Joshua

1. TAKING THE LAND (1:1–12:24)

A. Preparation for war (1:1–5:15). The beginning of the book marks the beginning of a new era. Moses, the servant of the Lord who led the Israelites out of Egypt and brought them to the threshold of the land promised to their forefathers, is now dead (1:1). The task of leading the people into Canaan to take possession of the land has now fallen on Joshua, the one chosen by the Lord to succeed Moses (cf. Nm 27:12–23; Dt 31:1–8, 14, 23). But as much as the book focuses on Israel’s success in taking possession of the land under Joshua’s leadership, the actual account of battles with the Canaanites does not begin until Jos 6. Joshua 1–5 thus concerns the preparation Joshua and Israel have to make before they are battle ready. Such preparation begins with the Lord’s commission to Joshua and his promise to him and to Israel (1:1–9).

1:1. Perhaps to impress on Joshua the new leadership role he now must play, the Lord begins by reminding him of the death of Moses. The rest of the Lord’s speech can be divided roughly into two parts: the first is intended for both Joshua and the Israelites (1:2–4, using “you” plural throughout), while the second is for Joshua alone (1:5–9, switching to “you” singular).

In a sense, the promised land parallels the garden back in Gn 2. It is a wonderful, bountiful land filled with great things to eat, and it is a place where God’s people can encounter him in fellowship and blessing.

1:2–4. The message to both Joshua and the Israelites consists of a command and a promise: a command to set out from their camp on the plains of Moab and cross the Jordan into Canaan (1:2) and a promise that God will give them all the land within the prescribed boundary on which they have set foot, just as he promised to Moses (1:3–4). That boundary is further specified to be between the desert in the south and Lebanon in the north, and between the Euphrates River in the east and the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Note, that the mention of “the land of the Hittites” in 1:4 is a reference to Syria, “the land of the Hatti,” mentioned also in Akkadian inscriptions in the first millennium BC (see the article “The Hethites and the Hittites” in Genesis).

1:5–9. As for the message to Joshua, it consists of two promises (1:5) and three commands (1:6–9). The first promise guarantees success in that no one will be able to stand against him during his lifetime (1:5a). The second, providing the basis for that success, is that the Lord’s presence will be with Joshua just as it was with Moses (1:5b). In light of these two promises, the first command (1:6; repeated in 1:7, 9) is for Joshua to be strong and courageous, essential qualities that will enable him to lead the people against hostile forces to inherit the land. The other two commands, however, are slightly different. Although the earlier promise that no one will be able to stand against Joshua sounds unconditional, the following two commands provide further qualifications. In 1:7 the success previously promised is now tied to the command to obey unswervingly the entire law given by Moses. And to the extent that obedience must come from knowledge, 1:8 further commands Joshua to constantly meditate on that law, so that he may obey it and enjoy success.

1:10–11. Having received the Lord’s commands and promises, Joshua then goes to the leaders of the people to convey to them the Lord’s will. Just as the Lord has commanded in 1:2, Joshua now tells the people to get ready to cross the Jordan in three days to take possession of the land the Lord will give them.

1:12–18. Having spoken to the leaders, Joshua then addresses especially the two and a half Transjordan tribes (1:12). Having asked for and received land east of the Jordan, these two and a half tribes promised Moses that they would send their armed men across the Jordan in solidarity with the other tribes to help them take possession of their land (Nm 32). Now that the Israelites are finally ready to cross the Jordan, Joshua wants to make sure that the promise they previously made will be honored (1:13–15).

The two and a half tribes answer Joshua in the affirmative and pledge not only to obey him just as they have obeyed Moses but also to put to death any who refuse to obey him. In this, they show their full acceptance of Joshua’s leadership as successor of Moses (1:16–18a). In fact, when the two and a half tribes invoke a blessing for the Lord to be with Joshua as he was with Moses and encourage Joshua to be strong and courageous (1:18b), their unknowing use of the very words the Lord has earlier spoken to Joshua must have shown Joshua that the Lord and the people were now unified in vision and purpose.

2:1–3. Before crossing the Jordan, Joshua decides to send out a reconnaissance mission especially to spy out Jericho, the first city of which they will be engaging the local population in battle (2:1a). Given Joshua’s earlier decision to cross the Jordan in three days, he probably intends this reconnaissance mission to be brief, as the spies can conceivably go, stay overnight, and return again the next day. But as it turns out, the mission takes slightly longer than Joshua anticipated (cf. 2:22–23).

There is some debate as to whether Rahab was a common prostitute or a cultic prostitute who would have played a more highly regarded role in Canaanite religion. But regardless of which, her house would have been a place where the presence of male strangers would arouse the least suspicion, thus likely explaining why the spies choose to stay at her place (2:1b). Nonetheless, the spies’ cover is apparently blown, as the king of Jericho finds out about their presence and sends word to Rahab commanding her to turn them over (2:2–3).

2:4–7. Instead of obeying, Rahab brings the spies to the rooftop and hides them under some stalks of flax (2:6). Then, cleverly admitting that the spies have indeed been there, she makes up a story about them having left before the closing of the city gate at dusk (2:4–5) and sends the pursuers after them (2:7).

2:8–11. Rahab then goes to the spies to explain her actions and to make a request. She tells them that her people have heard about the Israelites’ miraculous crossing of the Red Sea and their subsequent destruction of the two Transjordanian kings Sihon and Og, which has brought great fear to her people (2:10). Bracketing this disclosure, however, is Rahab’s declaration of her faith in the Lord and in what he will accomplish for his people. She begins her speech in 2:9 by first expressing her certainty that the Lord has given the land of Canaan to the Israelites. And in 2:11, she concludes by openly declaring that the Lord, the God of Israel, is God in heaven above and earth below. In doing so, Rahab has highlighted her personal faith response to the information both she and her people have received, thus setting up an implicit contrast between her willing submission to the Lord’s sovereignty and her people’s refusal to submit.

2:12–14. Having made her declaration, Rahab then asks the spies to swear in the Lord’s name and provide a sure sign that they will show “kindness” (Hb hesed) to her and her family by sparing them from death, reminding them that she has first shown kindness to them on her own initiative (2:12–13). So the spies swear to show kindness and faithfulness to her when the Lord delivers the city to them, as long as she keeps quiet about their visit (2:14). [The Spies’ Promise to Rahab]

2:15–21. Having received the promise she sought, Rahab then lets the spies outside the city wall by a rope through her window, but not before giving them further instructions to help them escape their pursuers (2:15–16). In return, the spies give her instructions regarding how she and her family can be kept safe when the Israelites invade the city (2:17–20).

2:22–24. Following Rahab’s instructions, the spies hide for three days until their pursuers have left before returning to the Israelites (2:22). They then report all that has happened, confidently declaring that the Lord has indeed given the land into their hands (2:23–24).

3:1–6. Once the spies have returned, Joshua and the Israelites set out from the Acacia Grove toward the Jordan to cross it (3:1). A series of instructions is then given (3:2–6), especially concerning the place of the ark as the procession moves toward the Jordan. The ark, carried by the priests and signaling the Lord’s presence and guidance, is to lead the way, with the people following after it. But the people are cautioned not to follow too closely but to maintain a distance of a thousand yards, presumably in deference to the Lord’s holiness (3:3–4). The fact that some distance needs to be kept between the people and the ark does not mean, however, that the people are then exempt from maintaining a high standard of purity before his presence. Hence, Joshua also instructs the people to consecrate themselves the day before the crossing, so that there will be nothing to hinder the Lord from doing wonders among them (3:5).

3:7–8. As the Israelites approach the Jordan with the ark ahead of them, the Lord gives Joshua further assurances and instructions. Promising to begin exalting Joshua before the Israelites so that they will know that the Lord is with him as he was with Moses (3:7), the Lord gives additional instruction regarding the imminent crossing of the Jordan. In light of the more detailed instructions Joshua gives the Israelites in 3:9–13, compared with the brief instructions Joshua receives in 3:8, it is likely that the author chose not to report fully the Lord’s instructions in 3:8. Certain detail is thus left until Joshua speaks to the people, so as to avoid excessive repetition.

3:9–13. Even though Joshua’s fuller instructions to the people most likely come directly from the Lord, a slight change in emphasis can be detected. In his speech to Joshua, the Lord states that events to follow will serve to exalt Joshua before the people so that they will know the Lord’s presence is with him (3:7). But in Joshua’s speech to the people, he declares instead that events to follow will serve to demonstrate that the living God is among his people and will fulfill his promise to dispossess the local population for them (3:10). This seems to show that Joshua is determined to exalt only the Lord before the people, even though he is aware of the Lord’s intention to exalt him.

The enigmatic instruction in 3:12 to choose twelve men, one from each tribe, is likely in anticipation of further instructions to be given in 4:2.

Concerning the actual crossing of the Jordan, the instructions Joshua conveys from the Lord are that the priests are to go ahead until their feet are standing in the Jordan. The waters flowing downstream will then be miraculously cut off, such that they will stand in a heap (3:13).

Crossing the Jordan

3:14–17. When the people do exactly as told, the water from upstream indeed stops flowing and stands in a heap some distance away (3:15b–16). As the priests carrying the ark stand still in the middle of the Jordan, the entire nation crosses over on dry ground (3:17). In fact, to emphasize the miraculous nature of this crossing, the narrator even notes that all this happened during the river’s flood stage, when the water level would have been higher than normal (3:15a). To the extent that this crossing of the Jordan shares similar features with one of Moses’s more spectacular miracles, the crossing of the Red Sea (cf. Ex 14:21–22), it indeed sends a clear message to Israel that the Lord is with Joshua just as he was with Moses (cf. Jos 3:7).

4:1–7. When the whole of Israel has crossed over, the Lord gives further instructions concerning the twelve men chosen earlier (4:2–3; cf. 3:12). They are each to take a stone from the middle of the river, where the priests carrying the ark stand, and carry it to the camp where they will be spending the night. In 4:2–3, as in 3:7–8 earlier, the author has chosen to provide initially only a brief excerpt of the Lord’s instructions to Joshua, leaving the rest of the details to be disclosed in Joshua’s instructions to the twelve (4:4–7). Joshua’s instructions explain that the twelve stones are to form a memorial for the Israelites so that, should their descendants ask about the meaning of the stones, the story will be retold about how the Lord miraculously brought his people across the Jordan.

After crossing the Jordan River on dry ground, the Israelites erect a memorial of twelve stones gathered from the river (Jos 4).

4:8–9. The exact implementation of Joshua’s instructions is reported in 4:8. Although 4:9 could be understood as the setting up of a second memorial of twelve stones in the middle of the river, it is more likely a “fast-forward” report of the twelve stones taken from the river to set up as a memorial at the Israelite camp. This anticipates the more-detailed account to be given in 4:20–24.

4:10–14. A new section begins in 4:10, which culminates in the priests coming up to the other side of the Jordan with the ark. But to lead up to this point, the author first rewinds the narrative slightly to when the people were still crossing the Jordan, in order to provide details that were not disclosed earlier (cf. 3:17). These include the people’s hurried crossing (4:10), the crossing of the armed Transjordanian tribes (4:12; cf. 1:12–18), and the number of battle ready who crossed over as around forty thousand (4:13). That the ark and the priests carrying it cross over only after the rest have done so is also mentioned in 4:11, in anticipation of the more detailed account of how this happens (4:15–18). But the fact that the Lord has brought honor to Joshua that day just as he had promised (cf. 3:7) is emphasized in 4:14, such that the people revere Joshua all the days of his life just as they have previously revered Moses.

4:15–18. After the people have crossed over, the Lord tells Joshua to command the priests carrying the ark to come up from the Jordan (4:15–17). As Joshua does, and the priests come up, the water of the Jordan immediately returns to its previous flood position (4:18), again highlighting the miraculous nature of Israel’s crossing.

4:19–20. The commemoration of this historic event is dealt with in 4:19–24. The date of the crossing is clearly recorded in 4:19. As the Israelites are camping out at Gilgal, on the eastern border of Jericho, Joshua sets up the twelve stones taken from the Jordan as a memorial there (4:20).

4:21–24. The instructions to the people that accompany the setting up of the stones in 4:21–24 are basically consistent with Joshua’s earlier instructions in 4:6–7. In both instances, Joshua highlights the function of the stones to provide opportunities for future generations to be told about the miraculous crossing of the Jordan. But in 4:21–24, Joshua brings up two additional points. First, he explicitly compares the miraculous crossing of the Jordan to the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea (4:23). Second, he discloses two further results of this miraculous crossing of the Jordan (4:24): in relation to the Lord’s people, it was meant to spur continuous reverence for the Lord, and hence, obedience; but in relation to the surrounding nations, it was intended to be a concrete demonstration of the Lord’s power.

5:1. Indeed, immediately following this disclosure, it is reported that kings in both the hill country (Amorite) and the coastal plains (Canaanite) west of the Jordan react with great fear when they hear about Israel’s miraculous crossing.

5:2–3. Despite the fact that the Israelites are now camping right by Jericho, further spiritual preparation is necessary before they will be ready to battle the indigenous population and take possession of the land. Such preparation is reported in 5:2–15.

The first thing Israel is required to do is to circumcise all their men (5:2–9). The command of the Lord and Joshua’s obedience are reported in 5:2–3. The name of the place where the Israelites are circumcised, Gibeath-haaraloth (5:3), literally means “The Hill of Foreskins” (see the CSB footnote). The name must have been given after the event to commemorate what happened there.

5:4–7. The circumstances that necessitate the command to circumcise are as follows. When the Israelites first left Egypt, all the men were circumcised. But no circumcision had taken place during the forty years when Israel was wandering in the wilderness. Now that the generation that was of fighting age when Israel left Egypt has died under the Lord’s discipline for unbelief, the generation born during the wilderness years has remained uncircumcised.

The Lord commands Joshua to circumcise the Israelite men using a flint knife (Jos 5:2).

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities and the Elephantine Museum.

But why is it important for the Israelites to be circumcised at this point? To begin, circumcision is a concrete sign of the Abrahamic covenant (Gn 17:9–14). More significantly, it is precisely on the basis of this covenant (cf. Gn 15:7–21) that Israel is now seeking to take possession of the land before them. It is therefore understandable that, before delivering the land into their hands, the Lord would first demand a demonstration of covenant faithfulness. Such a demonstration also requires a corresponding demonstration of faith, since there is an implicit danger to Israel’s obedience. After all, the Israelites, having just set foot on hostile land and now camping near the enemy, would have been extremely vulnerable to the enemy’s attacks after the procedure (cf. Gn 34:13–29).

5:8–9. But the people obey by faith, and when they do, the Lord declares that their past disgrace of having been slaves in Egypt will be “rolled away” (5:9). This is presumably because their demonstration of faith and covenant faithfulness now guarantees that they will no longer be slaves, as they are poised to take possession of their own land. The fact that they camp at Gilgal while they are healing from circumcision further drives home the Lord’s declaration, for the name Gilgal puns with the Hebrew verb meaning “roll away” (galal).

5:10. The next event in their spiritual preparation is the celebration of the Passover on the fourteenth day of the month, in accordance with the law (Ex 12:6; Lv 23:5; Nm 9:2–3; 28:16). Note that this celebration is possible only because Joshua has circumcised all Israelite males four days previously, for the law stipulates that only those who are circumcised are eligible to celebrate the Passover (Ex 12:43–49).

5:11–12. While the text provides no further detail about this celebration, it is disclosed that on the day after the celebration, the Israelites have their first taste of the produce from the land (5:11). This is followed by an end to the provision of manna (5:12), thus signaling the beginning of a new era in which, instead of the Lord having to provide for Israel’s daily needs, the people will henceforth be sustained through the produce of the land they will soon possess.

5:13–15. If the above were all intended to raise Israel’s confidence ahead of their impending battles to take possession of the land, then the final confidence booster comes when the Israelites begin moving toward Jericho for their first military encounter with the indigenous population. As Joshua looks up, he sees a man standing before him with a drawn sword in his hand. Wanting to ascertain whether he is friend or foe, Joshua asks if he is for or against them (5:13). But the answer he gets is neither. The man identifies himself as the commander of the Lord’s army (5:14a), implying that his role is not so much to help but to assume command in the Lord’s battle. Joshua is thus being reminded that the battle is ultimately not Israel’s battle, with the Lord providing help, but the Lord’s battle, with Israel needing to submit to his command.

Realizing who the man is, Joshua then prostrates himself and asks what message the Lord has for him (5:14b). But the commander simply tells Joshua to remove his sandals because where he is standing is holy (5:15). This instruction almost replicates exactly the Lord’s instruction to Moses in Ex 3:5. But in both instances, the holiness of the place probably has less to do with the particular geographic location than with the manifestation of the Lord’s presence. Taking off one’s sandals is presumably an expression of humility, since in Dt 25:7–10; 2 Ch 28:15; and Is 20:2–4, being without sandals is deemed a sign of humiliation. Thus, the commander’s message to Joshua reinforces the need for Joshua to humbly submit himself before the Lord.

B. Campaigns of war (6:1–12:24). After the focus on preparation for battle in chapters 1–5, chapters 6–11 now describe the actual battles, with chapter 12 being a summary of results. The battles themselves can roughly be divided into three main campaigns, focusing respectively on the central (6:1–8:35), southern (9:1–10:43), and northern regions (11:1–23).

6:1–5. The first campaign described is in the central region (6:1–8:35). This campaign begins with the battle against Jericho (6:1–21). Anticipating the arrival of the Israelites and fearing their power (cf. 2:10–11), the inhabitants of Jericho choose to shut themselves up in their walled city rather than go out in battle (6:1). But the Lord has special instructions for Joshua regarding how to breach Jericho’s wall.

Consistent with the narrative style of the author (cf. 3:7–13; 4:2–7), the battle account is presented through layers of near repetitions, with each layer expanding further on the information previously provided. The main thrust of the Lord’s instructions to Joshua is first reported in 6:2–5; it concerns the key participants and the order of the procession, as well as different actions to be taken for the first six days versus the seventh day.

6:6–14. Joshua’s subsequent instructions to the people are reported in three stages (6:6–7, 10, 15–19), each followed by the people’s obedient response (6:8–9, 11–14, 20–21). Note here that Joshua’s instructions to the people contain details previously unmentioned in the Lord’s instructions, and the report of the people’s actions contains details previously unmentioned in Joshua’s instructions. In his instructions to the people (6:6–7), for example, not only does Joshua repeat the Lord’s instructions concerning the seven priests carrying seven ram’s horns in front of the ark and armed men marching around the city, he also includes a previously unmentioned detail about an armed guard going ahead of the ark. The report of the actual execution (6:8–9) in turn contains descriptions not only of priests and the armed guard marching ahead of the ark but also of the priests blowing their horns as they march, followed by the rear guard.

The author’s use of this expanding layer of repetition likely serves two purposes. First, by repeating the core instructions from the Lord both in Joshua’s instructions to the people and in the report of the people’s actions, the author is thus able to highlight the exact obedience of both Joshua and the people. Second, by leaving out less critical details in the initial report of the Lord’s instructions and only introducing them subsequently, the author is also able to retain interest by injecting variety into the repetitions.

6:15–19. After the activities on the first six days have been reported, 6:15–26 then focuses on the climactic events of the seventh day. As per instructions from the Lord (6:4), the people march around the city seven times on the seventh day (6:15). Just before the trumpet blast at the end of their seventh circle around the city, Joshua gives further instructions regarding what to do with the city after it is taken (6:16–19). Specifically—except for Rahab and her family, who will be spared for helping the spies—the city and everything in it will be set apart to the Lord for destruction. Nothing will be available for the Israelites to take for themselves as spoil. In fact, the people are clearly warned that taking any items for themselves will bring not only destruction to the taker but also trouble for the entire camp.

As to what is meant by setting something apart to the Lord, the Hebrew verb haram means “to destroy” (e.g., Dt 13:16; 20:17; Jos 10:40; 11:11–12; 1 Ch 4:41; Jr 50:21, 26), and so the related noun herem is often understood as signifying something set apart for destruction (e.g., Lv 27:29; Dt 7:26; Jos 7:12). However, Lv 27:21, 28; Nm 18:14; and Mc 4:13 suggest that the concept may also have a more positive nuance where setting something apart to the Lord refers to an irrevocable dedication of something valuable to the Lord for his use.

Thus, whether an item that was set apart would be destroyed or retained actually depended on what that item was. While items of value were sometimes retained for the Lord’s use, items deemed offensive to the Lord, such as idol worshipers and their idols, were generally destined for destruction. That is why, as much as Jericho and everything in it are declared “set apart to the LORD” (6:17), the silver and gold and articles of bronze and iron are not to be destroyed but go into the Lord’s treasury (6:19). That the latter are also considered part of the “things set apart” is evident in 7:1, 21, where what Achan has taken includes not only the Babylonian robe destined for destruction but also the silver and wedge of gold that were destined for the Lord’s treasury. Thus, in the context of Jos 6–7, herem (translated as “things set apart” or “things set apart for destruction”) refers to all items declared off limits to Israel because they have been irrevocably dedicated to the Lord, regardless of whether they are to be destroyed or put into the treasury. Note, however, that the instruction about the things set apart in 6:17–19 is probably mentioned in anticipation of the following episode, where the violation of that instruction leads to an unexpected defeat at Ai.

Shofar being blown. The priests were to carry “ram’s-horn trumpets” (Jos 6:4).

© tomertu.

6:20–24. Outside Jericho, when the Israelites shout together at Joshua’s signal, its walls miraculously collapse, so that the Israelites are able to charge into the city to take it (6:20). Since the entire city has been set apart to the Lord, all living things, including livestock, are destroyed. The only exceptions are Rahab and her family, who are brought out by the two spies in accordance with the oath sworn to her (6:21–23). And with the exception of the silver and gold and the articles destined for the Lord’s treasury, the rest of the city is burned (6:24).

6:25–27. The successful campaign then concludes with a few final notes. First, it is reported that Rahab and her family are allowed to live among the covenant community (6:25). The comment that “she still lives in Israel today,” if taken literally, suggests that the account must have been penned within Rahab’s life span. But some have understood the “she” in the last clause of 6:25 as representative, thus not necessarily suggesting that Rahab herself is still living among the Israelites but referring to her family and descendants. And while some see this comment as a subtle rebuke against the Israelites for allowing non-Israelites to become part of the covenant community, the comment is more likely an endorsement of that decision by testifying to the genuineness of Rahab’s faith.

Rahab is listed in the genealogy of Jesus in Mt 1:5–6 as the mother of Boaz (Ruth’s husband) and the great-great-grandmother of David.

Second, 6:26 reports a curse Joshua pronounces on Jericho that whoever attempts to rebuild the city will suffer the loss of sons even as construction takes place. Here the rebuilding that Joshua has in mind may be more the refortification of the city with walls and gates rather than the construction of houses for dwelling. For although there is evidence that the city was inhabited between its initial destruction and its eventual rebuilding during the time of Ahab (cf. Jos 18:21; Jdg 3:13; 2 Sm 10:5), it is only in association with its refortification in Ahab’s days that Joshua’s curse is literally fulfilled (1 Kg 16:34).

Finally, in 6:27 it is noted that, as the Lord’s presence with Joshua has been amply demonstrated through this victory, Joshua’s fame spreads throughout the land.

7:1. With such an auspicious start, one would naturally expect a string of victories to immediately follow. But as the Israelites move westward toward Ai, they experience a surprising defeat. To prepare the readers for this unexpected development, the author preemptively discloses in 7:1 the reason for defeat, namely, that Achan has secretly taken some of the “things set apart for destruction” for himself. Notice that although it is evident throughout the narrative that this violation is entirely Achan’s own, both the author in 7:1 and the Lord in 7:11 speak of Israel as a whole having acted unfaithfully regarding the things set apart. This is in line with the principle of corporate responsibility often held during biblical times, where the action of one can implicate the whole. This, in fact, was precisely Joshua’s warning in 6:18, that any violation of the Lord’s commands would endanger not only the individual involved but also the entire community.

7:2–5. The reason for the impending defeat having been disclosed, the author traces the series of events from its beginning. Fresh from the conquest of Jericho, Joshua repeats his former strategy by sending spies to inspect their next target, Ai (7:2). Brimming with confidence, the spies return to report that a mere two to three thousand men will be sufficient to defeat Ai’s much smaller army (7:3). But in the ensuing battle, the Israelites are defeated, resulting in the loss of thirty-six lives. With that, the fragile confidence of the Israelites is broken, as their hearts melt like water (7:4–5).

7:6–9. Joshua and the elders of Israel appear before the ark of the Lord in mourning attire and lay prostrate on the ground until evening (7:6). Then Joshua, not yet realizing what has caused the defeat, starts complaining to the Lord. Using language reminiscent of Israel’s earlier complaints under Moses (cf. Nm 14:3; 20:4–5; 21:5), he asks why the Lord has brought them across the Jordan to be destroyed (7:7). He even asserts that it would have been better for them not to have crossed the Jordan, as their defeat by the small army of Ai will surely embolden their enemies to band together to annihilate them (7:8–9a). But like Moses, Joshua also seeks to motivate the Lord to act on their behalf by pointing to the disrepute he will suffer if he allows them to be destroyed by the Canaanites (7:9b; cf. Nm 14:13–16).

7:10–15. The Lord’s response seems to hint at a slight impatience with Joshua’s melodrama, as he tells him to get up and stop lying prostrate before him (7:10). He then tells Joshua that the real problem has to do with sin. Disclosing the nature of the sin, the Lord further threatens to withdraw his presence unless the things set apart among them are removed (7:11–12). This is followed by a series of instructions designed to rectify the problem. Joshua is to tell the people to consecrate themselves and inform them of the real reason behind their defeat (7:13). The need to consecrate is most likely in preparation for the Lord’s presence as he undertakes to personally identify the culprit. The people are told to present themselves tribe by tribe before the Lord the following morning. The tribe chosen will then come forward clan by clan, then family by family, and then the male representatives of households one by one, until the culprit is identified (7:14). The culprit, together with all that belongs to him, will then be destroyed by fire for violating the Lord’s covenant (7:15).

7:16–21. The following day, everything goes as instructed, and Achan is singled out (7:16–18). On Joshua’s urging, Achan admits that among the things set apart he has taken a Babylonian cloak, the equivalent of about 5 pounds of silver, and approximately 1.25 pounds of gold and he has hidden them in the ground inside his tent (7:19–21).

7:22–26. When the items are retrieved and brought before the congregation, the Israelites take Achan, the stolen goods, and all that belongs to him to a valley (7:22–24). There they stone him to death along with his family and livestock, in accordance with the principle of corporate responsibility. The corpses are then burned along with Achan’s other belongings, and a pile of rocks marks the place of execution. The valley is named Achor, perhaps partly because it sounds like Achan and partly because the word, meaning “trouble,” reflects Joshua’s final pronouncement before the execution that the Lord will bring trouble to Achan because he has brought trouble to Israel (7:25–26). [Comparing Rahab and Achan]

8:1–2. With the Lord’s anger turned away, the stage is set for a second attempt to take Ai. The Lord encourages Joshua by telling him to go up again to attack Ai and even promises victory in advance (8:1). The Lord instructs Joshua to do to Ai and its king exactly as he did to Jericho and its king; however, he allows livestock to be kept this time as spoil for the Israelites. As for military strategy, the Lord commands an ambush (8:2).

8:3–9. Here again, the author chooses not to disclose all the detailed instructions concerning the ambush in the Lord’s speech to Joshua. It is only at the end of Joshua’s instructions to the thirty thousand warriors chosen for the mission, when Joshua charges them to do what the Lord has commanded (8:8b), that it becomes clear that the entire plan must have originated directly from the Lord.

The basic plan is this: Joshua will take some men and launch a frontal attack on Ai. But about five thousand (8:12) are to quietly set up an ambush behind the city. When the men of Ai come out to fight, Joshua and his men will pretend to flee, thus luring the enemy away from the city in pursuit. The ambushing force will then take the now largely defenseless city, setting it on fire (8:3–8a).

8:10–19. Everything goes according to plan. As Joshua and his men pretend to flee, all the men of Ai pursue, leaving the city open and defenseless (8:15–17). At the right moment, the Lord tells Joshua to hold out his javelin toward Ai, a detail previously unmentioned, but obviously understood by all as a sign for the ambushing force to attack. The ambushing force thus takes the defenseless city and sets it on fire (8:18–19). Apparently, Joshua continues holding out his javelin throughout the entire battle, until all the enemy has been destroyed (8:26).

8:20–23. The climactic turning point of the battle is skillfully described in 8:20–23 with a quick juxtaposition of two different perspectives. From the perspective of the men of Ai, one can almost feel their sense of doom when, realizing something is wrong, they look behind them only to see their city going up in smoke. But by the time they turn to face their enemy again, those fleeing before them just moments ago have already turned around and started attacking. They are thus caught between enemies coming from both directions and have nowhere to escape (8:20). From the perspective of Joshua and his men, however, the pivotal moment they have been waiting for is seeing the smoke rising from the burning city. Realizing immediately that the ambush has succeeded, Joshua then turns his fleeing men around and starts attacking, even as the ambushing force emerges from the city to join the battle from the opposite direction (8:21–23).

8:24–27. So the army of Ai is totally annihilated, and their king is captured and executed, as are the rest of Ai’s citizens. But the livestock the Israelites take for themselves, just as the Lord instructed.

8:28–29. Joshua has the city burned and reduced to rubble, and the body of the king of Ai is hung on a tree after his execution. The point of the latter practice is not entirely clear, although the same thing is also done to the five kings Joshua later kills (10:26). The fact that in both cases Joshua has the corpses taken down at sunset seems to point to an application of Dt 21:22–23. If so, then the hanging of the corpses probably serves to convey God’s curse, while the removal of the corpses before evening is to prevent desecration of the land. After the corpse of the king of Ai is taken down, Joshua has rocks piled over it at the entrance of the city gate as a memorial of Israel’s victory.

8:30–35. Joshua and the Israelites then travel north to the vicinity of Mount Ebal to hold a covenant renewal ceremony. Such a move is probably prompted by several considerations. To begin, Moses left clear instructions that such a ceremony should take place after Israel has crossed the Jordan into the land the Lord would give them (Dt 11:29–30; 27:1–26). Although Moses did not specify at what point after their entrance into the land such a ceremony should take place, with the Israelites freshly coming off two significant victories and being sufficiently close to Mounts Ebal and Gerizim geographically, this is probably a suitable occasion to express their gratitude to the Lord while fulfilling Moses’s charge. Besides, in light of Achan’s recent covenant violation, this will also be a good time for Israel to renew her corporate commitment to the Lord.

The ceremony basically follows what Moses prescribed. Joshua builds an altar using uncut stones, on which the people present burnt offerings and fellowship offerings (8:30–31; cf. Dt 27:5–7). On some large stones coated with plaster (cf. Dt 27:2, 4), Joshua copies the entire law of Moses (8:32; cf. Dt 27:3, 8). The Israelites are then divided into two groups according to tribal affiliation: one in front of Mount Ebal and the other in front of Mount Gerizim, both facing the ark between them, carried by priests and Levites (8:33; cf. Dt 27:12–13). Joshua reads all the words of the law to the assembly, including the blessings and curses (8:34). Although here, the author never mentions whether the Levites declared loudly the covenant curses, as Moses commanded in Dt 27:14–26, the emphatic statement in 8:35 that Joshua does not leave out any of Moses’s commands suggests that all the instructions in Dt 27 must have been read out and followed.

Notice also the repeated mention of “resident aliens” (i.e., non-Israelites) among the participants of the ceremony (8:33, 35). These foreigners probably include descendants of non-Israelites who left Egypt with the Israelites (Ex 12:38), Rahab and her family (Jos 6:25), and possibly others like her who have chosen to put their faith in Israel’s God and become part of the covenant community. Their presence among the Israelites thus shows the Lord’s willingness to extend his grace to all who will put their faith in him, regardless of ethnicity. This, incidentally, is also demonstrated in the next episode, concerning the Gibeonites.

9:1–2. The second major military campaign described is in the southern region (9:1–10:43). To provide a context for the Gibeonites’ use of deception to win a reprieve for themselves, it is first reported that news of Israel’s victories has so concerned the kings west of the Jordan that they have decided to join forces to attack the Israelites (9:1–2). But before the actual account of that battle (10:1–43), the author introduces a different approach taken by a coalition of four Gibeonite cities (cf. 9:17) as a foil to the kings’ military action.

9:3–15. At this point, the Israelites have returned to their base camp in Gilgal (9:6). Having heard about the destruction of Jericho and Ai (9:3), the Gibeonites decide that, instead of fighting the Israelites, they will seek an alternative solution to preserve their lives. From the tactics they take and by their own admission (9:24), it is clear that the Gibeonites are aware of the Lord’s command to totally destroy inhabitants of cities within the land but to spare inhabitants in distant cities if they are willing to be subjected to the Israelites (Dt 20:10–18). That is why they decide to pretend they are from a distant land, willing to subject themselves so that their lives might be spared.

Old wineskins are among the items carried by the Gibeonite delegation in Jos 9:3–5.

The Gibeonites load their donkeys with worn-out sacks and old wineskins, put on worn clothes, and bring with them dry and moldy food (9:4–5, 12–13). They are even careful enough to mention only Israel’s earlier victories under Moses instead of the more recent victories over Jericho and Ai, so as not to arouse suspicion that they actually live closer than they have claimed (9:9–10). The Israelites, without inquiring directly of the Lord, fall for the ruse and make a treaty with the Gibeonites, and the leaders of the assembly ratify it by oath (9:14–15).

9:16–18. Three days after the treaty, however, the Israelites hear that the Gibeonites are actually nearby neighbors (9:16). But because they have already made a treaty with them by oath in the Lord’s name, they cannot attack them when they arrive at their cities (9:18). Understandably, the people grumble against their leaders, who, by hastily making a treaty, have placed the nation in a no-win situation. For while Dt 7:1–5 and 20:16–18 clearly stipulate that nations dwelling in the land given to Israel must be totally destroyed, Nm 30:2 dictates that sworn oaths must be kept. Israel is therefore caught between two competing obligations—the keeping of one can only mean the breaking of the other.

9:19–27. In the end, the leaders choose to honor the treaty they made with the Gibeonites to avoid incurring the wrath of the Lord for breaking an oath they swore in his name (9:19–20). Is this the right decision? There are reasons to believe so.

First, although the Gibeonites did use deception to secure a treaty with the Israelites, their action seems to be motivated by a proper fear of the Lord and his people. For in contrast to the other Canaanite kings who reacted to the Israelite threat by waging war against her and her allies (cf. 9:1–2; 10:1–5; 11:1–5), the Gibeonites, who are actually known to be good fighters (10:2), come willingly to be subjected to Israel (9:24–25). Thus, while they may not have made as direct and unambiguous a proclamation as Rahab did, their submissive attitude nonetheless points to an implicit faith.

Gibeon and the Cities of the Five Amorite Kings

Second, in deciding to spare them, Joshua and the leaders also seem to take the necessary steps to ensure that the Gibeonites will pose minimal threat to the religious integrity of the nation. After all, it is clear from Dt 7:1–4 and 20:16–19 that the command to destroy the Canaanites without mercy is primarily motivated by a need to remove any apostatizing influence from within Israel. But by making the Gibeonites woodcutters and water carriers specifically for the altar at the Lord’s chosen shrine (9:23, 27), Joshua in effect makes it very difficult for them to continue their former religious practice since their main sphere of activity will now be confined to Israel’s religious center.

Finally, while the author’s comment that the Israelites do not inquire of the Lord in making a treaty with the Gibeonites (9:14) certainly presents the treaty as something that should not have happened, the Israelites’ final decision to honor the treaty does not result in the kind of wrath from the Lord seen in the Achan episode. On the contrary, when the Gibeonites are later attacked and the Israelites go to their defense in honor of the treaty, the Lord still takes an active role in that battle to give the Israelites a miraculous victory (10:6–15). In fact, the author’s subtle disapproval of the treaty notwithstanding, he recognizes that the Lord is fighting for Israel (10:14).

In addition, during the time of David the Lord actually brings a famine on Israel because Saul, in his zeal, tries to annihilate the Gibeonites in violation of the treaty ratified under Joshua. It is only after retribution is made as seven of Saul’s descendants are handed over to the Gibeonites to be executed that the Lord heals the land (2 Sm 21:1–14). This signals the Lord’s full acceptance of Joshua’s treaty with the Gibeonites despite the way the treaty came about. Thus, the sparing of the Gibeonites in Jos 10, while not ideal, does not seem to be regarded by the Lord as a covenant violation.

10:1–5. If the destruction of Jericho and Ai was already enough to raise consternation among the kings west of the Jordan (cf. 9:1–2), then news about the Gibeonites’ voluntary subjection to Israel must have brought even greater alarm (10:1). After all, Gibeon was larger and certainly more important than Ai, and their warriors had a reputation of being good fighters (10:2). No wonder, then, that five of the southern kings, led by Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, immediately spring into action by launching a joint military campaign (10:1–27). Instead of directly attacking the Israelites, however, they target Gibeon on account of their treaty with the Israelites, perhaps wanting to test the strength of that treaty and hoping that a punishing defeat of Gibeon will dissuade other wavering Canaanite cities from following Gibeon’s example (10:3–5).

10:6–8. So, the Gibeonites send word to Joshua and, using language of a vassal to their overlord (“don’t give up on your servants,” 10:6), request help in the face of the impending attack. As Joshua mobilizes his troops in response to the Gibeonites’ plea, the Lord further encourages Joshua by promising victory (10:7–8).

10:9–14. To launch a surprise attack, Joshua and his men march throughout the night from Gilgal (10:9). As battle commences, the Lord participates directly in three ways. First, he throws the enemy into confusion before the Israelites (10:10). Then, as the enemies flee south toward Azekah and Makkedah, the Lord hurls large hailstones down on them, such that more are killed by the hailstones than through direct combat with the Israelites (10:11). Finally, in response to Joshua’s prayer, the Lord miraculously lengthens the day by a full day, temporarily halting the earth and the moon in their orbits so that the sun and the moon stand still until the Israelites finish defeating their enemies (10:12–13). In fact, that spectacular miracle is also recorded in the Book of Jashar (10:13b), about which little else is known other than that it also contained David’s lament for Jonathan (cf. 2 Sm 1:18). This unprecedented and hitherto unmatched intervention of the Lord in response to Joshua’s bold prayer thus prompts the author to declare in no uncertain terms that the Lord is fighting for Israel (10:14).

Joshua Rescues Gibeon

Regarding the miraculous standing still of the sun and the moon, there is a plethora of attempts to explain what exactly happened, and no unanimity as yet exists. Instead of seeing a miraculous astronomical event, some argue that the description of the sun and the moon standing still is merely poetic language that is not meant to be taken literally. But while 10:12–13 is indeed presented in poetic form, the report in 10:13b that the sun stands in the middle of the sky and does not hasten to go down for a full day cannot be dismissed simply as poetic language, and the traditional, literal understanding is still to be preferred over all other options.

10:15. The premature report of the Israelites’ return to Gilgal in 10:15 is most likely in anticipation of their eventual return in 10:43. For it is clear from 10:16–42 that after their initial victory, the Israelites do some follow-up pursuit and engage in further fighting, returning to Gilgal only after the entire southern campaign comes to a successful end.

10:16–27. The five enemy kings are among those who manage to flee south to Makkedah, and once there, they hide themselves in a cave (10:16). When Joshua is told where the kings are hiding, he gives orders for large stones to be rolled over the mouth of the cave and for guards to be stationed to prevent them from escaping (10:17–18). The Israelites then pursue the rest of the enemy troops. After annihilating most of them, they return to their interim camp in Makkedah, where Joshua has the captured kings brought before them (10:19–22). Telling his commanders to put their feet on the kings’ necks to force them into a submissive pose, and using this to visually symbolize the kind of victory the Lord will continue to give, Joshua then executes the kings and has their corpses hung on trees until evening, just as he did with the king of Ai (10:23–26; cf. 8:29). After the corpses are taken down, Joshua has them thrown into the cave where they were hiding and turns the cave into a memorial for Israel’s victory by having large stones piled over its mouth (10:27).

10:28–43. Now that they have come all the way down to Makkedah, Joshua and the Israelites take the opportunity to strike a number of Canaanite city-states located in the vicinity, beginning with Makkedah itself and moving on to Libnah, Lachish, Eglon, Hebron, and Debir (10:28–39). Of these city-states, Lachish, Eglon, and Hebron belong to the coalition that originally launched the attack against Gibeon to start this war. Although Makkedah, Libnah, and Debir are not specially included as part of the main coalition (cf. 10:3), they must have also played supportive roles. As the Israelites move from city to city in this southern campaign, and as the Lord gives these cities into their hands, they apply the principle of herem (see 6:15–19 and the commentary on those verses) and totally destroy each city, leaving no survivor behind. Note, however, that when the king of Gezer and his troops come to Lachish’s aid, only those who come are destroyed (10:33). As Gezer is located some distance north of this cluster of southern cities, Joshua apparently does not take a detour to attack Gezer. That is why, according to 16:10 and Jdg 1:29, Gezer remains among the cities to be dispossessed.

With the Lord fighting for them, Joshua and the Israelites thus succeed in taking control of the entire region south of Gibeon by decimating its major cities (10:40–42). They then return to their base camp in Gilgal (10:43).

11:1–4. Joshua 11:1 turns to the third major campaign, in the northern region (11:1–23). Just as Israel’s victories over Jericho and Ai spur the southern kings into action, their victories over the southern kings now prompt the northern kings to join forces against them (11:1–15). This northern coalition, led by Jabin, king of Hazor (11:1–3), is much broader and significantly larger than the coalition of southern kings, perhaps reflecting the degree of alarm the Israelites have now stirred up among the Canaanites. The exact number of kings and cities involved is unclear, but they seem to come from the region north of the Valley of Jezreel and south of Mount Hermon, around the Sea of Chinnereth (Sea of Galilee). Note that the region of Mizpah in 11:3 refers neither to the city associated with Jephthah in Gilead (cf. Jdg 10:17; 11:11) nor to the city in Benjamin that is part of Samuel’s circuit (1 Sm 7:16) but to the Valley of Mizpeh, just south of Mount Hermon, mentioned also in 11:8. That these kings are much more powerful than their southern counterparts can be seen in that they possess a large number of horses and chariots, the latter representing the most advanced military technology of the time. Their number is also compared to the sand on the seashore, subtly highlighting the comparative disadvantage of the Israelite contingent (11:4). [Hivites]

11:5–6. As this vast enemy coalition gathers at the Waters of Merom, ready to fight the Israelites (11:5), the Lord not only encourages Joshua with a promise of victory but also provides the military strategy that will enable the Israelites to neutralize the enemy’s technological advantage. As chariots must be drawn by horses, the Lord tells Joshua to hamstring the horses and then to burn the chariots when the horses falter (11:6).

11:7–11. Armed with the divine plan, Joshua surprises his enemies by boldly taking the offensive against them at their base camp (11:7). As Joshua follows the Lord’s instructions, the Lord hands the enemy over to the Israelites. They strike the enemy down and pursue them until they are completely destroyed (11:8–9). Then the Israelites return to Hazor, whose king led this northern coalition. Applying the principle of herem (see 6:15–19 and the commentary on those verses), Joshua has the king executed and the people totally destroyed. The city is also burned (11:10–11).

11:12–15. From there, the Israelites attack and take the remaining royal cities that are part of the coalition, again applying the principle of herem, in accordance with Moses’s command (11:12; cf. Dt 7:1–2; 20:16–17). Only they do not burn these cities, as they did Hazor (11:13). The goods and livestock the Israelites plunder for themselves (11:14). In all this, they follow exactly what the Lord has prescribed through Moses (11:15).

Deuteronomy 17:16 warns the future kings of Israel not to accumulate horses (probably chariot horses). Joshua (although not the king) obeys this command by hamstringing the captured enemy chariot horses (Jos 11:9).

11:16–17. At this point, the author jumps ahead and summarizes Israel’s accomplishments under the leadership of Joshua (11:16–23). By annihilating various kings and their people, the Israelites have effectively taken control of the whole land from south (Mount Halak, southwest of the Dead Sea) to north (Baal-gad, below Mount Hermon, north of the Sea of Chinnereth) (11:17), including the wilderness in the southwest (the Negev), the Jordan Valley (the Arabah), the hill countries of Judah and Ephraim, and the western foothills between the hill countries and the coastal plains (11:16). This does not mean that the Israelites have taken every single city within the area mentioned (cf. Jdg 1:19–36). But to the extent that they have already taken the most important cities in each of the regions, the entire land is as good as in their hands. Thus, the assertion that Joshua has conquered the whole land (11:16; cf. 11:23) should not be taken too literally but is simply a forward-looking statement in anticipation of an imminent reality. Notice, however, that in 11:16–17 the coastal plains are not included as part of the conquered territory. Instead, much of this area, especially the southern plains occupied by the Philistines, is included in 13:2–5 as land yet to be taken.

11:18–20. Furthermore, although earlier accounts of victories over the southern and northern coalitions in 10:1–11:15 seem to give the impression that the land has been conquered quickly, the author is careful to note in 11:18 that the campaign against the indigenous population was a continuous effort that took time. But through it all, except for those living in the Gibeonite cities, none have sought peace with the Israelites (11:19). This is due to the Lord’s hardening their hearts so that they would seek war with Israel and be annihilated (11:20). To put this in perspective, however, one must remember that in Gn 15:16, when the Lord foretells the return of Abraham’s descendants to the promised land after their Egyptian enslavement, he implies that the delay in allowing Abraham’s descendants to take possession of the land is because the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure. Thus, the hardening of the hearts of the indigenous population should be viewed as the Lord’s judgment on a people whose sin has reached a stage that demands judgment.

11:21–23. Note also the singling out of the destruction of the Anakim for special mention (11:21–22). This is probably because it was the Anakim who initially so intimidated the Israelites that they were unwilling to enter into the land (cf. Nm 13:31–33). Incidentally, in that episode Joshua was one of only two spies who had confidence in Israel’s ability to defeat them with the Lord’s help (Nm 14:6–9). The mention of the destruction of these very people and their cities, with the exception of a small pocket of survivors in the coastal plains, thus vindicates Joshua’s faith in the Lord and provides a fitting conclusion to a summary highlighting Israel’s success under Joshua’s leadership (11:23).

12:1–6. To supplement the above summary, a list of defeated kings is also provided, including both those defeated under Moses’s leadership east of the Jordan (12:1–6) and those defeated under Joshua’s leadership in the west (12:7–24). The two major kings defeated east of the Jordan were Sihon, king of Heshbon (12:2–3), and Og, king of Bashan (12:4–6). The area over which they ruled extended from the Arnon River in the south at around the midpoint of the Dead Sea (also known as the Sea of Arabah or the Salt Sea) to Mount Hermon in the north, encompassing the entire eastern side of the Jordan Valley (12:1). This territory Moses gave to Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh (Nm 32:1–42; Jos 13:8–13).

12:7–24. In the list of thirty-one kings defeated by Joshua west of the Jordan, sixteen from the south-central region are first enumerated (12:9–16), followed by fifteen from the north-central region (12:17–24). The overall area they represent essentially corresponds to that described in 11:16–17.

Two further observations are noteworthy. First, some of the kings in the list (e.g., the kings of Geder, Hormah, Arad, Adullam, Tappuah, and Hepher) were not mentioned in the earlier accounts of the campaigns against the southern and northern coalitions (10:1–11:15). The exact circumstances of their defeat are unknown; they may represent follow-up victories that took time to accomplish. Second, the defeat of these kings does not mean that in every case the Israelites have successfully taken their cities. For example, 10:16–27 records the killing of the king of Jerusalem, but there is no explicit mention of the city being taken in 10:28–42. Indeed, Jdg 1:21; 19:11–12; and 2 Sm 5:6–9 suggest that the Israelites never took full control of the city until the reign of David. Similarly, 10:33 spoke of the king of Gezer being killed while he and his troops came to the aid of Lachish, but according to Jdg 1:29, the Israelites are still unable to take full possession of the city. Other cities the Israelites were apparently unable to dispossess immediately despite their kings appearing on the list include Taanach, Meggido, and Dor (cf. Jdg 1:27); Aphek (if this is the Aphek in Asher; cf. Jdg 1:31); Bethel (cf. Jdg 1:22); and Hormah (cf. Jdg 1:17)—the eventual conquests of the last two take place only after the death of Joshua (Jdg 1:1).

2. DISTRIBUTING THE LAND (13:1–21:45)

A. Land yet to be possessed (13:1–7). 13:1. Joshua 13:1–21:45 constitutes a new section within the book, as the main focus is no longer taking possession of the land but distributing the land to the various tribes. Timewise, this section also marks a break from the previous section, as this land distribution apparently takes place some years later, when Joshua is already well advanced in age (13:1). In fact, it may well be the combination of Joshua’s age and the reality of there being large areas of land yet to be possessed that prompts the Lord’s command for Joshua to distribute the land to the tribes (13:1–7). This seems to signal the beginning of a new strategy: instead of a central figure leading the nation in its military campaigns, each of the tribes must now assume primary responsibility for taking possession of the area allotted to it.

13:2–5. The land yet to be possessed is listed in 13:2–5. From the places cited, it is clear that this is meant to be not a comprehensive list of every city that remains to be taken but a list of particular regions where Israel has yet to establish a solid foothold. These include the coastal plains in the southwest, where the Philistines dominate; the coastal region in the northwest that stretches from Aphek, west of the Sea of Chinnereth/Galilee, northward through Sidonian territory to northern Lebanon; and the rest of Lebanon, to the east. Notice that none of the three regions mentioned here is included in the catalog of land taken in 11:16–17 and 12:7–8. [Ashkelon]

13:6–7. Particularly regarding the inhabitants of the northern region in Sidonian territory and Lebanon, the Lord further promises to dispossess them before the Israelites and wants to make sure that the area is included in the distribution of land to the remaining nine and a half tribes.

B. Distribution of land to the tribes and to Joshua (13:8–19:51). 13:8–14. Before recounting the actual land distribution to the nine and a half tribes, the author first summarizes the arrangements already made for those who will not be participating in the distribution. This is further broken down into a general (13:8–14) and a more specific (13:15–33) summary.

In the general summary, Moses’s prior giving of land east of the Jordan to the two and a half tribes is first mentioned, along with the extent of that land (13:8–12). But the comment that the Israelites did not dispossess the Geshurites and Maacathites (13:13) shows that, even for these tribes, their task is far from completed.

The arrangement regarding the tribe of Levi is also brought up in 13:14 because, like the two and a half tribes, it also will not be receiving an inheritance in the upcoming land distribution. For it was ordained that instead of land the Levites would receive sacrificial offerings made to the Lord as their inheritance (cf. Nm 18:20–24; Dt 18:1–2).

13:15–33. Having summarized in general terms the inheritance already received, the author describes in detail the specific extent of land inheritance of the two and a half tribes. Reuben receives the southernmost portion of land east of the Jordan, from the Arnon Valley around the midpoint of the Dead Sea to the plateaus just above its northern tip (13:15–23). Gad receives roughly half of Gilead, from its border with Reuben northward to the southern tip of the Sea of Chinnereth (13:24–28). And the half tribe of Manasseh receives the rest of Gilead north of Gad including all of Bashan (13:29–31). As for the Levites, their not receiving any land inheritance is mentioned again, with additional emphasis that the Lord himself, and not just the sacrificial offerings, is their inheritance (13:33; cf. 13:14).

14:1–5. With the nonparticipants accounted for, the author then moves on to record the outcome of the land distribution. Introductory remarks (14:1–5) specify the people involved (Eleazar the priest, Joshua, and the tribal leaders) and the method of distribution (by drawing lots, as the Lord commanded Moses in Nm 26:52–56) (14:1–2). The nonparticipating tribes are again mentioned, together with a brief explanation of their nonparticipation (14:3a). But the arrangement for the Levites not to receive any land inheritance (14:3b) is now juxtaposed with two new pieces of information: the descendants of Joseph will now be considered two tribes, and even though the Levites will not receive a land inheritance, they will be given cities to live in throughout the land where they can graze their livestock (14:4; cf. 21:1–45).

14:6–12. The process of distribution actually involves two rounds, with the first round taking place in Gilgal (14:6–17:18) and the second round taking place later in Shiloh (18:1–19:51). The first round apparently involves only two and a half tribes: Judah, Ephraim, and the remaining half tribe of Manasseh.

As the men of Judah come forward to receive their land (14:6–15:63), Caleb speaks up to make a special request (14:6–12). In 14:6, Caleb is introduced as a Kenizzite. According to Gn 15:19, the Kenizzites were a Canaanite people during the time of Abraham. When and how Caleb and his family became a part of the covenant community remains unclear. But by the time of the exodus, Caleb’s family has apparently been well integrated into the tribe of Judah, such that not long afterward, when Moses sends spies to investigate the land, Caleb is selected as the representative of Judah (Nm 13:1–16).

Along with Rahab of Jericho, Ruth the Moabitess, and Uriah the Hethite, Caleb the Kenizzite belongs to a group of non-Israelites who become an integral part of the covenant community by their faith.

What Caleb requests is that the Lord’s promised land reward to him through Moses be honored. To make his case, Caleb first summarizes events that took place some forty-five years ago, when he was sent out as one of the spies (14:6–9; cf. Nm 13:1–14:38). He especially highlights the contrast between his response and the response of the other spies, and he recounts the Lord’s subsequent promise to give him the portion of land that he personally walked through as he spied out the land (Nm 14:24; Dt 1:34–36). Then, testifying to the Lord’s faithfulness in keeping him alive through the wilderness years and beyond, Caleb declares that he is just as strong and ready to take on the enemy as before (14:10–11). He then requests to be given the hill country, as the Lord has promised, and expresses confidence that, with the Lord’s help, he can drive out the Anakim, known both for their physical build (cf. Nm 13:33; Dt 9:2) and for their large and well-fortified cities (14:12).

14:13–15. So Joshua gives Hebron, located at the heart of the hill country, to Caleb as an inheritance (14:13–14). The author’s parenthetical note that the city was originally named after one of the mightiest Anakim (14:15) further highlights Caleb’s faith, as the challenge before him has now become obvious.

15:1–12. Once Caleb has been given his special inheritance, the portion of land allotted to Judah is then recorded in detail (15:1–63). The extent of Judah’s allotment is first described by its boundaries (15:1–12). While its eastern (15:5a) and western (15:12) boundaries are fairly straightforward, being the Dead Sea to the east and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, its southern (15:2–4) and northern boundaries (15:5b–11) require a more detailed description. Judah’s southern boundary is essentially the same as the southern boundary of Canaan described in Nm 34:3–5. This means Judah’s allotment will include the southernmost portion of the land. Moreover, with the southern boundary extending along the Brook of Egypt (15:4) and the northern boundary along the slope north of Ekron (15:11), Judah’s allotment effectively includes the entire territory of the Philistines yet to be possessed (cf. 13:2–3).

15:13–19. The inheritance of Caleb within Judah’s allotment is reiterated in 15:13–14, with a further note that Caleb eventually is able to defeat three Anakim to take possession of Hebron. Having taken Hebron, Caleb also marches against Debir. Although Hebron and Debir were among the cities destroyed by Joshua earlier (10:36–39; 11:21), some Anakim who escaped to Philistine territory (11:22) must have subsequently returned to reestablish the cities. Upon Caleb’s promise to give his daughter Achsah in marriage to whoever can take Debir, Caleb’s nephew Othniel captures the city and takes Achsah as his wife (15:15–17). Achsah’s subsequent request and Caleb’s giving of the upper and lower springs to her in addition to land in the Negev (15:18–19) further clarifies the extent of land inheritance belonging to Caleb and his clan. (See also Jdg 1:12–20.)

15:20–62. While in 15:1–12 the extent of Judah’s allotment is presented in terms of geographic boundaries, in 15:20–62 the same allotment is now presented in terms of towns and villages grouped into four main geographic regions. These include twenty-nine towns and their villages in the Negev in the south (15:21–32), thirty-nine in the western foothills plus three Philistine cities that were, strictly speaking, located on the coastal plains (15:33–47), thirty-eight towns in the hill country (15:48–60), and six in the desert area along the west coast of the Dead Sea (15:61–62).

Note that concerning the towns in the Negev, even though 15:32 counts twenty-nine towns, the list in 15:21–32 actually contains thirty-six names, thus presenting a difference of seven. This discrepancy is hard to account for. Some suggest that it may be because some of the towns originally allotted to Judah in the Negev are later given to Simeon (19:1–6). But the number of towns thus reassigned is nine (Moladah, Hazar-shual, Beer-sheba, Ezem, Eltolad, Hormah, Ziklag, Ain, and Rimmon), not seven. Besides, two of the foothill towns (Ether and Ashan) listed as belonging to Judah in 15:42–44 are similarly reassigned to Simeon. Yet no numerical discrepancy exists between the number and names of towns in the foothills.

15:63. The section on Judah then closes with a note concerning Judah’s failure to dispossess the Jebusites living in Jerusalem. This is somewhat curious, as Jebus (Jerusalem) technically falls outside Judah’s allotment, on the Benjamin side of the border (cf. 15:8; 18:17, 28). The town is thus Benjamin’s responsibility to dispossess (cf. Jdg 1:21). It is possible that the note is included to reflect the failure of Judah to permanently remove the Jebusites from Jerusalem despite an initially successful assault against the city under Judah’s leadership (cf. Jdg 1:8).

16:1–4. Next to receive their allotment are the one and a half Joseph tribes (16:1–17:18). Notice that, although the allotment will be further divided between Ephraim and the remaining half tribe of Manasseh, the two portions appear to be regarded as a single allotment (cf. 17:14). The description of the allotment begins in 16:1–3 with a delineation of its southern boundary. This is followed by descriptions of the actual territories of Ephraim (16:5–10) and Manasseh (17:1–13).

16:5–10. The boundaries of Ephraim are very roughly delineated, with its southern boundary first described briefly (16:5–6a; cf. 16:1–3), followed by its eastern boundary going from north to south (16:6b–7), and its northern boundary going from east to west, ending at the Mediterranean Sea (16:8). Joshua 16:9 further discloses that some of Ephraim’s towns and villages are actually located inside the territory of Manasseh, although the names of these towns are not provided. In fact, unlike the description of Judah, no specific name of any of Ephraim’s towns is mentioned, except for Gezer (16:10). Apparently, despite the death of Gezer’s king and army (cf. 10:33), the Ephraimites did not dispossess the Canaanites there but merely subjected them to forced labor. Canaanites were thus allowed to live among the tribe’s population.

17:1–2. Regarding Manasseh’s allotment (17:1–13), a difficulty here concerns the identity of those receiving land east and west of the Jordan. The six clans mentioned in 17:2 (Abiezer, Helek, Asriel, Shechem, Hepher, and Shemida) are all descendants of Gilead. In fact, according to Nm 26:30–32, these six may constitute the entire Gileadite clan. If so, then who is receiving land east of the Jordan (Jos 13:29–31)?

Two things should be noted. First, 17:1 does not refer to the descendants of Gilead specifically but states, more generally, that the descendants of Machir receive Gilead and Bashan. This is consistent with Jos 13:29–31; Nm 32:40; and Dt 3:13–15. Second, it is clear from 1 Ch 2:21 that Machir also has an unnamed daughter, and 1 Ch 7:16–17 suggests that Machir also had other sons besides Gilead. Thus Jos 13:31 may well be referring to descendants from Machir’s daughter and other sons, thus leaving the six clans descending directly from Gilead eligible to receive land west of the Jordan. While this would mean none of the Gileadite clans actually receive land in Gilead, one should remember that the clans were named after a person whose name bore no direct relationship with the geographic area that happened to share the same name.

17:3–6. Like Caleb in 14:6, five daughters of Zelophehad from one of the Gileadite clans also come forward to make a request. When Moses was still alive, these daughters had already asked for an inheritance so that even though their father had no son, his name would still be preserved through land passed on to the daughters (Nm 27:1–4). Moses made an inquiry of the Lord on that occasion, and the Lord not only ruled in the women’s favor but also issued a decree allowing a man’s nearest relative, including a daughter, to inherit his property should he die with no son (Nm 27:5–11). So, as the five daughters remind Joshua and the leaders of the Lord’s prior ruling through Moses, Joshua also gives them a land inheritance.

17:7–13. The extent of Manasseh’s allotment west of the Jordan is then described in terms of geographic boundaries, with special emphasis on its southern boundary, shared with Ephraim (17:7–10a). Its northern and eastern boundaries border the tribal territories of Asher and Issachar and are mentioned only briefly (17:10b). But just as some Ephraimite towns are located inside Manassite territory (16:9; 17:9), some towns belonging to Manasseh are also located within the territories of Asher and Issachar (17:11). These include Beth-shean, Ibleam, Dor, En-dor, Taanach, and Megiddo, most of which are located around the edge of the Jezreel Valley. Yet, faced with the determination of the Canaanites living there, the Manassites are unable to occupy these towns (17:12). Like the Ephraimites, they can do no more than subject the Canaanites to forced labor when they are stronger militarily (17:13).

17:14–18. Perhaps to provide further insight into the failures of the Joseph tribes, a dispute between them and Joshua is then recorded. It begins with the Joseph tribes complaining to Joshua about the inadequacy of their single allotment (cf. 16:1) in view of their great number. In response, Joshua challenges them to take on the Perizzites and Rephaim, who control parts of the hill country within their allotment, so that they can clear the forest for more space (17:14–15). But they reply that even then there would still be insufficient space for them, as they are unable to take Beth-shean and the towns around the Jezreel Valley because the plain-dwelling Canaanites there possess technologically superior military hardware—iron chariots (17:16). (Note that according to historians of material culture, the iron chariots referred to here were likely not entirely made of iron but rather of wood with some iron reinforcement.) Joshua disputes the tribes’ assertion. Not only challenging them once more to clear the forest in the hill country, Joshua goes further by telling them that even though the Canaanites are strong and have technologically superior military hardware, the Joseph tribes should still be able to dispossess them (17:17–18).

Although the author ends the exchange without providing any resolution, what bears asking is whether Joshua’s perspective or that of the Joseph tribes represents a more accurate reflection of reality. To answer the question, it must first be noted that Joshua never disputes the Joseph tribes’ presentation of facts. The Joseph tribes were indeed numerous, and the Canaanites living on the plains indeed had iron chariots. What he disputes, however, is the tribes’ assertion that they are no match against the enemy’s technologically superior military hardware. And Joshua seems to have history on his side. After all, the Israelites faced technologically superior military hardware before in the form of chariots (11:4). Yet they were able to overcome them with the Lord’s help (11:7–9). In fact, not long afterward, during the days of the judges, Barak’s ability to defeat Sisera’s army of nine hundred iron chariots (Jdg 4:3, 13) will also retroactively vindicate Joshua’s optimism.

18:1–2. For reasons undisclosed, the first round of land distribution apparently comes to a halt after Judah and the Joseph tribes receive their inheritance. By the time the process resumes (18:1–19:51), the main administrative center has shifted from Gilgal, where the Israelite camp has been based throughout the military campaigns (4:19–20; 9:6; 10:7), to Shiloh, where the tent of meeting is now set up (18:1).

18:3. Joshua begins this second round of land distribution by impatiently asking how long the Israelites are going to wait before taking possession of the land. This suggests that some time must have passed since the last round of land distribution. It also suggests that Joshua must have been hoping for more progress in actual land possession before drawing lots for tribes whose inheritance would include some of the land yet to be possessed.

In Jos 18:1, the Israelites set up the tabernacle at Shiloh. This will continue to be a religious center for the Israelites until 1 Sm 4, when they carry the ark of the covenant into battle and it is captured by the Philistines.

18:4–10. Joshua’s instructions for the remaining seven tribes are for each tribe to send three men so that together they will form a team to map out the land. The tribes that have already received their inheritance will essentially be allowed to keep what has already been allotted to them, with the Levites not receiving any land inheritance. Those involved in mapping out the land will then divide the land into seven portions, with each of the seven tribes receiving a portion through drawing lots (18:4–7).

The Distribution of the Promised Land

18:11–20. The first lot comes out for Benjamin (18:11), and the description of its inheritance, the most detailed among the seven tribes, includes both a delineation of its boundaries (18:11–20) and a list of its major cities (18:21–28). Where its tribal boundaries are concerned, its northern boundary (18:12–13) is essentially the same as the southern boundary of the Joseph tribes delineated in 16:1–3, except that instead of continuing westward toward the Mediterranean, Benjamin’s boundary takes a sudden southward turn after Beth-horon to connect with the tribe’s southern boundary just north of Kiriath-jearim. The line that extends between Beth-horon and Kiriath-jearim thus becomes the tribe’s western boundary (18:14). From north of Kiriath-jearim at the tribe’s southwest corner, Benjamin’s southern boundary (18:15–19) extends eastward until it reaches the Jordan, essentially tracing Judah’s northern boundary as delineated from the opposite direction in 15:5b–9. Note that Geliloth in 18:17 may well be another name for Gilgal (cf. 15:7). On the east, the tribe is bounded by the Jordan River (18:20).

18:21–28. Regarding cities belonging to the tribe, these are divided into two lists: the first records twelve cities in the east (18:21–24), and the second records fourteen cities in the west (18:25–28). Included among the western cities are the three Gibeonite cities Gibeon, Beeroth, and Chephirah (cf. 9:17). The other Gibeonite city, Kiriath-jearim, located at the border between Judah and Benjamin, apparently falls within the territory of Judah (cf. 15:60; Jdg 18:12).

19:1–9. The second lot comes out for Simeon; the description of its inheritance includes only a list of towns and no delineation of tribal boundaries. What is noteworthy is that the inheritance of Simeon actually lies within the territories of Judah because Judah has received more land than it needs (19:1, 9). That is why many of the towns listed as belonging to Simeon are also found in an earlier list of Judahite cities in the Negev and the foothills (19:2–8; cf. 15:26–32, 42). The territories of Simeon are thus located toward the southwest corner of Judah.

Incidentally, there is evidence to suggest that Simeon did not hold on to its inheritance but eventually migrated northward. First Chronicles 4:27–31 seems to suggest that by the reign of David, towns once allotted to Simeon have already been taken over by the Judahites, who outnumber the Simeonites. Further information from 2 Ch 15:9 suggests that by the reign of Asa early in the divided monarchy, Simeon has already resettled within Ephraim-Manasseh territory in the northern kingdom, with 2 Ch 34:6 suggesting that this is still the case during the reign of Josiah. In addition, according to 1 Ch 4:38–41, during the reign of Hezekiah some Simeonites will also migrate (presumably from the regions of Ephraim-Manasseh, where they have resettled) to Gedor east of the Jordan to take advantage of the rich pastureland there. And according to 1 Ch 4:42, about five hundred of these will eventually move farther south from Gedor into the hill country of Seir. Not only can these developments be seen as a fulfillment of Jacob’s prophecy against Simeon in Gn 49:7, but they also explain why, at the imminent division of the kingdom after Solomon, Jeroboam is promised ten tribes in the north as Rehoboam is allowed to take Benjamin in addition to Judah in the south (cf. 1 Kg 11:28–39). For by then, Simeon will have already effectively become a northern tribe through migration.

19:10–16. The third lot belongs to Zebulun; the description of its inheritance includes a delineation of boundaries as well as a towns list, albeit a very brief one. The delineation of the tribe’s boundaries begins roughly at the midpoint of its southern boundary, at Sarid, and extends westward past Dabbesheth to the ravine at Jokneam, and eastward to Daberath at Mount Tabor. At Daberath, it loops northward and eastward past Rimmon and Hannathon, on its northern boundary, before turning south again at the Iphtah-el Valley, presumably to complete the circle as it ends back at the ravine of Jokneam (19:10–14). As such, the tribe’s inheritance seems to be landlocked, bordering Manasseh in the south, Asher in the west and northwest, Naphtali in the east and northeast, and possibly Issachar in the southeast. Of the twelve towns that belong to Zebulun, only five are cited by name (19:15). (Note that Bethlehem is not the Bethlehem in Judah but a border town close to Asher, in the west.)

19:17–23. Next is the allotment for Issachar (19:17). The tribe’s inheritance is described primarily by a list of towns (19:18–21), including several (e.g., Jezreel, Shunem, Hapharaim, and Kishion) located at the northeastern part of the fertile Jezreel Valley. Although there is a brief attempt to delineate a northern boundary from Mount Tabor past Beth-shemesh to the Jordan (19:22), with the Jordan understood as the tribe’s eastern boundary, the delineation is incomplete, as no southern and western boundaries are described. However, from 17:11 one can surmise that its western and southern boundaries probably loop just south of Megiddo, Taanach, Ibleam, and Beth-shean.

19:24–31. The allotment for Asher is next (19:24), with the names of some of its towns incorporated into the delineation of its boundaries. Its southern boundary begins north of Mount Carmel in the west, and extends eastward until it meets Zebulun at the Iphtah-el Valley (19:25–27a). Then it turns northward and goes all the way past Cabul, Neiel, and Kanah, into Sidonian territory, before turning westward and southward again, eventually ending at the Mediterranean coast after passing Tyre (19:27b–30).

19:32–39. Then comes the allotment for Naphtali (19:32), which is described with respect to both its boundaries (19:33–34) and its fortified cities (19:35–38). As with Zebulun, the delineation of its boundaries begins roughly at the midpoint of its southern boundary, at Heleph. Eastward, it passes Adami-nekeb and Jabneel until it reaches the Jordan. Westward, the tribe’s southern boundary goes past Aznoth-tabor, then along its border with Zebulun until it reaches Hukkok. The tribe’s western boundary then extends northward from Hukkok along its border with Asher, while its eastern boundary is the Jordan. A northern boundary is not specified for the tribe, perhaps because a few natural barriers, such as Mount Hermon and the Litani Gorge, render such description unnecessary.

19:40–48. The final lot is for Dan (19:40), and its allotment is described only by a list of towns (19:41–46). These towns are mostly clustered around the area to the northwest of Judah, just south of Ephraim, with at least two towns (Zorah and Eshtaol) falling within Judah’s border and two more (Shaalabbin and Aijalon) possibly falling inside Ephraim’s boundary. The rest, including Ekron, which have earlier been allotted to Judah (cf. 15:45), seem to be located in the northern part of the territory controlled by the Philistines. From this list of towns, it is clear that Dan was originally to be a southern tribe like Judah and Simeon. But as is immediately noted in 19:47, Dan is unable to take possession of its allotted territory, so the tribe eventually moves north. Having conquered Leshem (alternatively known as Laish in Jdg 18:7, 27), they rename the town Dan after their ancestor and settle there, thus becoming one of the northernmost tribes. (For a more detailed account of this event, see Jdg 18.)

19:49–51. The land having been thus allotted to all the tribes, the tribes then honor Joshua by giving him the town he has requested (19:49–50a). Perhaps as a testimony to his humility, Joshua requests not an important or well-established town but the small and obscure Timnath-serah, which is located in the hill country within the territory of his own tribe, Ephraim. This is a town Joshua will have to build up himself (19:50b); not only does he settle there, but he is also buried there eventually (24:30). The town is otherwise not mentioned in the OT.

C. Cities of refuge and Levitical towns (20:1–21:45). 20:1–6. With the entire land allotted to all the tribes, the Lord then gives further instructions to Joshua regarding cities of refuge (20:1–9; see also Ex 21:12–13; Nm 35:6–33; Dt 19:1–13). These are essentially centers of asylum where individuals who have unintentionally killed another can go and seek protection from avengers. Ancient Israel allowed blood vengeance: a close relative of a murder victim could seek the life of the victim’s killer without such an act of vengeance being considered murder (cf. Nm 35:16–21, 27). But the law also distinguishes between premeditated murder and unintentional manslaughter; only those guilty of the former deserve death (Nm 35:16–25; Dt 19:4–6, 11–13). Thus, cities of refuge are established primarily to ensure that those guilty of unintentional manslaughter will not be undeservedly killed, so that the land will not be polluted by unnecessary bloodshed (Dt 19:10).

Thus, according to the law, an individual who has unintentionally killed another can flee to a city of refuge (20:3). The individual will need to explain the case before the elders at the city gate, and if the elders’ preliminary judgment is that the person is innocent of premeditated murder, they will admit the petitioner into the city to be protected from avengers until a formal trial before the assembly (20:4–6; cf. Nm 35:12, 24). If declared innocent of murder at that trial, the individual will then be returned to the city of refuge to remain and to continue receiving protection until the death of the high priest who was serving when the individual was admitted (Nm 35:25). Only then will the person be allowed to return home with guaranteed immunity from blood vengeance. Otherwise, a premature departure from a city of refuge will mean the forfeiting of any protection from avengers (cf. Nm 35:26–28).

What the establishment of cities of refuge seems to highlight, then, is the Lord’s concern for fairness and the protection of human life, so that even in the pursuit of justice, unwarranted bloodshed can be prevented. But the obligation for those guilty of manslaughter to remain in cities of refuge until the death of the high priest also shows that manslaughter is not without consequences. Thus in reality, cities of refuge served not only as places of asylum but also as a form of lesser punishment for those who have taken a human life, even if unintentionally.

20:7–9. So, the Israelites set aside six towns as cities of refuge, as the Lord instructed. In accordance with Nm 35:6, 9–15, all six are Levitical towns (cf. 21:11–13, 21, 27, 32, 36, 38), with three located west of the Jordan (Kedesh, Shechem, and Hebron; 20:7) and three in the east (Bezer, Ramoth in Gilead, and Golan; 20:8). The cities are equally spread out on each side of the Jordan, with two in the north (Kedesh and Golan), two in the central region (Shechem and Ramoth in Gilead), and two in the south (Hebron and Bezer), to ensure sufficiently easy access throughout the land.

21:1–8. Then the Levites, who did not receive an allotment as per prior arrangements, come to the leaders and remind them of the Lord’s command to provide towns for them to live in with pastureland for their livestock (21:1–2). So, in accordance with Nm 35:1–8, each tribe assigns a number of towns with surrounding pastureland to the Levites (21:3–42). A summary of the results of the four allotments is presented in 21:4–8, with the details of specific towns in each allotment listed in 21:9–40. The three major clans that descended from Levi’s three sons, Kohath (21:5), Gershon (21:6), and Merari (21:7) (cf. Gn 46:11; Ex 6:16–19; Nm 3:17–20; 26:57; 1 Ch 6:1, 16–19), each receive an allotment. Because the descendants of Aaron the priest, who belong to the Kohathite clan, are entitled to a special allotment apart from the allotment for the nonpriestly Kohathites (21:4), this clan ends up receiving two allotments.

Note that these towns are not to be construed as “inheritance” for the Levites, because the Lord has already ordained that they are not to receive any inheritance in the form of land that can be passed on permanently to their descendants (Nm 18:23–24; Dt 18:1–2). The Levitical towns are therefore merely towns for them to live in where their pasturing rights are guaranteed. In fact, 21:11–12 suggests that these towns are not even exclusively reserved for the Levites but must be shared with inhabitants of the tribes to which these towns belong. Thus, while Hebron is among the towns given to the Levites, the surrounding fields and villages remain the possession of Caleb and his descendants, who presumably live there as well.

21:9–42. The total number of towns assigned to the Levites is forty-eight (21:41; cf. Nm 35:6); these include the six cities of refuge (21:13, 21, 27, 32, 36, 38; cf. Nm 35:6). The forty-eight towns are basically divided into four allotments. The first lot belongs to the priestly clans of the Kohathites (that is, descendants of Aaron): they receive a total of thirteen towns and their surrounding pastureland in the south from Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin (21:9–19). The next lot belongs to the nonpriestly Kohathites: they receive ten towns and their surrounding pastureland in the coastal plains and central hill country from Dan, Ephraim, and the western half of Manasseh (21:20–26). The third lot belongs to the Gershonites: they receive thirteen towns and their surrounding pastureland in the north from Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and the eastern half of Manasseh (21:27–33). The final lot belongs to the Merarites: they receive twelve towns and their surrounding pastureland from Zebulun, Reuben, and Gad (21:34–40). Of the four lots, this is the only one where the towns received are located in two disconnected regions. The four towns received from Zebulun are located north of the Jezreel Valley, west of the Jordan, but the remaining eight towns received from Reuben and Gad are mainly located in the central-southern region east of the Jordan.

21:43–45. Once all matters pertaining to land distribution have been addressed, the author then closes the section with a summary highlighting the Lord’s faithfulness in giving the land to the Israelites as he has promised their forefathers. While the summary may sound idealistic and overly optimistic, the fact remains that as far as the events narrated in the book are concerned, the Lord did give Israel’s enemies into their hands such that none could stand before them (21:44). And while the reality is that Israel’s work is far from done, as evidenced by the land still to be possessed (cf. 13:1–7; 18:1–3), the Lord nonetheless has given Israel the land he swore to their forefathers, which they have now begun taking possession of and settling in (21:43). And should Israel continue to remain faithful and obedient to the Lord as they have thus far demonstrated, there is no reason why they should not continue to make progress until they have taken full possession of the land.

3. STAYING IN THE LAND (22:1–24:28)

The final three chapters of the book, consisting of an account of a potential conflict (22:1–34) and two speeches (23:1–24:33), each with its unique setting, do not immediately appear to constitute a natural literary unit. But these episodes do share a common concern. While the near conflict is triggered by a potential covenant violation that threatens to jeopardize the welfare of the entire community, Joshua’s two speeches also warn of the destructive potential of any covenant violation. Thus, the common concern is that in order to remain in the land that the Lord has given to her, Israel must vigilantly guard against any violation of the covenant. Failure to do so will lead to a reversal of fortune, so that instead of taking full possession of the land and settling in it, Israel will be destroyed from the land.

A. Dealing with potential covenant violation (22:1–34). 22:1–8. With the land now essentially under Israelite control and its distribution to the tribes completed, Joshua dismisses the Transjordanian tribes at Shiloh with his blessing (22:6). This provides a fitting closure to the narrative within the book, which begins with Joshua urging the Transjordanian tribes to cross over to fight with their brothers until they have taken possession of the land (1:12–15). But before the two and a half tribes return to their own inheritance, Joshua charges them to remain faithful to the Lord by loving and serving him and obeying his commandments (22:5). They are then sent away not only with Joshua’s blessing but also with a significant amount of plunder (22:7–8).

22:9–12. But as the Transjordanian tribes reach the region of the Jordan (or Geliloth, which may be another name for Gilgal; see the CSB footnotes for 22:10, 11; cf. 15:7; 18:17), they decide to build an imposing altar right at the border of the land of Canaan before crossing over to return home (22:10). The rationale behind this move is not immediately disclosed. Instead, the reader is told of the reaction of the Israelites in Canaan when they hear about it. Convinced that this setting up of a second altar is a willful violation of the Lord’s command not to offer sacrifices except at the tent of meeting (cf. Lv 17:8–9), the Israelites in the west gather at Shiloh ready to go to war with the Transjordanian tribes (22:11–12).

In Nm 32, when two and a half tribes ask to settle east of the Jordan, Moses grants their request on the condition that their armed men will first help the other tribes conquer the land to the west. They promise, “We will not return to our homes until each of the Israelites has taken possession of his inheritance” (Nm 32:18). In Jos 22, those men are finally able to return home.

22:13–20. Fortunately, before war breaks out, the Israelites in the west first send a delegation to see if it will be possible to turn their brothers from their errant ways. So Phinehas son of Eleazar the priest, who has already distinguished himself by his zeal for the Lord (cf. Nm 25:6–13), and ten leaders representing the nine and a half tribes in the west cross over the Jordan to confront their brothers (22:13–15). Citing the incident at Peor as an example, where the Lord sent a plague upon the nation because of her apostasy (cf. Nm 25:1–9), the delegation rebukes the Transjordanian tribes for breaking faith and turning away from the Lord (22:16–18). Then, using Achan’s sin regarding the things set apart for destruction as a further example to remind them that acts of rebellion can carry grave consequences for the entire community, the delegation offers to share the land in the west if the Transjordanian tribes are unhappy that their land is defiled (22:19–20).

It is not entirely clear what the delegation means when they speak of the land being defiled (22:19). If they thought the Transjordanian tribes had offered sacrifices on the newly built altar before crossing over, they could have associated that with ritual cleansing and concluded that the Transjordanian tribes must have considered their land defiled. Others have suggested that, with the altar and the tent of meeting located in the west, the land in the east may have been considered defiled since it did not have any visible representation of the Lord’s presence.

22:21–29. To the delegation’s accusation, the Transjordanian tribes make a detailed response. Invoking the Lord as a witness and inviting both the Lord and the western tribes to take action against them if they have harbored any rebellious intention, the Transjordanian tribes explain that the altar they built was never meant for actual sacrifices (after all, the altar is located on the Canaanite side; 22:21–23). Instead, it is a replica of the official altar, meant to serve as a witness to their determination to worship the Lord at his sanctuary in the west. But they feared that a future generation of westerners might one day cut them off from being part of the covenant community on account of the natural barrier imposed by the Jordan. They were also worried that this might cause their descendants to stop fearing the Lord (22:24–25). Thus, the Transjordanian tribes decided to build the replica as a witness to future generations on both sides of the Jordan that those in the east are also committed to worshiping the Lord and offering sacrifices at his chosen sanctuary in the west (22:26–29).

22:30–34. Pleased with what they hear, the delegation declares that the faithfulness of the Transjordanian tribes has assured them of the Lord’s continued presence, as the nation has now been delivered from the Lord’s potential judgment (22:30–31). When the delegation returns to the west and reports their findings, the Israelites praise God and no longer talk of war (22:32–33). The Transjordanian tribes then name the replica altar “It is a witness between us that the LORD is God” (22:34).

B. Covenant exhortations and renewal (23:1–24:28). 23:1–2. Joshua’s speech in 23:1–16 is often referred to as his farewell speech, as it takes place a long time after the Lord has given Israel rest from the attacks of her enemies, when Joshua has already become very old (23:1). In fact, Joshua himself suggests that it will not be long before he will pass away (23:14). So, gathering the leaders together as representatives of all Israel, Joshua charges them to remain faithful to the Lord and warns them of the dire consequences of disobedience.

23:3–5. Joshua first reminds the people of how the Lord has fought for them against their enemies, and how he will continue to dispossess their enemies for them until they have taken full possession of the land. The fact that the inheritance the tribes received also includes land still occupied by the nations is itself a clear indication of the Lord’s intention to have Israel eventually take full possession of the land.

23:6–8. In light of this potential reality, Joshua, using words reminiscent of what he once heard from the Lord (cf. 1:7), exhorts the people to be strong and to be careful to obey the law of Moses without turning from it to the right or to the left (23:6). In particular, Joshua emphasizes how important it is for them not to associate with the nations that remain among them, and especially not to worship and serve other nations’ gods. Instead, Israel must remain faithful to the Lord (23:7–8).

23:9–13. Joshua then gives the people a positive and a negative reason for his command. On the positive side, he reminds them that the Lord’s past help in driving out nations far greater and more powerful than they makes it incumbent upon them to “love” the Lord by remaining faithful (23:9–11). On the negative side, he also warns that if they start forming alliances and intermarrying with the remaining nations, then the Lord will no longer dispossess the nations before them but will allow these nations to ensnare and torment the Israelites until they perish from the land (23:12–13; cf. Dt 7:1–6).

23:14–16. To further drive home his point, Joshua then emphasizes the certainty of what he has just told them. For just as the leaders know from their own experiences that the Lord has been faithful to fulfill all his good promises when they act faithfully (21:14), he will likewise make good all his threats if they violate his covenant and start worshiping and serving other gods. His anger will then burn against them until he has destroyed them from the land (21:15–16).

24:1. Some time later, Joshua gathers the tribes of Israel and their leaders at Shechem and speaks to them again (24:1–28). Because of the similarity in subject matter between the two speeches, some consider them merely different reports of the same speech. However, the two speeches likely represent two different occasions. While those present for the first speech are mainly leaders representing all Israel (23:2), 24:1 seems to suggest that all the tribes are also present for the second speech. Moreover, while the first speech seems to be delivered in a less formal setting, with Joshua sharing parting instructions with the nation’s leaders, the second is delivered in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony in which formal responses are demanded and an official memorial is set up.

Two observations further support the view that the occasion depicted in Jos 24 is a formal covenant renewal ceremony. First, that the people are described as presenting themselves “before God” (24:1) suggests the presence of the ark. Second, the choice of Shechem, located in the valley between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, as the setting is probably due in part to the fact that the last covenant renewal ceremony (8:30–35) also took place there. Assuming that the stones on which the law was written last time (8:32) were still standing, they would serve as a powerful reminder to the people of their previous commitment even as Joshua challenged them again to choose to serve the Lord.

24:2–7. Speaking on behalf of the Lord, Joshua begins by first recounting his benevolent involvement in the nation’s history. The recounting begins with the call of Abraham (Gn 12:1–9), highlighting how the Lord has brought him to Canaan and given him descendants, including Isaac, Jacob, and Esau (24:2–4a). Mentioning Jacob’s migration to Egypt (Gn 46:1–47:31), the Lord then speaks of sending Moses and Aaron to bring the Israelites out of Egypt (24:4b–5). In the process, the Egyptians were destroyed at the Red Sea (24:6–7; see Ex 3–15). (For the reference in 24:7 to placing darkness between the Israelites and the Egyptians, see Ex 14:19–20.)

24:8–10. Then after allowing the Israelites to wander for some time in the wilderness, the Lord gave them victories over two Amorite kings east of the Jordan (24:8; see Nm 21:21–35). And when Balak the Moabite king sent Balaam to curse the Israelites, the Lord also protected them by repeatedly turning Balaam’s intended curses into blessings (24:9–10; see Nm 22–24).

24:11–13. Having led them across the Jordan, the Lord also gave victory to Israel when indigenous populations west of the Jordan fought against them (24:11; see 6:1–11:23). Some commentators understand the hornets in 24:12 as a reference to the repeated incursions of the Egyptians into the region before the arrival of the Israelites. Through these victories, the Lord gave Israel a land with well-established infrastructure ready to be occupied and used (24:13).

A vineyard in Israel. The promised land includes vineyards and olive groves (Jos 24:13).

© Noam Armonn.

24:14–15. The history of the Lord’s past benevolence having been recounted, Joshua then challenges the people to make a clear choice regarding their allegiance. If they choose to fear and serve the Lord, then they need to get rid of their former gods and serve him faithfully. Otherwise, they could also choose to serve the gods of their forefathers or the gods of the Amorites around them. But as for Joshua and his household, they have made their choice to serve the Lord.

24:16–20. Now that the people have been reminded of the Lord’s past benevolence and they themselves recall the Lord’s deliverance, protection, and giving of land and victory over their enemies, the people declare that they too will choose to serve the Lord (24:16–18). But Joshua, in an attempt to impress on them the serious consequences implicit in their choice, replies that they are unable to serve him. He explains that because the Lord is a holy and jealous God, if they choose to serve him and then start turning to other gods, he will hold them accountable and bring disaster on them until they are destroyed (24:19–20).

24:21–28. But the people reaffirm their determination to serve the Lord (24:21). So, challenging them to serve as witnesses against themselves regarding their commitment, Joshua tells them to get rid of the foreign gods among them and yield their hearts to the Lord (24:22–23). As the people agree to do so, Joshua makes a covenant for them and records it in the book of the law of God, which is kept beside the ark of the covenant (24:24–26a; cf. Dt 31:24–26). He sets up a large stone beneath the oak on this sacred site as a memorial and witness to the agreement between the people and the Lord (24:26b–27). Then he dismisses the people to return to their inheritance (24:28).

4. EPILOGUE: DEATH AND BURIAL NOTICES (24:29–33)

24:29–31. The book closes with a report of three burials, beginning with Joshua’s (24:29–30). Perhaps as a testimony to the positive influence Joshua has had on the nation, it is also noted that Israel served the Lord throughout the lifetimes of Joshua and of the elders who outlived him who had experienced the Lord’s mighty deeds (24:31). The author of the book of Judges, however, then gives this note a more ominous spin: the generation after Joshua and the elders no longer knows the Lord or his deeds and thus does evil by serving other gods (Jdg 2:10–13).

In Gn 50:25, Joseph asks the Israelites to swear that when they return to the promised land from Egypt, they will also bring his bones. In Ex 13:19, as they leave Egypt, Moses takes the bones of Joseph with them. In Jos 24, when the people have settled into the land, Joseph’s bones finally return home.

24:32–33. Two final notes involve the burial of Joseph’s bones in Shechem (24:32) and the death and burial of Eleazar the high priest (24:33). The burial of Joseph’s bones represents the fulfillment not only of his dying wish (cf. Gn 50:24–25) but also of the Lord’s promise to the patriarchs to bring their descendants back to Canaan to inherit the land promised to them.