptly to a call for sexual fidelity and praise of marital bliss. Sexual pleasure within the context of marriage is addressed in 5:15, 17a, 18–19; sex outside of marriage is discouraged in 5:16, 17b, 20. The parental charge begins with a vivid but tasteful water metaphor (reminiscent of Sg 4:12, 15), developed positively in 5:15 and negatively in 5:16 (cf. 7:18; 9:17; Sg 5:1). The repeated use of “your” in 5:15–18 emphasizes the exclusivity, not the possessiveness, of the relationship between husband and wife. Verse 15 describes an intentional, private, refreshing “drink”; verse 16 a promiscuous, public, and polluted overflow. Thus the initial warning not to yield to the woman’s allure, lest one be forced to share one’s prized possessions (i.e., wealth) with strangers, is followed by a warning against voluntarily sharing one’s most valuable “possession” (i.e., his wife) with strangers (5:17) due to a permissive lifestyle.

Proverbs 5:18–20 describes the exhilaration of marital sexuality. One’s lifelong partner (cf. Pr 2:17; Mal 2:14), or “loving deer, a graceful doe” (Pr 5:19; cf. Sg 2:7; 3:5), is a source of both delight and intense pleasure (5:18–19). That the son should trade such pure ecstasy for the thrill of an illicit liaison is inconceivable (5:20).

The father’s warning against sexual indiscretion is sealed by a theological rationale (5:21–23). God carefully notes and assesses everything that a person does (5:21), and a lack of self-discipline as well as sinful folly (5:23; cf. 5:12–13) can capture, hold fast, and even destroy a person. Abandoning one’s wife for the lure of the seductress may cause one’s head to spin, but it can be a fatal misstep.

6:1–5. The next lesson, in 6:1–19, treats several topics related to financial affairs (6:1–5), work (6:6–11), and negative character traits (6:12–19), followed by another lesson on sexual morality (6:20–35). A common tone unites the chapter, as the father warns his child, either explicitly or implicitly, against loans (6:1–5), laziness (6:6–11), evildoers (6:12–15), a catalog of detestable actions (6:16–19), and the prostitute (6:20–35).

In the first section (6:1–5), the parent/speaker begins exceptionally by immediately sketching a dangerous scenario the youth should escape. The subject of guaranteeing loans is addressed elsewhere in Proverbs (11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26; 27:13) and is illustrated by Judah’s actions in Gn 43:8–9; 44:30–34. Whether one formally seals the deal with a neighbor or a stranger, one has in effect been trapped by one’s words (6:1–2). Since such a transaction is not regulated by Mosaic legislation, there is only one thing to say: “free yourself” (6:3; cf. 6:5) immediately, no matter what it takes. Compassion for a financially strapped friend is not the issue here; intentionally jeopardizing one’s economic well-being is an action to be avoided at any cost.

6:6–11. The next section, regarding laziness, is linked to the preceding unit in three ways. Both involve actions that negatively affect one’s financial well-being, warn against sleeping at the wrong time (6:4, 9), and employ the imperative “go” (6:3, 6). This is the first of many appearances of the lazy man in the book (10:26; 13:4; 15:19; 19:24; 20:4; 21:25; 22:13; 24:30; 26:13–16). In a book that emphasizes deliberate, decisive, and diligent behavior, laziness is a serious character flaw.

Ancient Near Eastern (and contemporary) wisdom commonly turns to nature to illustrate positive and negative behavioral patterns, and the ant has much to teach the slacker (6:6–8; also 30:25), including initiative, diligence, and timely preparations for future needs. The speaker seeks to rouse the slothful person from any form of excessive repose (i.e., sleep, slumber, or rest; 6:9–10), thereby avoiding a truly rude awakening: being suddenly overpowered by poverty (6:11; cf. 24:33–34).

6:12–15. Verses 12–19 address negative character traits. Five characteristic actions of “a worthless person” are noted in verses 12–15, which lack any conceptual connection with the two preceding sections. The word translated “worthless person” (6:12a) is a Hebrew compound word meaning “without profit”—that is, useless. The term occurs twenty-seven times in the OT (cf. 16:27; 19:28); it is used to describe the men of Gibeah who gang-rape the Levite’s concubine (Jdg 19:22; 20:13) and the sons of Eli (1 Sm 2:12). The “wicked” are destructive abusers of power; both are perverse societal menaces. Their twisted words, devious (though obscure) gestures, and perverted minds (6:12b–13) constantly foment dissension (6:14). Just as for the lazy, sudden disaster awaits them (6:15). Their actions hardly seem to warrant such harsh divine punishment compared with the bloodthirsty band of thieves similarly threatened in 1:26–27. Wisdom ethics, however, gives greater value to the integrity and well-being of the family and the community than to an individual’s personal preferences.

6:16–19. In justifying this threat, a list of seven detestable vices follows (cf. 26:25). The “numerical” form of 6:16 (i.e., “six things . . . , seven”; cf. Jb 5:19) is found in various types of OT literature, most notably in Pr 30:18–31. This form places climactic emphasis on the final element, which is here quite similar to 6:14b. Far from advocating a mechanical link between deed and consequence, Proverbs affirms that the Lord ultimately upholds justice in his world. The word “detestable” (Hb toebah; see the commentary on 3:27–35) occurs frequently in Proverbs. Each of the first five actions in this vice list involves a body part, in a sequence moving downward from head to foot, indicating the totality of one’s involvement in mischief (6:17–18). The final two vices (6:19) diverge stylistically, perhaps involving actions that depend on the preceding five. Since the order here is climactic, attacking the integrity of the family or clan unit (through instigating disputes, 6:19b) is viewed as more heinous than perverting the legal system (through false witness, 6:19a; cf. 12:17; 14:5, 25; 19:5, 9; 21:28; 25:18).

6:20–23. This next lesson (6:20–35) resumes the typical instructional form, with an extended call to heed the parental counsel (6:20–23) preceding the specific warnings (6:24–35). It also takes up the topic of chapter 5, developing the grave consequences of sexual immorality more fully. Presumably one ties the commands of both parents “around your neck” (6:21; cf. 3:3) in order to keep them plainly in view when deciding which direction to head. Proverbs 6:22 cites three daily situations in which such instruction proves useful, offering guidance, protection, and a conversation partner—metaphorically speaking, both a proper path to follow and a light to illumine it (6:23; cf. Ps 119:105).

6:24–25. In particular, this counsel is intended to keep the youth from the immoral woman (6:24), who can ruin his life. This smooth-tongued temptress, already familiar from chapters 2 and 5, is called “an evil woman.” This expression occurs only here in the OT; the Septuagint may have read a similarly written word, translating “married woman” (see the CSB footnote). The admonition in 6:25 consists of a twofold warning. The negative command (“Don’t lust,” 6:25a) recalls the tenth commandment (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21), which employs the same Hebrew verb (“Do not covet”), and 6:25b vividly captures the process.

6:26–35. The remainder of the instruction details the dangers that one will thereby avoid. While every prostitute has her price, the adulteress will, metaphorically speaking, stalk you like prey (6:26; cf. Jb 10:16; Mc 7:2). This is the first reference to prostitution in Proverbs (cf. 7:10; 23:27; 29:3); however, the emphasis here is clearly on adultery (cf. 6:29, 32, 34).

Two additional vivid comparisons are made. (1) Whoever commits adultery is playing with fire and bound to get burned (6:27–29). Verse 29 recalls the covenantal formulation in Ex 20:7; 34:7; Nm 14:18; Dt 5:11; and Nah 1:3 (see also Pr 11:21; 17:5; 19:5, 9; 28:20). (2) Whoever “steals” what belongs to another, whatever the motivation (e.g., being sex starved; 6:30), will be punished when caught (the Mosaic law mandates only twofold restitution, compared to the sevenfold requirement in 6:31; cf. Ex 22:3–4, 7). Here the consequences for violating the eighth and seventh commandments are contrasted (Ex 20:14–15).

Anyone committing adultery “lacks sense” (6:32), since it is a self-destructive act (similarly 7:22–23), as 6:33–35 details. Lasting shame will be the least of his problems! The rage of a cheated husband knows no bounds; no restitution payment or bribe will assuage his jealous desire for revenge (Pr 27:4; Sg 8:6). And it all began with a few flattering words and some eye makeup (6:24–25).

7:1–5. The extensive warning against the “wayward” woman concludes with a final lesson in chapter 7, which focuses on the temptation. Its structure is quite similar to that of the preceding lesson, consisting of a call to heed (7:1–4), a purpose statement functioning as a warning (7:5; cf. 6:24) and an extended illustration (7:6–23), and an explicit warning (7:24–27; cf. 6:25).

Once again, the goal of the instruction is to preserve and enhance life (7:2a; cf. 4:4). Accordingly, these wisdom-imparting commands are to be treasured (7:1; cf. 2:1), carefully preserved both externally and internally (7:3; cf. 3:3; 6:21), as diligently protected as the pupils of one’s eyes (7:2b), and welcomed as a “relative” (7:4). The purpose statement that follows in 7:5 is nearly identical to that in 6:24.

7:6–23. The temptation is portrayed as a scenario observed by the speaker through the window of his home (7:6). The victim is portrayed as easy prey—and not completely innocent: young, naive (cf. 1:4), lacking judgment (cf. 6:32), and heading for her house just as night falls (7:7–9). The adulteress is shockingly goal oriented, heading straight toward him, clothed like a prostitute to cunningly camouflage her actual marital status, a familiar sight around town, defiant, brazen, and aggressive (7:10–13), literally ambushing them (7:12; cf. 1:11, 18). Her seductive speech seals the deal (7:21; hence the repeated warnings: 2:16; 5:3; 7:5).

Her reference to recently fulfilled vows suggests both fidelity in worship and fresh meat to dine on (7:14). The youth alone is the object of her attention and affection, or rather, of her lust (7:15, 18; contrast 5:19); her bed has been specially prepared and perfumed for him (7:16). Multicolored imported linens and exotic fragrances indicate her wealth and provide an enticing love nest. Best of all, they can enjoy a secret, all-night tryst without any fear of getting caught (7:19–20).

Her mission is successful (7:22a). Instead of describing the anticipated sensual ecstasy, the description concludes with three animal similes (7:22b–23). Having yielded to his animal instincts, the youth is reduced to a doomed beast. Certain death awaits all four (cf. 6:26, 32).

7:24–27. Perhaps now the sons will pay closer attention (7:24) when warned against straying onto her path (7:25). Suddenly the simple scenario observed through a window is replaced by a broad mural portraying a multitude of similarly stupid victims who once crowded the highway that headed straight down to hell—or at least a dead end in the local cemetery (7:26–27).

D. Wisdom’s final appeals (8:1–9:18). In chapters 8–9, personified Wisdom makes her final appeal, speaking again in the first person to her young audience.

8:1–11. Chapter 8 offers a lengthy discourse commending wisdom, which can be divided into four sections. In 8:1–11, wisdom’s surpassing value is asserted, while 8:12–21 portrays wisdom’s associates and attributes. Wisdom’s worth is then further affirmed in a description of its ancient origin—at the time of creation (8:22–31), before wisdom assumes the role of the parent/sage in directly urging the “sons” to heed her counsel (8:32–36).

Lady Wisdom’s appearance here is reminiscent of 1:20–33, with 8:1–3 paralleling 1:20–21 and 8:5 similar to 1:22, although her message in chapter 8 is more positive. She stations herself in places of prominence, commerce, and heavy traffic, where as many will hear her voice as possible (8:1–3). She does not confine herself to the temple or palace—or to the covenant people of Israel—for her appeal is to all humanity, in particular to those most in need of understanding (8:4–5).

In 8:6–9 she stresses the moral excellence rather than the eloquence of her speech: it is trustworthy, right (cf. 1:3; 2:9), reliable, righteous, honest (cf. 24:26), and faultless, devoid of any deception or perversion. Thus her instruction is more valuable than the most precious metals (8:10; cf. 3:14); indeed, wisdom is incomparably desirable (8:11 = 3:15, briefly abandoning the personification for a third-person reference to wisdom).

8:12–13. The mention of wisdom in verses 1 and 11 leads to verse 12, in which wisdom refers to herself for the first time: “I, wisdom . . .” In the Hebrew text, the repeated use of the independent pronoun “I” in 8:12, 14b, 17 punctuates the section (8:12–21), as wisdom gives an extensive self-introduction. Whereas 1:2–6 simply introduces various terms associated with wisdom, in 8:12 these are presented as wisdom’s housemates.

Proverbs 8:13a seems to interrupt the flow. The expression “fear of the LORD,” however, occurs strategically in chapters 1–9 (1:7, 29; 2:5; 8:13; 9:10). Here it grounds wisdom’s attitude toward arrogance, evil, and corruption (8:13b). Together with the description of her speech in the preceding section, it clearly demonstrates that wisdom is primarily a moral, not an intellectual, enterprise.

8:14–21. Proverbs 8:14 emphasizes precisely those attributes essential for all government officials (8:15–16): “good advice and sound wisdom,” “understanding and strength” (the Hebrew term for “strength” occurs only here in Proverbs; it most commonly refers to the power possessed by God). Understanding, or insight, is part of her very essence but is also available to all who welcome her.

In 8:17a, “I” introduces a subunit bracketed by “those who love me” (8:17–21). Wisdom’s “love” here involves bestowing her rich gifts on all who desire her, not just on rulers. Those “who search for me find me” (8:17b) evokes passages such as Dt 4:29; Jr 29:13; and Mt 7:7 (also Mt 6:33). Proverbs 8:19 grounds the claim in verse 10, and wisdom’s “fruit” is not simply material wealth (8:18). Since wisdom walks about on just paths (cf. Pr 12:28; Ps 23:3), practicing what she preaches, she gives goods only to her lovers (8:20–21).

8:22–29. A new section (8:22–31) commences by associating wisdom not with earthly rulers (as in 8:15–16) but with Yahweh, the Creator of the universe (8:22). This section then proceeds to describe wisdom’s ancient origin and earliest activities. Although God is the subject of all verbs in verses 22–29, wisdom’s close association with him is emphasized repeatedly. God’s first action is to create/bring forth (cf. Gn 4:1; Ps 139:13) or to acquire/possess (cf. Pr 1:5; 4:5, 7) wisdom (see the CSB footnote). In the OT, the Hebrew verb qanah can be used to express both of these activities. In Pr 8:22 it could simply affirm that God already possessed (having previously acquired) wisdom when he began his work of creation. Other verbs in this section also speak of wisdom’s origin or birth (e.g., 8:23, 24–25). It is best simply to understand wisdom here as a personified divine trait.

Many early Christian interpreters identified “wisdom” in Pr 8:22–31 with Jesus, on the basis of texts like Col 1:15 and Col 2:3.

Verses 22–29 have many images and terms in common with other poetic creation texts, such as are found in Job, Psalms, and Isaiah, except this language is subordinated to the section’s emphasis on the “priority” of wisdom, both temporally (“before” and “when” occur repeatedly) and in importance. These descriptions express God’s wise planning and sovereign control rather than either a primitive, prescientific cosmology or revelatory knowledge of the universe’s makeup.

8:30–31. The focus shifts to wisdom’s role. Wisdom was continually beside God, delighting (see Ps 119, regarding God’s law) and reveling in what he was creating day by day. More specifically, she was celebrating the creation of planet Earth and of humanity. If wisdom has been delighting in us since the creation, should we not delight in wisdom as well?

8:32–36. Proverbs 8:32 signals the transition to application. Exceptionally, wisdom replaces the parent here. By heeding wisdom’s instructions day by day, one can become wise (8:33–34). Two contrasting claims conclude this discourse (8:35–36). To find wisdom is to find life and to obtain divine favor (cf. 12:2; 18:22), whereas to miss wisdom is to be self-destructive, since wisdom haters are death lovers (cf. 8:17, 21).

9:1–6. The prologue comes to a climax in chapter 9 with invitations to two rival banquets, raising the question of which voice the sons will heed and whose meal they will share—wisdom’s or folly’s? The two descriptions are similar in structure and formulation (9:1–6, 13–18) and are separated by a theological interlude (9:7–12). Therefore, it is helpful to compare the two rather than consider them separately.

Lady Wisdom (9:1–6) is competing with Lady Folly (9:13–18). Wisdom is characterized as diligent and prosperous by her extensive preparations of house (its seven columns imply perfection) and banquet and her employment of servants (9:1–3a). Folly, in contrast, makes no preparations and is labeled explicitly as loud, gullible, and ignorant (9:13). Both own a house (9:1, 14) and station themselves at “the highest points of the city” (9:3b, 14b). Both call out (9:3a, 15a), issuing an identical general invitation (9:4 = 9:16), although Folly’s audience is specifically described as following a straight course until she detours them (9:15). Both offer a free meal. Wisdom shares her food and self-mixed wine (9:5), while Folly provides only stolen water and pilfered food (9:17), their source adding flavor to the menu.

Both scenes conclude by noting the consequences of accepting the respective invitation (9:6, 18). Wisdom calls for the simple to abandon their naive ways (or naive companions) and henceforth proceed with discernment. Folly, on the contrary, conceals the fate of her dinner guests: her gravy will be followed by the grave (similar to 7:26–27)! By concluding the introductory section of Proverbs on this tragic note, the author/sage not only extends a final warning but also implies that not all his youthful audience will heed it.

9:7–12. This outcome is already anticipated by the intervening section. This section, which contrasts two potential audiences for wisdom’s correction, ironically begins and ends by referring to the mocker. Some will reject the painful message and hate and abuse the messenger (9:7–8a); others will continually receive and benefit from the message (cf. 1:5) and understandably love the messenger (9:8b–9). The pairing of the mocker, one of the worst types of fools, with the wicked in verse 7 and the wise with the righteous in verse 9 underlines the near interchangeability of these categories in OT wisdom teaching. The foundational place of reverence for the Lord is affirmed once more (9:10; cf. 1:7), while personal knowledge of the utterly Holy One (cf. Is 6:3) will not be mentioned again until Pr 30:3.

The section begins by addressing the sage as one who instructs others (9:8–9). It concludes, however, by highlighting one of wisdom’s prime benefits—an extended life span (9:11)—and by emphasizing that both wisdom and folly, despite their social consequences, make the greatest impact on the individual (9:12). Thus the way is prepared for wise individuals to profit from the various proverbial collections that begin in chapter 10.

9:13–18. See the comments on 9:1–6.

3. PROVERBIAL COLLECTIONS: ADVANCED INSTRUCTION IN WISDOM (10:1–29:27)

If one views chapters 1–9 as a basic introduction to proverbial wisdom, then chapters 10–29 serve as the advanced course. Or, to express it differently, the prologue presents and commends wisdom, while the collections that follow illustrate the scope and variety of situations in which wisdom is advantageous (without absolutely guaranteeing success) if employed properly and in a timely manner. Chapters 1–9 also give the reader a theological lens through which to read the individual proverbs that follow. Although many of them seem to be secular and even mundane, viewing individual proverbs through the lens of the fear of the Lord as foundational, wisdom as both divine gift and human acquisition, and the wise as righteous and the fool as wicked will transform one’s evaluation and application of them. Furthermore, regardless of the original social setting that gave rise to such individual sayings, in terms of interpretation their life setting is now less important than their book setting. The assertions and admonitions of individual verses are now qualified, expanded, explained, generalized, or illustrated by the verses that surround them.

A. The original Solomonic collection (10:1–22:16). Proverbs 10–15 is characterized by the predominance of contrasting (i.e., antithetical) parallelism within the individual proverbs and an emphasis on the righteous/wicked (e.g., 10:3, 6–7, 11, 16, 20, 24–25, 28–30, 32) rather than on the wise/fool (10:1, 8, 13–14, 23).

10:1–5. Chapter 10 offers a clear illustration of possible connections between verses. A new title in 10:1a indicates that a new section/collection begins here. If one analyzes these verses in terms of positive and negative behavior or outcomes, a pattern emerges.

In the first subunit, 10:1b offers a general description of the effects that wise and foolish children have on their parents, while 10:5 concludes the subunit by noting the specific behaviors that elicit this response. Proverbs 10:2 compares the relative worth of “ill-gotten gains” and righteousness, while 10:3 offers an explanation. The Lord provides for the righteous while preventing the wicked from satisfying their cravings. Proverbs 10:4 implicitly qualifies such provision; it may come through diligent labor rather than by just relaxing and waiting for it. Those who indulge in the latter behavior bring poverty upon themselves (10:4a) as well as disgrace upon their parents (10:5).

10:6–11. The second subunit emphasizes the impact of both edifying and harmful speech, culminating in 10:11: a righteous person’s words can be life-giving. The second line of each verse describes the fate of the wicked/fool. Notably, both 10:8b and 10:10b, and 10:6b and 10:11b, are identical, which is unlikely a coincidence; such repetition is emphatic. Proverbs 10:7a explains the “blessing” of the righteous, while 10:7b offers a contrast.

10:12–21. The third subunit begins by contrasting hatred (also in 10:18) with love (10:12), the latter half of the verse being quoted in Jms 5:20 and 1 Pt 4:8. One who hates foments discord, while one who loves overlooks offenses. The wise “store up” (cf. Pr 2:1; 7:1) knowledge (10:14a) rather than relying on amassing wealth like the rich do (10:15a) and are assured that their “reward” as righteous individuals is “life” itself (10:16a). That is because a lack of judgment can result in a physical beating (10:13b) and even death (10:21b). They also realize that not only poverty (10:15b) but also one’s careless words (10:14b) can be ruinous. The effects of speech are again prominent in this subunit (10:13–14, 18–21); the restraint of the wise in this area adds value to their words (10:19). The righteous/wise not only experience life but also can lead others to life (10:16a, 17a, also 21a; cf. 10:11a).

10:22–26. The fourth subunit begins by referring to the Lord’s blessing as bestowing wealth without pain (10:22; cf. 10:14–16). Employing a lazy person, however, can be a painful experience (10:26). This subunit is framed by synthetic rather than antithetical proverbs, as in 10:23–25. The foolish/wicked and the wise/righteous find pleasure in different things (10:23) and with contrasting results (10:24–25).

10:27–32. The final subunit consists exclusively of positive-negative verses. Following the introductory thematic reference to the “fear of the LORD” in 10:27a, reinforced by the “way of the LORD” in 10:29a, the first half of each verse mentions the “righteous” (or “honorable,” in 10:29a). Proverbs 10:28–30 affirms their stability, while 10:31–32 focuses on their speech. The fear of the Lord not only extends the life of the righteous but also governs their tongues, ruling out any perversity. Although not every succeeding chapter can be analyzed here in such detail, similar patterns, links, and associations are often evident.

11:1–15. As chapter 11 begins, 11:1–2 introduces the specific theme of (commercial) integrity and the general theme of wisdom, respectively, before describing some benefits of honesty and righteousness in 11:3–6. The use of “by” in 11:6b indicates how the wicked bring about their own doom (11:7).

The Lord detests dishonest scales (Pr 11:1; 16:11; 20:23). Shown here is a set of ancient bronze scales.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the British Museum, London, England.

Three paired verses are linked next. The righteous are “rescued” (11:8–9), which produces joy in the “city” because of their civic contributions (11:10–11), in contrast with the destructive speech of the wicked (11:9a, 11b), who do not preserve neighborhood confidences (11:12–13).

The community focus introduced in verse 10 continues in 11:14, which affirms the guidance provided by wise advisors. It concludes in 11:15, which echoes the sentiment of 6:1–5.

11:16–22. The next section introduces a positive pair, a gracious woman and a kind man (11:16–17), who themselves benefit from their attitude. She gains honor, while the ruthless only get rich, harming themselves in the process of earning deceptive wages; this ultimately will end not in comfort but in death, since their perversity makes God their foe (11:16b, 17b, 18a, 19b, 20a—which parallels 11:1). To sum up, the wicked will not escape punishment, unlike the righteous (11:21). Proverbs 11:22 offers a qualification to 11:16a, since “gracious” can have a broad range of nuances. She may be charming, but if she loses her good judgment, she will quickly turn ugly.

11:23–27. The following unit is framed by 11:23 and 11:27, which refer to the unspecified good that the righteous desire, allowing a broad application. Since they seek good for themselves and others, they will get what they are looking for; ironically, so will the wicked (11:27b)! Proverbs 11:24–26 describes the paradoxical nature of two contrasting attitudes toward one’s possessions—one type of good. The generous keep on giving to others while continuing to prosper (contingent, of course, on God’s blessing, 11:26b), while stingy hoarders may experience only impoverishment. [Swine]

11:28–31. Those who trust in wealth rather than in God (11:28, perhaps therefore hoarding it; contrast 3:5) put themselves at risk. Fools can easily ruin not only themselves but also their whole households. The fool will thus be reduced to debt slavery and leave nothing for the family to inherit except wind (11:29; cf. Ec 1:14). The righteous, however, will flourish and nourish like a healthy tree (11:28b, 30a). One should read 11:30b in light of 11:30a, as recommending either that wise people pick for themselves the fruit of this tree or that they take others to this tree, without its fruit being limited to eternal life. Proverbs 11:31 offers an emphatic summary of the opposite rewards of the righteous and the wicked, anticipating requital during their earthly sojourn.

12:1–3. Proverbs 12 begins with three general proverbs. Proverbs 12:1 indicates the necessary attitude toward instruction and correction (i.e., love; cf. 4:6), which, according to 12:2, is displayed by a good person who gains God’s approval (cf. 11:1, 20, 27) and thus is established as righteous, unlike those who futilely pursue success through evil (12:3).

12:4–7. Verse 4 introduces a domestic context with the virtuous wife (cf. 31:10), who contributes to her house standing firm (12:7, similar to 12:3). These verses reveal a progression from character (12:4) to plans (12:5) to words (12:6) to consequences (12:7), with the negative clauses developing from disgraceful behavior to deceitful advice to destructive words to downfall and doom.

12:8–12. These verses focus on work. One’s reputation should be derived from one’s prudence (12:8), not from one’s pretense (12:9). On the farm, righteousness expresses itself even in one’s treatment of animals (12:10) and wisdom in diligently tilling the field to produce plentiful crops (12:11). Metaphorically speaking (employing a wordplay connected to agriculture), the righteous person’s “root” yields fruit (12:12). Those who lack sound judgment (12:11b) will likely lack bread (12:9b). The wicked, however, are not content to chase fantasies (12:11b), preferring a snare to capture prey (12:12a).

12:13–23. Speech is the focus of this lengthy unit. Ironically connected to the preceding verse (12:12a), evil persons can themselves be “trapped” by their own defiant utterances (12:13a), although one’s lips can bear good “fruit” as well (12:14a). The wise heed spoken advice, while fools think they need none (12:15). The shrewd also ignore an insult, while fools immediately respond by displaying their vexation (12:16; cf. 9:7). In a legal setting, honest rather than deceitful testimony is sought (12:17); both inside and outside the court, words can hurt or heal (12:18).

Truth will ultimately prevail, much to the joy of those promoting peace, but lies will be exposed, as will the deceitful hearts that spawned them (12:19–20). Trouble will therefore overwhelm the wicked, while the righteous will be spared (12:21; cf. 22:8), because the Lord detests lying lips while approving of those who are trustworthy (12:22; cf. 12:2). Thus speech is a key area in which the wise and the foolish greatly differ. The wise do not tell all they know; the foolish loudly proclaim their folly (12:23; also 12:15–16).

Rash words are “like a piercing sword” (Pr 12:18).

12:24–28. Work’s reward is mentioned in passing in verse 14b; in verses 24–27, the contrast between the diligent and the lazy frames a brief unit. The diligent will rise to exercise authority over others or at least enjoy hearty meals, while the lazy will descend to conscripted labor or at least go hungry (12:24, 27). Proverbs 12:25 recalls another important power from the preceding section—the healing power of the tongue (cf. 12:18b).

Verse 28 concludes the chapter, contrasting the “ways of the wicked” (12:26) with the “path of righteousness” (12:28), which leads not simply to a long and full life but even to an unending life (“no death”).

13:1–6. Following an introductory proverb affirming the receptivity of the wise (13:1), verses 2–6 briefly take up themes of the previous chapter. One’s words can fill one’s life with either luscious or foul fruit, and thus restraint in speech is essential (13:2–3), just as diligent labor enables one to fulfill one’s desires (13:4). The righteous eschew false words (“lying”), thereby protecting their lives (13:5a, 6a). The wicked, in contrast, enjoy broadcasting odious scandal and suffer the consequences (13:5b, 6b).

13:7–11. Wealth and poverty are examined next. Wealth can be feigned (13:7) or lifesaving (13:8a) and can rapidly disappear if acquired dishonestly rather than through sustained effort (13:11). Those living in poverty, in contrast, cannot respond to a painful rebuke (13:8b; cf. 13:1b), much less a death threat. Proverbs 13:9 affirms that the righteous shine more brightly than the wicked, whom God will extinguish (cf. 20:20; 24:20), and in this context more brightly than the wealthy, who may soon fade. Proverbs 13:10b echoes the sentiment of 13:1a: wisely accepting advice is the opposite of arrogant quarreling (13:10a).

13:12–19. A lengthy unit on fulfillment versus frustration follows, as indicated by the expression “desire fulfilled,” which brackets the section in 13:12b and 13:19a. This allows one to interpret 13:13–18 as indicating how wise and foolish actions lead to contrasting outcomes: a sick heart or a life-giving tree (13:12). Wise actions include obeying God’s commands, heeding wise instruction and correction (13:13–14, 18), acting prudently (13:15–16), and serving reliably (13:17). Such behavior will result, respectively, in reward, a fountain of life, favor, healing, and honor—a truly “sweet” outcome (13:19a)!

13:20–25. A parent’s legacy is the focus here. According to 13:22 and 13:24, the legacy can be both material and moral in nature. The righteous are rewarded with good things (13:21b), such as fertile fields producing abundant food (13:23a, 25a). A good person can pass these things on to heirs (13:22a), though wealth can be lost both through one’s own misdeeds (13:22b) and through injustice (13:23b).

In a society in which child abuse is far too prevalent, the call to apply the rod conscientiously as an expression of parental love (13:24) may seem antiquated. Here one should note (1) that the rod is mentioned seven times in Proverbs, and its effectiveness in instilling wisdom is praised (29:15); (2) that God is our model for loving correction (3:11–12); and (3) that the parent’s primary educational tool is not the rod but wise instruction, as exemplified in 13:20.

“Where there are no oxen, the feeding trough is empty, but an abundant harvest comes through the strength of an ox” (Pr 14:4). This Egyptian model shows oxen plowing.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the British Museum, London, England.

14:1–7. The opening clause of chapter 14 (14:1a) echoes 9:1. It is followed by the first of three occurrences of the fear of the Lord in the chapter (14:2, 26–27). One’s conduct reflects one’s attitude toward God (14:2). Wise behavior is constructive; folly is destructive (14:1, 3). Proverbs 14:4 offers a homey illustration of how one wisely builds a house: without oxen there is less cleanup work to do in the barn, but less harvested grain as well.

The focus of verses 5–7 is speech, both in a legal setting (14:5; cf. 12:17) and in general. Mocking fools cannot obtain wisdom; therefore, their words will be devoid of true knowledge (14:6–7).

14:8–15. This section addresses self-perception and self-deception. The prudent perceive where they are heading, while fools do not have a clue (14:8). Mockers do not even take sin (and the resultant need to make amends) seriously, while the upright do and receive (divine) approval (14:9). One can be equally clueless about another person’s private pains and pleasures and their commingling (14:10, 13, both with “heart”). Proverbs 14:11 is linked to its context by the word “upright” (cf. 14:9) and its use of the house motif (cf. 14:1). It also reflects the seamless alternation (and virtual equation) of wisdom/folly and righteousness/wickedness in Proverbs.

Proverbs 14:12 continues the main theme: one may be deceived about the deadly destination of a “way” that appears to be straight (or “right”; cf. 12:15; 16:2). A backslider is punished for choosing the wrong “way,” while the “good” are rewarded (14:14). Hence, only the inexperienced or gullible will believe whatever they are told; the sensible are more reflective (14:15).

14:16–18. Verse 15 also introduces the next development in thought. In carefully considering their steps, the wise display their reverence for God by making a wide detour around evil (14:16a; cf. 3:7; 4:27). Fools, however, exhibit reckless, uncontrolled behavior, which is conduct the uncorrected, naive person naturally inherits (14:16b–18a; cf. 14:15a). The sensible, in contrast, easily acquire knowledge to augment their skill set for dealing with life’s challenges (14:18b; cf. 14:6b, 15b).

14:19–24. This section initially describes two unexpected attitudes (see “evil . . . good” in 14:19, 22). The wicked bow down before the righteous, though probably against their will (14:19), and the poor are hated even by their peers, while many love the rich, though probably for questionable reasons (14:20). Such an attitude toward the needy merits condemnation as sin, since they of all people deserve kind treatment (14:21). Those who, in fact, “plan good” will both practice and experience steadfast love (“loyalty and faithfulness,” Hb hesed and emet; 14:22; cf. 3:3; 16:6). But merely planning good (i.e., “endless talk”) accomplishes little—no pain, no gain (14:23). Accumulated wealth is a crowning achievement for the wise (cf. 14:18, 35), while all that fools multiply is folly (14:24).

14:25–27. Life-and-death matters are addressed in these verses. Proverbs 14:25 affirms the lifesaving power of a truthful witness in a capital case (cf. 14:5 in the context of speech), while a proverbial pair describes three metaphorical benefits of reverence for God (14:26–27). It provides a secure fortress to protect one’s children and a life-giving fountain (cf. 13:14), while keeping one from deadly snares, since those who fear God will avoid both evil and divine punishment and will experience God’s favor and blessing. Verses 30 and 32 also concern life and death.

14:28–35. These verses are framed by national concerns: the value of a large population (14:28), the even greater value of a righteous population (14:34), and the king’s understandably strong response to a servant’s shameful actions (14:35). The intervening proverbs could then be taken as describing some of those shameful actions (as well as their opposites). Short-temperedness, envy, and oppression of the poor, as expressing contempt for one’s Maker and refuge (14:29–32), are juxtaposed with patience, tranquility, and kindness to the needy (cf. 14:21), and wisdom so striking that even fools—and the king—take note (14:33; cf. 14:35a).

15:1–4. The covenantal name Yahweh (“the LORD”) occurs nine times in chapter 15 (and also in chap. 3), giving this instruction a more explicitly theological tone. Verses 1–4 focus on speech, with 15:1 taking up the motif of (the king’s) anger from 14:35. It notes that a gentle answer can roll back the waves of anger, while a painful word further stirs it up. Proverbs 15:3 reminds us that this cause-effect nexus is not mechanistic but rather is upheld by an ever-observant God. Proverbs 15:4 corresponds to verse 1, contrasting the soothing and spirit-crushing power of the tongue, using the favored analogy of the life-giving tree (cf. 3:18; 11:30; 13:12).

15:5–12. Mention of individuals who reject correction (i.e., fools and mockers) brackets the next section (15:5, 12), giving it a focus on the benefits of instruction. Great treasures as well as great knowledge are available to those who will heed it (15:6–7). More important, one living a righteous life experiences God’s favor and love (15:8–9) rather than animosity leading to divine discipline or death, as God punishes wayward actions and attitudes (15:10–11).

15:13–18. The reference to the human heart in 15:7b and 11b is taken up in 15:13–15, which juxtaposes the value of a joyful/cheerful heart with that of a discerning one and contrasts two metaphorical menus (15:14b, 15b). Verse 14b also parallels verse 2b, illustrating the saying “Garbage in, garbage out.” Two “better than” proverbs (15:16–17) take up the meal imagery as well as the heart attitudes of the preceding verses (discernment [15:14] ← fear of the Lord [15:16]; joy [15:15] ← love [15:17]), debunking society’s elevation of wealth and plenty. One’s heart attitude is more important than one’s circumstances. Proverbs 15:18 concludes the unit by suggesting one source of turmoil and animosity—a hot-headed individual.

15:19–23. By contrasting the sluggard’s thorn-impeded path with the superhighway of upright people, 15:19 identifies laziness as a moral issue. Verbal links connect the following verses. Only a discerning individual walks a straight path (15:21b). A father finds joy in a wise son (15:20; cf. 10:1); one lacking sense, in folly (15:21); and an audience, in an apt answer (15:23; cf. 15:1). Proverbs 15:22–23 highlights two important features of wise counsel: more is better, and timing is everything (Ec 10:11).

15:24–29. This section contrasts five actions, individuals, and consequences, three of which explicitly mention God: the way of the prudent leading upward to life (15:24), the attitude of the proud causing God to bring down their house (15:25), the plans of the wicked provoking God’s displeasure (15:26), the deeds of one who pursues illicit gain troubling their family (15:27; cf. Jos 6:18; 7:25), and the careful words of the righteous being heard by God (15:28–29). The righteous reflect before replying (15:28a; cf. 15:23); the wicked blurt out evil (15:28b; cf. 15:2b). Therefore, the Lord distances himself from the wicked while hearing the prayer of the righteous (15:29; cf. 15:8).

15:30–33. This major section, chapters 10–15, concludes with 15:30–33. Proverbs 15:31–32 uses a form of the word “listens.” Although hearing good news can cheer and refresh the “heart” (15:30), heeding correction can preserve life, give one a home among the wise, and impart sound judgment. Such receptivity to wisdom’s instruction is rooted in the fear of the Lord, which teaches one that humility always precedes honor (15:33).

16:1–9. The second section of the major proverbial collection (16:1–22:16), presumably also “Solomonic,” gives counsel for rulers and for everyday life. Whereas contrasting (antithetical) proverbs dominate chapters 10–15, in chapters 16–22 the second line of a proverb more frequently reinforces or completes the assertion in the first. Although the thematic contrast between the wise and the foolish continues, the contrast between the righteous and the wicked is far less prominent.

Chapter 16 constitutes the center of the book. Corresponding affirmations begin and conclude the chapter in 16:1, 33. The relationship between divine and delegated rule is explored in 16:1–15. Several terms refer to both God and king, supporting this comparison. God’s sovereign involvement in human affairs is expounded in verses 1–9—a theological gold mine.

We can order our thoughts, but God facilitates effective speech (16:1). He evaluates our motives, even if they are hidden to us (16:2). Thus we can commit our activities to him to give them lasting value (16:3). Every human action receives an appropriate divine response, including the evil day awaiting the wicked (16:4). God detests and will punish their arrogant behavior (16:5). Though “loyalty and faithfulness” in dealing with others can make amends for their failures, God-fearers will avoid such evil in the first place (16:6). God, however, can enable those pleasing him to live in harmony even with their foes (16:7). Therefore, the righteous needy are really better off than the wicked wealthy (16:8). Proverbs 16:9 summarizes: we can responsibly make plans (echoing 16:1a), but God “determines” our steps.

Several proverbs occur twice. Sometimes the two forms are identical and sometimes they reflect slight variations. See, for example, 6:10–11 // 24:33–44; 10:1 // 15:20; 14:12 // 16:25; 16:2 // 21:2; 19:5 // 19:9; 20:1 // 20:23.

16:10–15. The righteous king will model similar attitudes and surround himself with like-minded aides, experiencing similar divinely bestowed success. He will exalt just verdicts, standards, actions, and words (16:10–13), which will temper how he wields his delegated authority over life and death (16:14–15).

16:16–19. As one crosses the midpoint of the book of Proverbs, wise and foolish speech are again described (16:16–30). Verses 16–19 are introductory and sound familiar notes: wisdom’s supreme value (16:16) and a straight road that avoids both evil and disaster (16:17). The familiar proverb “Pride goes before a fall” contrasts the parallel clauses of 16:18. In context, and paired with 16:19, it illustrates what the “upright” of verse 17 will avoid. Wisdom gives life stability.

16:20–24. Verses 20–24 concern wise speech. Heeding instructions and trusting in the Lord (16:20) are both characteristic of the humble (cf. 16:19). A sage’s reputation for insight, a spoonful of rhetorical sugar, and skilled speech issuing from a wise heart all serve to increase learning (16:21, 23). This encourages others to drink from discretion’s life-giving fountain rather than being chastened like fools (16:22). The holistic benefits of “pleasant words” are emphasized in 16:24 (cf. 12:18; 13:17; 15:4).

16:25–30. The destructive speech of fools offers a striking contrast. Proverbs 16:25 is identical to 14:12, perhaps repeated here to underline this contrast, while 16:26 is linked to 16:24. As a general proverbial statement, verse 26 describes the inner forces that produce external actions—both good and evil. Words can burn like fire (16:27), igniting discord, separating intimate friends (16:28), and luring the unsuspecting onto harmful bypaths (16:29). Evil lips can even be used to gesture to one’s accomplices in carrying out one’s perverse plots (16:30).

16:31–33. The chapter closes by summarizing central wisdom themes. Righteous conduct leads to a long life (16:31), and conquering oneself is more significant than conquering a city (16:32). Above all, life is not a crapshoot; God ultimately controls everyone’s destiny (16:33). [Lots]

17:1–8. There are fewer internal verbal and conceptual links within chapter 17 than in the preceding chapters. There is a domestic emphasis, with “house” (17:1, 13), “son/children” (17:2, 6, 25), and “brother” (17:2, 17), while friendship is mentioned in 17:9, 17–18.

The initial verses portray unexpected values or incongruous situations (17:1–8). A dry morsel eaten in tranquility is deemed better than fresh meat eaten amid strife (17:1; cf. 15:16–17). The disturbed home motif continues in 17:2, with a wise servant supplanting a son as heir. God assesses the purity of one’s heart attitudes (17:3), unlike the wicked, who apparently prefer listening to malicious words (17:4)—such as mockery of the poor and their calamity, as well as of their Maker—thereby provoking punishment (17:5).

Some people view their grandchildren or parents, rather than a rich wardrobe, as their crowning glory (17:6; cf. 16:31). Excessive speech is inappropriate for a senseless person and, even more so, deceitful speech for a ruler (17:7). Bribes, however, often work like a lucky charm, bringing success rather than reprisal (17:8).

17:9–20. The verses that follow highlight beneficial and destructive relationships. One’s response to an offense can either deepen or destroy a friendship (17:9; cf. 16:28). A well-intentioned rebuke (from such a friend) can make a deep impact (17:10), while a rebel may receive a harsher message (17:11). A fool on the loose is more dangerous than an angry she-bear (17:12), such as a fool who repays good with evil, bringing unending disaster on his home (17:13). Similarly, provoking strife releases floodwaters, causing great damage (17:14), while perverting justice provokes divine displeasure (17:15). Even given sufficient cash, a fool will not acquire wisdom (17:16).

A true friend constantly offers loving support, especially when there is trouble (17:17). There is, however, a limit to the assistance that one can wisely give: don’t secure a friend’s debts (17:18; cf. 11:15). Whereas some love their friends (17:17), others show affection for sin and strife, erecting pretentious, perverse, and thus precarious barriers between themselves and others, and so inviting disaster (17:19–20).

17:21–28. Verses 21–28 portray a foolish child causing grief in the family (17:21–22, 25) and a wicked person (by juxtaposition, presumably the same individual) perverting justice (17:23, 26). Such a person lacks a proper perspective (17:24), as well as proper restraint in speech and in controlling emotions (17:27–28).

18:1–9. The thematic emphasis of 18:1–8 is the fool’s speech. Accordingly, 17:27–28 could be viewed as introductory or transitional. The theme is launched by introducing three types of speakers: the antisocial person, the fool, and the wicked. The antisocial person (“one who isolates himself”; cf. 17:9) pursues self-gratification, leading him to irrationally provoke quarrels (18:1; cf. 17:14; 20:3). The fool takes pleasure in exposing the moral bankruptcy of his own heart rather than in gaining understanding (18:2; see the CSB footnote). Contempt for others accompanies the wicked person, and the feelings are mutual (18:3).

One can drown in words, but wise speech is a continual source of refreshment (18:4). One must not show partiality to the wicked, thereby skewing justice (18:5), but sooner or later their words will bring them down (18:6–7). Proverbs 18:8–9 closes the unit by introducing two more destructive individuals: the gossip, whose juicy rumors are eagerly devoured, and the slacker, who is also a societal saboteur (cf. 26:22).

18:10–15. The next unit begins with an ironic proverbial pair (18:10–11). Whereas the righteous seek refuge in the towering character of their God, the rich vainly consider their wealth as making them invulnerable to trouble’s assault. Such haughty thoughts precede doom, while the humility of the righteous is rewarded (18:12; 18:12b = 15:33b). Haughtiness leads one to respond before considering what a conversation partner has to say; this can also lead to humiliation (18:13), and perhaps even to a crushed spirit, which is worse than disease (18:14). In contrast, the ears of the wise eagerly listen and learn (18:15).

18:16–21. Disputes, especially within a legal context, are dealt with here. Accordingly, “gift” probably refers to a bribe or private present that secures an unfair advantage for a person rather than to generosity or giftedness (18:16; cf. 21:14). Proverbs 18:17 affirms the persuasive power of a well-crafted argument—at least, prior to cross-examination. Proverbs 18:18 commends the alternative of casting lots to settle a dispute, since God, rather than elders, then determines the outcome (16:33; Jnh 1:7). This is preferable to leaving the offended person less approachable than a fortified city (18:19; cf. 18:11).

The proverbial pair in 18:20–21 describes speech’s dual effects and fits the disputational context well. The words that we speak can satisfy like fruit, but we may have to harvest and eat our words (18:20). No wonder people love (and should fear) the tongue’s ability to dispense both life and death (18:21).

18:22–24. Proverbs 18:22–24 fits well with the initial emphasis on companionship, especially the poor person’s lack thereof in 19:1–7. Proverbs 18:22 begins with the most intimate of human relationships, affirming that finding a (wise) wife is valuable (cf. 8:35; 19:8) and an indication of divine favor. The poor, however, often find themselves alone, their pleas for compassion rebuffed by the rich (18:23). Yet even with companions you can come to ruin if you lack a true friend, who will stick with you in a crisis (18:24; cf. 15:9 [a divine friend?]).

19:1–9. The initial verses of chapter 19 continue the theme of companionship, with an emphasis on the poor. Despite the social ostracism experienced by the poor, it is better for them to maintain their integrity in word and deed than to resort to perverse speech like a fool (19:1). Lacking knowledge, the fool rushes ahead and slips. When his own folly thus subverts his course, he angrily blames God (19:3). New companions flock to the wealthy while abandoning the poor (19:4). Whereas a fool with “deceitful” lips may self-destruct (19:1b, 3), a false witness will be directly punished by God (19:5). People flock to the ruler (19:6) as to the rich, seeking the best friend that money can buy. In contrast, the poor are even hated by their siblings and abandoned by companions. No words can bring them back (19:7).

Proverbs 19:8 is connected to 18:22 and 19:2 by the word “good”: to find a wife is to find “a good thing,” to lack knowledge is “not good,” and by preserving understanding one literally “finds good” (and therefore “finds success”). The unit concludes by repeating verse 5, changing only the last word. Those acquiring sound judgment love their lives (19:8a), while profuse liars will perish (19:9b).

19:10–15. These verses focus on the court and the home. Proverbs 19:10 is transitional: it is not fitting for fools to enjoy luxury, not because it is undeserved, but because they cannot use it well (cf. 26:1). Similarly, slaves are unsuited for leadership roles (also 30:22), especially if lacking wisdom (cf. 14:35; 17:2). In context, the high value of forbearance and forgiveness is applied to the king, who will either refresh like dew or rage like a lion—but it could apply to a courtier as well (19:11–12).

Verses 13–15 juxtapose a dysfunctional and a healthy household. In the dysfunctional home, a foolish son ruins the father’s estate (19:13a), probably through chronic laziness (19:15), while his quarrelsome wife irritates like endless dripping (19:13b). In the healthy household, the estate is preserved and enhanced through the skill of the God-given wife (19:14).

19:16–27. These contrasting homes prompt a mini lesson on parental instruction similar to chapters 1–7, with imperatives (commands or exhortations) in 19:18, 20, and 27 and references to Yahweh (“the LORD”) in 19:17, 21, and 23. Heeding instruction, rather than living carelessly, preserves life (19:16). One interpretation of verse 16b suggests that “his ways” refers to God. This is supported by 19:17: showing kindness toward the poor (thus resolving 18:23) is one of God’s foundational “ways.” Thus parents who neglect discipline designed to instill wisdom in their children are actually seeking their premature death (19:18) and may end up repeatedly bailing them out of trouble (19:19)!

Whereas verse 18 directly addresses the parent, 19:20 directly addresses the child: wisdom, not subordination, is the ultimate goal. Proverbs 19:21 juxtaposes valuable human counsel and sovereign divine counsel (19:20a, 21b); divine counsel always prevails. The human longing for “fidelity” (Hb hesed) in 19:22a recalls 18:24, while 19:22b echoes 19:1. Reverence for God leads to a life marked by fulfillment and protection from harm (19:23).

A contrasting portrait of inconceivable laziness (19:24) recalls the vice that first prompted this lesson (19:15). The mocker is immune to discipline’s benefit and knowledge (19:25), resulting in the kind of son who disgracefully mistreats his parents (19:26; cf. 19:13a). Thus the lesson concludes by ironically reversing 19:20 in 19:27.

19:28–20:4. This section describes several foolish menaces to society who deserve a beating. This reference to “beatings” serves to bracket chapter 20 (19:29; 20:30), while the word “mock” links 19:28 to 20:1. Such “fools” include the worthless witness and the wicked, who gulps down evil (19:28); the drunken brawler (20:1); raging, roaring royalty (20:2; cf. 19:12a); the instigator of quarrels (20:3); and the destitute sluggard (20:4).

20:5–13. These verses consider challenges to accurate assessment. The metaphor “deep water” in 20:5 is unclear but probably negative (cf. Pr 18:4; Ps 69:2, 14). The sometimes dubious intentions of a person are hidden in the depths of the heart, but a discerning person can bring them to the surface for a closer look. Similarly, not everyone proclaiming “loyalty” is to be taken seriously, for faithful friends are rare (20:6). Those leading a life of integrity, leaving a trail of blessing, are clearly identifiable as righteous (20:7).

The trained eye of the king is capable of distinguishing between the righteous grain and wicked chaff (20:8), but anyone claiming complete purity and innocence is self-deceived (20:9). One can deceive others by using falsified weights and measures, but these provoke divine displeasure (20:10). Proverbs 20:12 refers again to God’s role in assessment: he endows humans with the sensory organs that make this possible. Proverbs 20:13 concludes the unit, linking to verse 12 by the phrase “open your eyes.” Perhaps it should be taken metaphorically: open your eyes and perceive accurately where laziness will take you!

20:14–19. The next verses (20:14–17) move into the realm of commerce, where hyperbole and haggling prevail (20:14), knowledge-rich lips are rare gems (20:15), debts should be carefully secured (20:16), and fraudulent practices can turn a “sweet” deal sour (20:17).

Before undertaking something big, seek wise counsel, being careful to avoid those who might betray your trust (20:18–19).

20:20–30. The final section, in which several verses take up ideas occurring earlier in the chapter, focuses on the outcome of or retribution for one’s actions, specifically by God (20:22–24, 27) and the king (20:26, 28). Those who curse their parents will be extinguished (20:20). An inheritance obtained prematurely may not lead to happiness in the end (20:21). Taking revenge usurps a divine prerogative (20:22; cf. Rm 12:19). God detests deceptive standards (and will punish, 20:23; cf. 20:10), but in fact he sovereignly directs our steps and destinies, surpassing human comprehension (20:24).

Those making hasty vows set a trap for themselves (20:25). The wise king separates out the wicked as chaff and gives them a good “threshing” (20:26; cf. 20:8). The Lord’s searchlight shines through (or illumines) the king, exposing the “innermost parts” of individuals to him (20:27; cf. 20:5). It is the king’s “loyalty and faithfulness” as ruler, however, that stabilizes his rule, not the delegated authority he wields (20:28). Youth and old age may have their respective advantages (20:29), but all can benefit from the type of divine “lashes” that removes evil from one’s “innermost parts” (20:30, same expression as in 20:27).

21:1–8. Chapter 21 is framed by proverbs asserting God’s sovereignty over human outcomes (21:1, 30–31, similar to 16:1, 33). Three Yahweh (“LORD”) proverbs set the tone for this new section, which encompasses the entire chapter. God can direct the decisions (“heart”) of even the most powerful human beings, like a watercourse, to specifically benefit those who please him and abundantly irrigate their lives (21:1). Weighing the heart is a common ancient Egyptian image of divine judgment; God’s assessment of human ways is complete and accurate (21:2; cf. 16:25). His priority concerns what is actually just and right(eous), not simply proper ritual or what people think is (up)right (21:2a, 3; cf. 21:8b). His assessment includes the unrestrained intents of the wicked (21:4).

The following verses expand on the yield of the wicked. Unlike the plans of diligent individuals, who profitably carry out their plans, haste (and lack of planning) makes waste (21:5; cf. 14:23). Treasures gained through deception are as temporary as a “vanishing mist” (Hb hebel, Ecclesiastes’s favorite word), for those who own such treasures are seeking death (21:6) through their crooked path marked by violence and injustice (21:7–8a).

21:9–19. The next subsection is framed by two similar proverbs (21:9 [= 25:24], 19; reinforced by references to the wicked in 21:10, 18). Both express a preference for peace with privation (house roof, wilderness) over a contentious companion and introduce a thematic emphasis on the wicked’s impact on communal life—and their punishment (even a wife is considered “wicked” if inciting contention). Controlled by their evil desires, they show neighbors no compassion and ignore the cries of the poor (21:10, 13a). When such incorrigible mockers are punished by local officials, even the naive can learn a lesson (21:11; cf. 19:25). More significantly, the Righteous One observes the wicked and brings disaster on their homes. Now their cries are those that go unheeded (21:12–13).

The wicked may offer a covert bribe to placate the righteous wrath directed toward them, but they will cower in terror if justice is carried out, much to the joy of the righteous (21:14–15). Whoever wanders away from the prudent path will join only one community—the community of the departed (21:16). The contextual message of 21:17 is suggested by the concept of joy that it shares with verse 15: take pleasure in justice achieved rather than loving pleasure itself, as represented by wine and cosmetics. Proverbs 21:18 is not to be taken theologically. Rather, the treacherous wicked, not the upright righteous, are the expendable members of society who will face disaster.

21:20–31. Whereas the preceding subsection focuses on the wicked, 21:20–29 highlights the advantages of wisdom. Not only do the wise have plenty of fine fare stored up, but as those who pursue righteousness and loyal love, they find life, prosperity (“righteousness” is a metonymy of reward for relationship; cf. 22:4), and honor as well (21:20–21). Wisdom makes them powerful and spares them from speech-provoked trouble (21:22–23), unlike the deadly folly of four characters: insolent mockers, craving sluggards, hypocritical worshipers, and ruthless perjurers (21:24–28). The wicked brazenly feign strength, while the upright discern the import of their decisions and conduct (21:29).

Proverbs 21:30–31 concludes the section by reminding the reader that, despite its many benefits, human wisdom cannot prevail against God’s sovereign plans. And although one can strategically prepare for battle, victory is God’s gift.

22:1–6. An initial thematic emphasis in chapter 22 is God’s sovereignty over wealth and poverty. Proverbs 22:1 asserts a countercultural value: a good reputation (cf. Ec 7:1) and good favor (cf. Pr 3:4), presumably through one’s wise conduct, are more worthy of pursuit than substantial wealth. The claim of 22:2 is not that God is the creator of a socioeconomic hierarchy; rather, both rich and poor are under his sovereign care and control. Accordingly, wealth may be one reward for humble reverence toward God (22:4; cf. 21:21). Proverbs 22:3 and 22:5 describe the contrasting walks of the shrewd/righteous and the untrained/perverse. The former warily avoid danger; the latter follow a thorn-filled path and are punished.

Proverbs 22:6 is a favorite proverb on biblical parenting, but its translation and import are disputed, since the exact meaning of the Hebrew for “his way” is unclear. Taken in context, “his way” could refer back to the fear of the Lord in verse 4a (i.e., God’s way) in contrast to the way of the perverse in verse 5a. In Proverbs, youth is associated with gullibility and the need for wise instruction (cf. 1:4; 7:7) by parents and others. Once launched in the right direction, the child will likely stay on course throughout life. Verse 15, which is linked to 22:5–6 by the verb “stays far/separate from” (Hb rhq) and the training theme, supports this interpretation. Folly is an innate part of a child’s makeup and must be removed by discipline while the child is still young.

22:7–16. The second subsection, addressing the mistreatment of the poor and indicating that some poverty is self-inflicted, is bracketed by 22:7 and 22:16. Those who thus wickedly abuse their power will be divinely punished (22:8), while those who generously care for the poor will be divinely rewarded (22:9). Other fools (22:15) afflicting society include the mocker (22:10), the treacherous (22:12b), the lazy (22:13), and the adulteress (22:14, here portrayed as a potential agent of divine punishment). Both the king and the Lord, however, are looking for those whose words are marked by purity, grace, and knowledge to befriend and support (22:11–12a).

B. Sayings of the wise: Admonitions for societal relationships (22:17–24:22). Rhetorically, 22:17–24:22 is similar to chapters 1–9 in the prevalence of imperative verb forms, including the call to heed these “words of the wise” (compare 22:17 with 4:20 and 5:1), followed by explanatory (i.e., motivation) clauses. Unlike 10:1–22:16, this unit consists not of individual proverbs but of a series of admonitions on various topics, most of them being two or more verses in length. [Proverbs and the Instruction of Amenemope]

22:17–21. The primary purpose of this instruction is not pragmatic (i.e., to train capable court advisors; 22:18, 21) but faith related (“that your confidence may be in the LORD,” 22:19b).

22:22–29. The social topics that follow have been encountered previously in chapters 1–9 and 10–22. The first section highlights harmful attitudes and actions regarding wealth and possessions (22:22–23:11).You should not exploit or devastate the poor or legally disadvantaged, because God will come to their defense and do to you as you did to them (22:22–23, an inclusio with 23:10–11). It is equally hazardous to have anger-controlled companions and become like them (22:24–25). You should also avoid cosigning on loans because you may end up losing more than your shirt (22:26–27)!

Proverbs 22:28 warns against violating the property rights of others (cf. 23:10). Proverbs 22:29 affirms the value of developing professional skills (cf. 22:21 and Ps 45:1). Lacking any imperative (i.e., command or exhortation; cf. 22:22, 24, 26, 28), 22:29 may serve to introduce the next topic.

23:1–8. Verses 1–3 and 6–8 are linked by the repeated phrase “don’t desire his choice food” (23:3a, 6b), suggesting that the focus in verses 1–3 is not on improper conduct when your abilities bring you into the presence of a powerful person. Drastic measures may be needed to curb an uncontrolled appetite or inordinate desire (23:2–3). Such food may be “deceptive,” intended as a test of your self-discipline rather than simply as a calorie-rich diet. Proverbs 23:4–5 supports this interpretation, warning against exhausting efforts to acquire fleeting riches.

Proverbs 23:6–8 involves a begrudging host, complementing the equally deceptive host of verses 1–3. Forget the flattery intended to win his favor, for both his food and his feigned hospitality may prove nauseous!

23:9–11. Proverbs 23:9 is linked to verse 8 by the motif of wasted words. A discerning person exercises restraint in attitudes, actions, and speech (23:1b, 4b, 9a). Proverbs 23:10–11 concludes the section by warning against the illegal acquisition of property (cf. 22:28), especially at the expense of the weak and needy (i.e., the fatherless). In wording identical to the initial warning in 22:22–23, it is expressed that God will champion their legal cause as their “Redeemer” (Hb goel).

23:12–14. The second half of the instruction (23:12–24:22) focuses on the wise, responsive child, paralleling chapters 1–9 more fully than does the first half of the instruction. It begins with a renewed call to accept experience-rich instruction (“discipline,” 23:12; cf. 22:17), followed by a warning against neglecting the “discipline” (23:13–14) of the young, and presumably foolish, person. Verse 13b is ironically ambiguous: rather than killing the youth, the rod of correction may actually save the youth’s life (cf. 22:15). Verse 14b, “rescue his life from Sheol,” may even speak of avoiding the ultimate fate of the wicked.

23:15–35. The son is directly addressed and encouraged to live wisely in 23:15–16, 19, 26; 24:13–14, 21 (see also 23:22–25), punctuating the section, with an admonition to fear the Lord in 23:17 and 24:21 framing it. The resultant joy of the parents is mentioned as a motivation in 23:15–16, 24–25. The foundational warning is against envying sinners (23:17; cf. 24:1, 19). Their apparent success will be short-lived, while sustained zeal for God and a life marked by wisdom give one a lasting, even an eternal, hope (23:18; cf. 24:14). Specific admonitions then condemn (1) gluttony and especially drunkenness as leading to rags, not riches (23:20–21), as well as a plethora of physical, emotional, and mental afflictions (23:29–35), and (2) promiscuity with a prostitute or adulteress, who first captivates (just like wine, 23:31) and then takes one captive (23:27–28; cf. 22:14).

24:1–9. Proverbs 24:1–22 contrasts evil plotting (24:1–2, 8–9, 15–16) with wise planning (24:3–7). Repeated warnings against envying the wicked (24:1, 19–20) frame the subunit. Unlike evil men who plan destruction (24:1–2), wisdom is constructive and enriching (24:3–4; cf. 9:1 and 14:1), supremely powerful and effective (24:5–6), and too lofty and unattainable for fools (24:7).

Accordingly, those who devise ways to harm others gain a reputation as a master schemer or conspirer (24:8; cf. 12:2; 14:17). Ironically, this capacity for forging shrewd plans is viewed positively in chapters 1–9 (the same Hebrew translated as “schemer” in 24:8 is translated as “discretion” in 1:4; 2:11; 3:21; 5:2; 8:12). Such actions are described further as foolish, sinful, and socially repulsive (24:9).

24:10–12. In light of the preceding verses, verses 10–12 apparently then challenge the wise to use their “strength” (24:10; cf. 24:5) to rescue the potential victims of such deadly plots—or of any life-threatening crisis (24:11). Feigning ignorance will not suffice when they are confronted by the omniscient discerner of human motives (cf. 16:2; 21:2), protector of lives, and rewarder of deeds (24:12).

24:13–22. The previous contrast from 24:1–9 resumes in 24:13–14, describing wisdom as “honey” for the soul, which gives one a secure and lasting future hope. The call to eat this good “honey” is followed by three warnings regarding one’s attitude toward the wicked. First, we should not act like them in plotting against the righteous, knowing that God will help them get back on their feet again while causing the wicked to stumble (24:15–16). Second, we should not gleefully celebrate our enemies’ downfall, lest God be displeased with our heartless disdain toward fellow human beings and cut short their punishment (or perhaps redirect his attention to us; 24:17–18; cf. 17:5; Jb 31:29). Third, we should neither be vexed by (cf. Ps 37:1, 7–8) nor envy them, since, unlike the wise, evildoers have no future hope. Instead, they will be extinguished like a lamp (24:19–20).

Therefore, the best course for the son to take is to fear both God and his agent, the king, rather than making common cause with dissenters, since both of them are capable of suddenly turning his ordered life into a rubble heap (24:21–22).

C. More sayings of the wise: The necessity of honesty and diligence (24:23–34). 24:23–26. A new collection of proverbs (24:23–34) is introduced in 24:23a. It addresses two familiar themes: honesty, especially in legal settings, and diligence in one’s work. The basic claim is stated in 24:23b: judicial partiality is not good. Acquitting the guilty rightfully provokes widespread, even national, outrage and condemnation, as the people call on God to curse those who pervert justice but to bless richly those who legally correct wrongdoers (24:24–25). Proverbs 24:26 broadens the theme: a straightforward response, whatever the setting, is as much an expression of devoted love as a kiss on the lips.

24:27–34. Proverbs 24:27 introduces the second theme, diligence, by calling for proper preparations, provisions, and priorities. Then 24:28–29 completes the first theme, warning against being a perjurer or a hostile witness (cf. 3:29–30) motivated by a desire for revenge. The collection concludes with a colorful description of the sluggard’s irrational behavior, along with its consequences (24:30–34; cf. 6:10–11). The rundown condition of the vineyard is a precursor to the resultant poverty, offering the observant sage a valuable lesson.

D. The later Solomonic collection (25:1–29:27). This second “Solomonic” proverbial collection was compiled or edited two centuries after the reign of Solomon, during the reign of Hezekiah.

25:1–5. The first subsection of this collection (25:1–27:27) is on relating wisely to rulers, neighbors, family, and social menaces. In these chapters God is rarely mentioned (only 25:2, 22), and numerous comparisons are used.

Chapter 25 focuses on how to relate properly to various groups within society, frequently employing proverbial pairs (i.e., two consecutive related verses) to do so. Verses 2–5 lay the foundation for verses 6–15, which address court officials, although one could apply them more broadly.

Proverbs 25:2–3, which has the ideal ruler in view, affirms a hierarchy in authority of God–king–subjects. The purposes of both God as Creator and monarch as shrewd and insightful statesman may remain inscrutable, but the latter should be honored for his skills. Accordingly, the wise king strengthens the realm by removing the wicked from positions of influence (25:4–5). [Silversmith]

25:6–15. The wise courtier therefore avoids self-promotion and public disgrace by approaching the great with humility (25:6–7; cf. Lk 14:8–10). Proverbs 25:8–10 warns against committing similarly rash actions in the legal sphere, also resulting in public shame. These specific examples of foolish speech are followed by proverbs about valued speech. A fitting word, even in the form of a timely rebuke, is beautiful (“like gold,” 25:11–12). Thus a reliable envoy is as refreshing as snow, while one who makes inflated, unfulfilled promises is as disappointing as rainless clouds (25:13–14). Finally, a gentle but persistent tongue can break down even the strongest ruler’s resistance (25:15).

25:16–22. Two proverbs regarding honey frame a section offering instruction on how to be a good neighbor, which employs vivid comparisons (25:16, 27): too much of a good thing can be bad! Don’t become burdensome through overly frequent visits, thereby possibly turning friend into foe (25:16–17). Don’t betray trust in a time of crisis, assaulting others through false testimony (25:18–19; cf. 26:18–19). Don’t be insensitive in a time of sorrow (25:20). Be generous in a time of need, thereby possibly turning an enemy into a friend and receiving divine payback (25:21–22, quoted in Rm 12:20).

25:23–28. The instructions in 25:16–22 are followed by sayings about various types of unwelcome individuals: the backbiting (25:23; Ps 101:5), the quarrelsome (25:24 = 21:9), the compromising (25:25–26; cf. 10:30), and those obsessed with glory (25:27; this proverb warns against a preoccupation with the sources or nature of honor; cf. 22:4). Each of them, to some degree, lacks self-restraint (25:28).

26:1–5. Proverbs 26 describes, and by implication warns against, a series of dysfunctional and often dangerous members of society, beginning with the fool (26:1–12). How should one respond to fools (26:1–5)? It is just as inappropriate to honor them as it is to curse the innocent. But in the latter situation, God will defuse the curse (26:1–2). The corrective rod is a more fitting means of dealing with fools (26:3), though a well-considered corrective word may also be effective, as long as one neither speaks as foolishly as they do nor affirms them in their folly (26:4–5).

26:6–12. It is foolhardy to honor fools by employing them as messengers, for such an arrangement may harm the employer (26:6); the fool, who is incapable of using proverbial sayings properly (26:7–9); and others as well (26:10). This is because fools disgustingly repeat their folly rather than learn from their mistakes and are self-deluded regarding their capabilities (26:11–12).

The folly of using a fool as a messenger (Pr 26:6) is illustrated by the ignorance of Ahimaaz in 2 Sm 18:19–33 when he outruns the Cushite messenger to bring David news of victory over Absalom.

26:13–28. Next in line is the sluggard, who is similarly self-deluded (26:13–16; compare 26:16a and 12a). This portrait employs proverbs similar to those found elsewhere in the book (compare 26:13 with 22:13; 26:14 with 6:9–10; 24:33; and 26:15 with 19:24). Whereas those who meddle in someone else’s dispute hurt only themselves (26:17, i.e., being bit by a stray dog), the one who considers deceiving others to be a game is like a crazed archer (26:18–19). Similarly, the gossip or slanderer (26:20–22; 26:22 = 18:8) enjoys adding the charcoal of rumors to fiery quarrels—or igniting them in the first place.

The series climaxes in an extensive description of the hateful person (26:24, 26, 28), whose warm and witty words disguise a corrupt and conniving heart (26:23–25). Ultimately, however, such people’s hidden and harmful malice will be publicly exposed and recoil upon them (26:26–28; cf. Ps 7:15–16).

27:1–10. Proverbs 27 offers more general advice on a wide range of topics. A primary emphasis in 27:1–22 is on one’s relationship with friends (27:6) or companions/neighbors (27:9, 10, 14, 17). As in chapters 1–9, a parent addresses a child here (27:11), framing the section by warning against arrogant self-confidence and self-praise (27:1–2, 21) and, by implication, against becoming a fool (27:3, 22).

The destructive, jealous rage of a fool (27:3–4) is juxtaposed with the beneficial, though painful, corrective word of a genuine true friend and is contrasted with the reticence of a so-called friend and a foe’s feigned affection (27:5–6).

Two general proverbs follow. Proverbs 27:7 may simply illustrate how circumstances dictate tastes (although both are distorted); however, in context, the sweet-tasting, bitter food may refer to the “wounds of a friend” (27:6). One who wanders (27:8) is thereby deprived of the sweet counsel of a close companion (27:9). Whereas verse 8 pities the one who leaves his home, perhaps due to a crisis, 27:10 admonishes this one not to forsake a proven friend in such a situation, who will more readily supply concrete assistance than a distant relative.

27:11–18. The parent’s charge to “my son” to be wise (27:11) could involve avoiding obvious “danger” (27:12 = 22:3), including guaranteeing a stranger’s debt (27:13). Being a good companion or neighbor requires a degree of self-restraint (27:14), unlike the conduct of the quarrelsome wife, who lacks this and cannot be turned off, so to speak (27:15–16; cf. 19:13). Rather than irritating one another, friends should “sharpen” each other (27:17). Similarly, reliable servants benefit others and deserve honor (27:18).

27:19–22. See the comments on 27:1–10.

27:23–27. Chapter 27 concludes with advice concerning the material benefits of carefully attending to one’s flocks and herds. It is linked to 27:1 by 27:24 in affirming the tenuousness of wealth and power while offering concrete advice for securing the former.

28:1–11. Chapters 28–29, on righteousness and a nation’s welfare, together conclude this anonymous proverbial collection. They are similar to chapters 10–15 stylistically in their dominant use of contrasting parallel clauses and thematically in their repeated contrast between the righteous and the wicked. Proverbs 28:12, 28 and 29:2, 16 are parallel, dividing these chapters into four subsections. According to these verses, the stability and mood of a nation directly depend on whether the righteous or the wicked are in charge and thriving.

The initial subsection (28:1–11) begins by contrasting the psychological states of the wicked and the righteous (28:1). Discernment (28:2, 5, 7, 11) and heeding God’s commands (28:4, 7, 9) are crucial both in government (28:2–6) and in the home (28:7–11). Hebrew torah is better understood here as referring to divine “law” than to human instruction (28:4; cf. “seek the LORD” in 28:5, only here in Proverbs). A nation where these are lacking will be marred by instability and chaos (28:2), oppression of the poor (28:3), and badly skewed values (28:4–6). A discerning child also avoids those who are self-indulgent (28:7) and exploitation of the poor (28:8), enjoying instead answered prayer (28:9), good things (28:10), and keen insight into the true character of others (28:11).

28:12–28. The second subsection is framed by descriptions of the contrasting responses of citizens to the righteous and wicked leaders (28:12, 28; cf. 11:10). A close relationship with God and moral uprightness are crucial, especially for rulers (28:15–16). This involves acknowledging and abandoning one’s sins and shuddering at the thought of disobeying God (28:13–14), for example, through the perversity and violence of unjust gain or bloodshed (28:15–18). The keys to prospering are honest, hard work (28:19a, 20a; cf. 12:11) coupled with a trust in God rather than in one’s own efforts, which expresses itself in generosity toward the poor (28:25b–27). This approach stands in stark contrast to get-rich-quick schemes involving bribery, stinginess, flattery, rationalized robbery, and greed (28:21–25a), which are doomed to fail or even to provoke divine judgment (28:19b, 20b, 22b, 27b).

29:1–16. The third subsection is doubly framed by proverbs concerning the importance of heeding and consistently giving correction (29:1, 15) and the contrasting responses to or consequences of the righteous or wicked rule (29:2, 16). This juxtaposition suggests that an undisciplined child may grow up to become not only a disgraceful son but also a disgraceful ruler. This is reinforced by 29:3–4, which describes a son who squanders an inheritance on prostitutes and a ruler who destroys a country by taking bribes. A major responsibility for a king is to protect the rights of the poor (29:7, 14), for both the poor and the powerful owe their very existence to God (29:13; cf. 22:2).

The remaining verses in this section introduce various foolish types, who undermine a nation’s stability and disturb its tranquility (29:8a, 9b, 11a). These include flatterers, who end up snaring themselves with their words (29:5–6), provocative mockers (29:8), disrupters of the legal system (29:9), bloodthirsty foes of all who are godly (29:10), and unrestrained and deceptive courtiers (29:11–12).

29:17–27. The fourth subsection begins with a call to discipline one’s children (29:17, the only imperative [command] in the chapter), bolstered by the assurance that the child will in turn become a source of parental relief and delight (cf. 29:3). As previously in the chapter, the stage shifts in the following proverb (29:18) from the family to the nation. The mention of divine “revelation” (cf. 1 Sm 3:1; Is 1:1) and the people running wild recalls the golden calf incident in Ex 32:25. Observing God’s “instruction,” however, will bring a nation his blessing. Alternatively, the proverb may claim for the wisdom instruction genre the same inspired and authoritative status normally associated with OT prophetic and legal texts.

The emphasis on constraining improper behavior continues. Like a child, a servant needs discipline (29:17, 19), but words may not suffice, especially if people have previously indulged that servant (29:19, 21). Those who cannot control their tongue, temper, or ego are prone, respectively, to folly, sin, and humiliation (29:20, 22, 23). And partnering with the wrong individuals, such as thieves, is self-destructive, pressuring one to refuse one’s duty to offer legal testimony out of fear of others rather than trust in God for safety (29:24–25; cf. 28:25). Although people may think that a ruler’s favor will meet their needs, justice comes from God alone (29:26). In light of the divine standards emphasized in this section, the mutual antipathy between the righteous and the wicked is easy to understand (29:27; cf. 29:10).

4. EPILOGUE (30:1–31:31)

Although the final two chapters of Proverbs contain the wisdom of two more sages, from a thematic-theological standpoint they form an epilogue that corresponds to and serves to complete the prologue (Pr 1–9; parallels will be noted below). The words of Agur son of Jakeh and of King Lemuel are both called a “pronouncement,” a term otherwise applied to prophetic utterances (30:1; 31:1; cf. the opening verses of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Malachi), perhaps thereby claiming divine origin and authority.

The final question in Pr 30:4 (“What is his name, and what is the name of his son?”), without directly referring to Jesus Christ, anticipates his coming as the one described by the first question in this verse: “Who has gone up to heaven and come down?” (cf. Jn 3:13).

A. Agur’s message: Relying on God’s word, learning from his work (30:1–33). 30:1–9. The initial section expresses Agur’s earnest personal piety and echoes various OT texts. Proverbs 30:2–3 begins with intellectual weakness as opposed to confidence. The content of the rhetorical questions in 30:4, which describe the unique heavenly access and creative power of the “Holy One,” remind one of Dt 30:12 (cf. Jb 11:7–8) and Jb 26:8, respectively; they are similar in form to those in Is 40:12–14 and Jb 38–39.

The following confession shifts the focus from God’s work to God’s word (30:5–6). These verses quote both Ps 18:30 (= 2 Sm 22:31; cf. Ps 119:140) and Dt 4:2; 12:32 (cf. Rv 22:18–19), by implication claiming the same “pure” status for Agur’s wisdom (cf. 30:1a). The section concludes with a simple but earnest prayer (and the only one expressed in the book), invoking divine aid in avoiding empty and deceitful speech and in procuring only sufficient material resources (cf. Mt 6:11) to avoid the opposite temptations of impious self-sufficiency and hunger-induced theft.

30:10–17. In the remainder of the chapter (30:10–33), the numerical saying becomes the dominant form. In these often riddle-like proverbs, which draw striking examples from nature, the final item is emphasized. These verses also can be attributed to Agur, since no other author is named.

The first subunit (30:10–17) consists of proverbs loosely connected with each other by repeated words or themes. Starting in the previous unit, three consecutive verses refer to damaging the reputation of another: one who desecrates God’s name by stealing (30:9), one who slanders a servant before his master (30:10), and one who denigrates father and mother (30:11; “curse” links 30:10–11).

Proverbs 30:11–14 describes four disreputable types: despisers of parents, the self-righteous, the arrogant, and the greedy. Avarice, the vice of the fourth of these, is described as cutting open the poor in order to devour them. This is illustrated in the animal world by the leech, whose two “daughters” keep crying for more (30:15). It culminates in a numerical saying that lists four insatiables: the realm of the dead, the barren womb, parched soil, and fire (30:16). The subunit is rounded off by 30:17, which again describes the disrespectful, disobedient child (cf. 30:11) with a sinful eye (cf. 30:12–13) that will be pecked out by, presumably divinely dispatched, scavenging birds. [Raven]

30:18–33. A series of four numerical proverbs follows (30:18–31). There are four wonder-evoking movements (“ways,” 30:18–19): a soaring eagle, a slithering snake, a ship cutting through the waves, and a young couple enjoying sexual union. Upon completion, none of these actions leaves behind any obvious traces. The sage hastens to concede, however, that such natural laws of motion can be perverted. The adulteress, who “eats and [then] wipes her mouth,” removing every trace of her sexual snack (30:20; contrast Sg 5:1), recalls the various destructive meals described in 30:14–17 (cf. 30:22b and 25b).

Four developments shake the planet by disturbing the established or ideal social order (30:21–23): a male servant elevated to king, a fool apparently rewarded with plenty, a married woman who is disliked (cf. Dt 21:15–17; 22:13, 16; 24:3), and a female servant who supplants her mistress. Four small, weak, but wise animals achieve remarkable success (30:24–28): ants are amply supplied with food, hyraxes are protected by inaccessible cliffs, locusts advance irresistibly, and lizards are at home in the royal palace.

A final numerical saying describes those known for their stately strut (30:29–31): the fearless lion, the rooster, the male goat, and the king accompanied by troops. That such a regal stride may be pretentious for the rooster and goat is suggested by the concluding verses, which draw warnings from the preceding numerical sayings (30:32–33): one should not act like a fool, exalting oneself, hatching schemes, and provoking quarrels by stoking anger.

B. The message of Lemuel’s mother: A call for royal justice (31:1–9). The closing “pronouncement” (see the introductory comments on 30:1–31:31) is ascribed to King Lemuel (whose name means “belonging to God”), who simply passes on what his mother has taught him (31:1). Verses 1–9 clearly belong to this pronouncement, while the remaining verses of the chapter could constitute an independent section, although lacking a new title/author ascription.

Proverbs opens with a focus on fathers and sons but closes with a focus on mothers and wives.

Whereas in chapters 1–9 King Solomon admonishes his “son(s)” to acquire and practice wisdom, in chapter 31 the queen mother lovingly but strongly admonishes her son regarding the demands and duties of his royal office, addressing three topics. First, she warns against sexual dissipation, which could wipe out his career (31:3; cf. 5:9–10). Second, she warns against drunkenness, which could cloud his mind, distracting or hindering him from administering the law of the land, especially on behalf of the oppressed (31:4–5). She recommends a better use for his supply of alcoholic beverages: rather than drinking it himself and forgetting his duties, he should give it to the dying and suffering, briefly helping them to forget their miserable circumstances (31:5–7). Finally, and more important, she calls on him to be a vocal advocate for the rights of the voiceless and vanquished, judging rightly on their behalf (31:8–9). Rather than focusing on royal prerogatives, pomp, and power, Lemuel’s mother emphasizes his responsibilities toward the weakest of his subjects. (Compare the Solomonic description of the king’s ultimately unsatisfying pursuit of personal pleasure in Ec 2:1–11.)

C. Lady Wisdom exemplified (31:10–31). Proverbs 31:10–31 is stylistically distinct from the preceding set of admonitions. In a twenty-two-verse alphabetic poem, in which each succeeding verse begins with the next Hebrew letter, a woman is presented who embodies all of wisdom’s skills and virtues, from a to z. In context this section serves to counterbalance the initial admonition against sexual promiscuity in verse 3. At the same time, it takes up the sustained contrast within chapters 1–9 between Lady Wisdom and Lady Folly, presenting a woman who is both capable and virtuous, one who consistently practices what the book preaches in both the domestic and public spheres. By implication, Lemuel (or any young man) is urged to marry a woman who resembles this idealized but not unrealistic portrait. Like King Lemuel, she properly uses her strength (31:3, 10, 29) and opens her mouth (31:8–9, 26), caring for the poor and needy (31:9, 20) as well as for her family.

This description is clearly structured. Verses 10–12 affirm her great value in general terms, while verses 13–27 describe her activities in detail, warranting a concluding call in verses 28–31 to praise her. Several of the terms and images used here occurred previously in chapters 1–9.

31:10–12. Such a woman is a rare gem (31:10; cf. 3:15; 8:11), a partner in whom her husband can place his complete confidence (31:11a). Like a victorious warrior, she will bring him rich spoil, consistently benefiting rather than harming him throughout life (31:11b–12).

31:13–27. Through her industry and ingenuity, she augments the family’s income and nourishes her household (31:13–18; cf. 31:24), much like a merchant ship or a lioness rising before dawn to stalk prey (31:15; cf. Jb 4:11). She produces both textiles and grapes for sale and invests in real estate. Her commercial trade is so profitable that their household lamps have oil to spare (31:18b—she is not sleep deprived, cf. 31:15a). Her balanced concerns are expressed through repetition in 31:19–20: she stretches out her hands to spin thread and to care for the poor and needy.

She is unafraid of severe weather or the future—she fears God alone (31:21a, 25b, 30b)—for her family’s clothing and bedding are luxurious, not merely adequate (31:21b–22). The mention at this point in the text of her husband’s role and respect in the city administration (31:23) suggests that these are contingent on her manifold contributions to the household. Her most distinctive “clothing,” however, is not fine linen and purple but rather “strength and honor” (31:22b, 25a). Furthermore, her speech, like that of the sage, is marked by wisdom and faithful instruction (31:26). In sum, she vigilantly oversees the affairs of her home, exhibiting no traits of the lazy (31:27).

31:28–31. Not surprisingly, although not to be taken for granted, her children and husband praise her, publicly extolling her unsurpassed character and accomplishments, and the town’s leading citizens should as well (31:28–29, 31). As the book concludes, the foundational and lasting benefits of reverence for God (31:30; cf. 1:7; 2:5; 8:13; 9:10) are contrasted with the fleeting attractions of personal charm and physical beauty.

The wise son will do whatever it takes to make this woman his lifelong partner, and the wise reader will pay whatever it costs in order to engage in a lifelong journey along “the way of wisdom” (4:11) so vividly set forth and illustrated throughout the book of Proverbs.