Acts

1. ASCENSION AND COMMISSION (1:1–11)

1:1–3. Luke begins his second volume by referring back to his “first narrative” (1:1), that is, the Gospel of Luke, which contains the words and deeds of Jesus. This link is important because the development of the church builds on the life and work of Jesus. In the Gospel, the disciples failed to understand and appreciate the mission and identity of Jesus. In the beginning of this second volume, Luke emphasizes that the apostles are now fully equipped to continue the earthly ministry of Jesus.

First, Luke mentions that Jesus gave instructions “through the Holy Spirit to the apostles he had chosen” (1:2). Affirming the unique status of these apostles, the work of the Holy Spirit also guarantees the ability of these apostles to proclaim faithfully the gospel of Jesus. Second, with “many convincing proofs” (1:3a) Jesus showed that he had truly risen from the dead. This allows the apostles to be faithful witnesses to Jesus as the risen Lord. Third, Luke emphasizes that Jesus appeared to them for a lengthy period of time (“forty days”), “speaking about the kingdom of God” (1:3b). This again ensures that these apostles are fully qualified to serve as the leaders for the first generation of the early Christian movement.

1:4–8. The first words of the risen Lord in this volume point to the difference between the baptism of John and the baptism of the Holy Spirit (1:4–5). This baptism of the Holy Spirit signifies the arrival of the eschatological era (cf. Is 11:1–3; 32:14–17; 44:1–4). With this note, the disciples naturally think of the promises concerning the restoration of Israel (1:6). Jesus’s response in 1:7 does not deny the fact of the restoration, but it does qualify the timing of the final restoration. Moreover, Jesus’s response also provides a radical reformulation of the expected restoration program: the centripetal return of the exiles toward Zion/Jerusalem is replaced by the centrifugal diffusion of the gospel to the world of the Gentiles (1:8; see the article “From Jerusalem to the End of the Earth”).

1:9–11. Luke has already provided an account of Jesus’s ascension in his first volume (Lk 24:50–53), but here he provides an account with slightly different emphases. The mentioning of “cloud” (1:9) and the “two men in white clothes” (1:10) highlights the significance of this event (cf. Lk 24:4), and the words these two men speak point to the return of Jesus in the future (1:11). Jesus’s public ascension therefore becomes a promise of his return. Moreover, the emphasis on “looking” (1:11) also confirms the role of the apostles as witnesses.

In Is 49:6 the Servant of the Lord is commissioned to be a “light for the nations, to be my salvation to the ends of the earth.” Now Jesus commissions his disciples to take the gospel to the ends of the earth (Ac 1:8).

In the narrative that follows, Luke explains that the ascension of Jesus signifies his enthronement in heaven, when he becomes the Lord of all (2:34–35). By means of his lordship, he can grant forgiveness and salvation to both Jews (5:31) and Gentiles (10:34–36). Mission, then, becomes a call for all to submit to the universal sovereignty of this Lord.

2. RESTORATION OF GOD’S PEOPLE IN JERUSALEM (1:12–7:60)

A. Fulfillment of the Twelve (1:12–26). 1:12–14. After the disciples witness the ascension of Jesus, they go to the “room upstairs” (1:13). This room may remind the readers of the “large, furnished room upstairs” (Lk 22:12) where Jesus had his Last Supper with his disciples. After the Last Supper, Jesus went to the Mount of Olives to pray, but the disciples failed to be alert in prayers (Lk 22:45). After his ascension, however, these disciples also return from the Mount of Olives (1:12), but they are now “continually united in prayer” (1:14).

1:15–26. The focus of this episode describing the selection of Matthias to replace Judas is not on Matthias the individual but on the need to establish the number of the apostles as twelve (1:26). In fact, Matthias will never reappear in Luke’s narrative. The note that this group numbered “about a hundred and twenty” (1:15) points to the significance of the symbol “twelve” (cf. Lk 22:30). The election of Matthias completes the circle of the Twelve, and this signals the beginning of the restoration of God’s people in an eschatological era (see also Ac 26:7). In this new era, the criterion for entering God’s people is no longer one’s ethnic identity but one’s relationship to the “Lord Jesus” (1:21).

Acts 1:20 contains two quotations from the OT: Pss 69:25 and 109:8. In their original contexts, both verses point to the failure of those who oppose God to succeed in their evil plans. Here not only does Peter cite these verses to justify the election of an apostle to replace Judas, but he is also affirming a wider theological principle. This becomes a significant theological introduction to Acts: the enemies of this word will not deter its progression. The fate of Judas then points to the fate of all those who oppose the plan of God (cf. Mt 27:1–10).

B. Descent of the Spirit (2:1–47). 2:1. Luke describes the descent of the Spirit as a further sign of the dawn of the eschatological era (2:1–13). The dating of this event to “the day of Pentecost” (2:1), the fiftieth day after Passover (cf. Lv 23:15–16), provides a temporal marker for the events that followed Jesus’s death and resurrection. Jesus appeared to his disciples for “forty days” (1:3) before he ascended; the descent of the Spirit occurs within days of his ascension.

By the first century, Pentecost had become a feast that celebrates the giving of the law on Mount Sinai during the time of the exodus, and some ancient authors even point to a voice from heaven that can be understood by people from all nations during this event. If Luke intends to highlight this connection, then the descent of the Spirit at this critical moment points to the establishment of the new constitution for the restored people of God.

2:2–3. The “sound” (2:2) of a blowing wind and the fact that the believers “saw” (2:3) tongues of fire point to the public nature of this event. This is not a private experience but a public manifestation of the Spirit announcing the arrival of a new era. In the OT, wind/spirit, fire, and ecstatic speech can point to the presence of the mighty acts of God and the accompanying prophetic spirit that interprets such acts. The arrival of this Spirit on God’s people signifies that they are “clothed with power from on high” (Lk 24:49) as they serve as witnesses to the gospel of Jesus Christ (1:8).

2:4. Elsewhere in Acts, the phrase “filled with the Holy Spirit” points to the power to proclaim the gospel message (see 4:8, 31; 9:17; 13:9). The fact that “all” of them experience this power points to the entire people as corporate witnesses in this age of fulfillment. This is also a fulfillment of Jesus’s promise that they would “be baptized with the Holy Spirit” (1:5).

The “different tongues” (2:4) they speak in are probably foreign languages intelligible to residents of different parts of the Roman world (cf. 2:8), although some in the audience do mistakenly assume that these apostles are drunk (2:13). A comparable phrase in the OT also points to intelligible foreign languages (Is 28:11). When Luke describes converts speaking in tongues at other points in Acts, he does so to emphasize how a new people group becomes part of God’s people (see 10:46; 19:6). Speaking in other tongues then becomes a confirmation of the inclusion of various people groups into God’s elect.

In the OT the Spirit of God comes on select individuals to empower them for specific tasks. Now, at Pentecost, God’s promise to pour out his Spirit on his people is fulfilled (see Is 44:3; Jr 31:31–34; Ezk 36:24–27; Jl 2:28–29). The Spirit comes on all believers to equip them to carry out the mission of the church.

2:5–11. The detailed description of the audience reveals another aspect of the significance of the Pentecost event. The audience is composed of Jews, proselytes, and half-proselytes who believe in God but have yet to be circumcised and join the synagogues as full converts (i.e., God-fearers). Although they come “from every nation under heaven” (2:5), Luke emphasizes their Jewish identity. Their presence in Jerusalem during this major pilgrim festival is expected, but the descent of the Holy Spirit signifies that this is not simply another festival. In emphasizing that Jews from all nations witness God’s mighty act in Jerusalem, this account depicts the long-awaited ingathering of the exiles from the Jewish Diaspora (compare the list of nations in 2:9–11 to Is 11:11).

2:12–36. When the crowd accuses the apostles of drunkenness (2:13), Peter stands and addresses the crowd (2:14–40). This is the first of the major speeches in Acts, and these speeches provide critical commentary on the significance of the events Luke is recording. Peter first refutes the charges of drunkenness by emphasizing that what happened points instead to the fulfillment of God’s promises. Quoting from Jl 2:28–32 in 2:17–21 while inserting the phrase “in the last days” (2:17; cf. Is 2:2), Peter emphasizes that the outpouring of the Spirit points to the arrival of the eschatological era. Another insertion in this quotation (“and they will prophesy,” 2:18) further identifies the early Christian community as testifying to the work of God in the era of fulfillment.

Peter’s Listeners on the Day of Pentecost

The heart of Peter’s speech focuses on the role and significance of Jesus Christ. Jesus the man of God rejected by the Jews has been raised by God (2:22–24). This not only fulfills the promise of David (2:25–28; see Ps 16:8–11); Jesus’s resurrection also ushers in the era that witnesses the work of the Spirit. With his resurrection, Jesus also proves to be “Lord and Messiah” (2:36), one who surpasses David himself (2:34–35; see Ps 110:1).

2:37–41. The lordship of Jesus has a number of implications. First, through his name, one’s sins may be forgiven (2:38a). Second, because of his paradigmatic role in salvation history, those who are baptized in his name will receive the eschatological Spirit (2:38b–39a). Finally, because of his universal lordship, even those “who are far off” (2:39b) will be able to experience this salvation. The phrase “who are far off” reminds one of Isaiah’s promises concerning the salvation to the Gentiles (Is 57:19; cf. Ac 22:21). Jesus is not only the Lord of the Jews; he is also the Lord of the Gentiles. In Acts, this christological affirmation provides the firm basis for missions.

2:42–47. The many who respond to Peter’s message become the foundation of the early Christian community. These believers’ sharing (2:44) fulfills the Hellenistic ideal of a utopian community, and the fact that they gave to “all, as any had need” (2:45; cf. 4:34) also fulfills the Jewish ideal of the sabbatical/Jubilee era (cf. Dt 15:4). This portrayal again reaffirms the location of this community at the end of time as they experience the renewed presence of God in this new era. The basis of this unity lies in the “apostles’ teaching” (2:42) that points to the power of the work of Jesus Christ. This practice is not to be universally imposed, as some believers still own personal property (cf. 4:37), and the perfect unity of the Christian community is a reality that is yet to be fulfilled (cf. 5:1–11).

Their practice of “breaking of bread” (2:42) provides continuity with the practice of the earthly Jesus (cf. Lk 5:27–32; 7:34; 9:10–17; 15:2; 19:7; cf. 14:8–24). This act points to the formation of a new community in the name of Jesus. Moreover, the breaking of bread “from house to house” (2:46) also marks a shift in the central meeting place of the early Christian community, as the households became the center where the presence of God could be experienced. [The House Church]

C. Opposition to the apostles by Jewish leadership (3:1–4:31). Immediately following the Pentecost event, this section points to the powerful acts of the Holy Spirit through the hands of the apostles. The miracle performed by Peter provides the occasion for two speeches that define both the continuing role of the risen Jesus and the opposition by Jewish leadership.

3:1–2. Earlier, Peter pointed to the fulfillment of God’s promise to display wonders and signs (2:19; see Jl 2:30). This miracle (3:1–10) demonstrates the impact of such a fulfillment. The healing of a “man who was lame from birth” (3:2) reminds readers of Jesus’s healing of a “man who was paralyzed” (Lk 5:17–26) at the beginning of his Galilean ministry. This points to the continuity between the ministries of Jesus and the apostles. Nevertheless, Jesus remains superior to the apostles, who perform this miracle in his name (3:6).

Acts 3:1 could be taken as a sign of the apostles’ faithfulness to Jewish religious practices. On the other hand, their act of healing in the temple precinct can also be considered a challenge to the temple leadership, as they demonstrate the powerful presence of God apart from the temple practices. The exact location of this “Beautiful” gate (3:2) remains unclear, although it undoubtedly leads into the Court of the Women and the Court of the Gentiles. Since the temple treasury was located in the Court of the Women, those passing by this gate would have their offering ready. This is, therefore, an ideal place for the crippled man to ask for alms.

3:3–10. The significance of sight in this account is introduced when Luke tells us the crippled man “saw” Peter and John (3:3). Peter’s command (3:4), “Look at us,” provides hope for this person (3:5). At the end, however, what people “saw” (3:9) was not the provision of financial help but the complete healing that leads to the praising of God. This again fulfills the prophetic note at the beginning of Luke’s writings: “Everyone will see the salvation of God” (Lk 3:6; see also Is 40:5).

Two details in Luke’s description can further be illuminated by their OT usages. First, while the crippled man expects to receive “money” (Gk eleēmosynē) from Peter and John (3:3), what he receives is the saving “mercy” (eleēmosynē) of the faithful God (cf. Is 38:18; 59:16). Second, the fact that this healed man “jumped” (3:8) may also allude to Is 35:6, where a sign of the eschatological age is that “the lame will leap like a deer” (cf. Lk 7:22).

3:11–26. In the speech that follows, Peter makes a number of significant points. First, he emphasizes that the healing is not accomplished by their “power or godliness” (3:12); instead, it is Jesus who is working through them. It is the mighty acts of the risen Lord that are recorded in this narrative, not accounts of the mighty deeds of the apostles. Within this speech alone, Jesus is called “his [God’s] servant” (3:13, 26), “the Holy and Righteous One” (3:14), “the source of life” (3:15), “Messiah” (3:18, 20), “the Lord” (3:20), and “prophet” (3:22). The unique role of the risen Jesus in salvation history is thus clearly noted.

Second, Peter indicates both continuity with the past and the uniqueness of the present eschatological moment. On the one hand, Jesus is a servant of the “God of our ancestors” (3:13), and his death and resurrection have fulfilled what God predicted through the prophets (3:18); he is also the prophet that Moses promised (3:22; see Dt 18:18). On the other hand, this event anticipates the final act of God. The “seasons of refreshing” (3:20) and the “restoration of all things” (3:21) refer to Jesus’s return, but the plural “seasons” could also point to a lengthy period when God begins to restore all things. The “seasons of refreshing” (3:20) in particular refers to the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, which points to the beginning of God’s restoration.

Finally, Peter emphasizes that those witnessing this miracle have to repent. He calls Israel to repent of their act of rejecting their Messiah (3:13). It is only through repentance that they can participate in God’s acts of restoration in this eschatological age (3:19–20). Those who refuse to repent will be “cut off” from this eschatological community of God’s people (3:23). Moreover, their repentance will pave the way for the Gentiles to be blessed (3:26). The significance of individual acts of repentance thus explains the urgency of subsequent calls to repentance.

4:1–4. The different roles the people and their leaders played in the persecution of their Messiah (see 3:17) are again illustrated in the varied response to Peter’s call to repentance. Instead of repenting of their rebellious acts, the Jewish leaders put Peter and John into jail (4:1–3). Many among the people believe (4:4), however.

4:5–7. When Peter stands before the Sanhedrin (4:5–22), he faces the group that persecuted Jesus (cf. Lk 20:1; 22:66). The earlier reference to the Sadducees (4:1) also identifies a main opponent of the church in Acts, as they refuse to accept the reality of the resurrection (cf. 23:6–8). This sect is also connected with the priesthood, whose leaders are named in 4:6.

In the Second Temple period, the high priest possessed significant political power, as he functioned as the intermediary between the provincial/imperial power and the local population. Annas was the high priest until AD 15, and his son-in-law Caiaphas was high priest from AD 18 to 36. Their family therefore became the dominant political players of the time (cf. Lk 3:2). Together with other leaders of the people, they were the core members of the Sanhedrin (4:15), the council in charge of the local affairs of the people. In the first half of the first century, however, this “Sanhedrin” was probably no more than an ad hoc committee that convened only when there was a crisis at hand. For them, this crisis is created by the apostles’ teaching and their ability to convince a large number of the people (4:4).

4:8–12. Peter’s being “filled with the Holy Spirit” (4:8) points back to the effects of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (2:4). In this case, the power of the Spirit is manifested neither in the speaking of tongues nor in the performance of miracles but in the defense of the gospel message. Since these apostles are “uneducated and untrained men,” their “boldness” impresses these Jewish leaders (4:13). Their willingness to stand firm in the midst of threats and warnings (4:19) proves that they are indeed filled with the Holy Spirit.

Peter’s initial reply (4:8–12) repeats his earlier message (3:12–26) about their rejection of Jesus but further develops two details. First, in 4:11 Peter uses Ps 118:22 to show that Jesus the rejected one becomes the foundation of God’s mighty acts in this new age. Just as the Jewish leaders were not able to thwart God’s plan when they persecuted Jesus, they will not be able to limit the power of the gospel message by threatening those extending his work.

Second, Peter emphasizes the unique lordship of Jesus. Death is but the process through which Jesus can be enthroned as the king of all (4:10). This claim directly challenges the Jewish leaders, who see the temple as their base of power. One can no longer rely on the sacrificial system in seeking approval in the eyes of God. As the “Lord of all” (10:36), Jesus is able to save those who believe in him (4:12).

Psalm 118 appears numerous times in Luke and Acts (Lk 13:35; 19:38; 20:17; Ac 4:11). This psalm undergirds one major line of argument throughout Luke’s two-volume work: while Jesus will be rejected by his own people, this is part of God’s salvific plan.

4:13–22. Noting the impact of the miracle performed by these apostles (4:13–16), the Jewish leaders can only urge them not to preach this gospel (4:17–18). Peter and John’s reply (4:19–20) turns their defense into a stern indictment, as they now directly claim that the Jewish leaders are working against the will of God. The struggle between the early Christian movement and the Jews becomes the struggle between God and the ones opposing him. [The Sanhedrin]

4:23–31. In the midst of persecution, the believers offer a prayer that confidently proclaims the sovereignty of God. Similar to OT anti-idol polemic and prayers such as that of Hezekiah (Is 37:15–20), this prayer contains (1) an appeal to God as the Lord over all creation and therefore the sovereign one (4:24), (2) a description of the peoples/nations as enemies of the Lord (4:25–26), (3) a reference to the futility of their acts against the God of Israel (4:27–28), and (4) an appeal for the Lord to “stretch out your hand” (4:29–30).

The believers first affirm God as Creator (4:24), placing their trust in him who has the power over all (cf. Pss 73:12–17; 89:9–13). The quotation that follows (4:25–26; see Ps 2:1–2) is applied to those who oppose the plan of God. Both “the Gentiles” and “the people of Israel” (4:27) are identified as those who fight against God and his anointed one, but all their acts are within God’s plan (4:28). The prayer then shifts to the present concerns of the believers. Instead of emphasizing the use of physical force against God’s enemies, these believers are to proclaim the gospel “with all boldness” (4:29). It is the word of God that will assume the role of the conqueror in Acts. In the OT, the phrase “signs and wonders” (4:30) most often refers to the work of the divine warrior in the exodus tradition (e.g., Ex 7:3; Dt 6:22; 7:19; 34:11). Here it refers to the miracles performed in conjunction with the proclamation of the gospel. In this eschatological era, one finds a different manifestation of God’s power and might.

D. Unity and division in the early church: Ananias and Sapphira (4:32–5:11). 4:32–37. Luke again provides a summary of the harmonious life of the believers. This description can be compared with the earlier summary (2:42–47), but a few details pave the way for the narrative that follows (5:1–11). First, 4:32 emphasizes the unity of the early Christians, but this unity will soon be broken by some within the community. Second, the focus on the apostles (4:35) as the leaders of this community also prepares for the exercise of their authority in the next episode. Third, the honest offering of money by Barnabas (4:37) sets up a contrast with the deception of Ananias and Sapphira.

5:1–10. While the early Christian community gathers and holds everything in common (4:32), Ananias and Sapphira disrupt this unity by keeping back part of the money they received from selling property (5:1–11). The account consists of two parallel parts. First, Peter confronts Ananias (5:3–6), which leads to his death. Then Sapphira suffers the same fate after her confrontation with Peter (5:7–10). Peter makes it explicit that their crime was not in keeping part of the money but in lying to God (5:4) and testing the Holy Spirit (5:9). In doing so, they are not only unified in their attempts to break down the community, but they also reject the Holy Spirit, who creates and sustains this community of believers.

The account of Ananias and Sapphira (Ac 5:1–11) evokes themes from the OT. The disruption of God’s work among his people reminds one of Achan’s deception and greed when his evil act led to Israel’s defeat at Ai (Jos 7:1–26). The conspiracy of a couple against God points us back to the story of Adam and Eve, when they conspired against and lied to God (Gn 3:1–24). The work of Satan leads to the disruption of the state of harmony, and the responsible couple is cast out from the presence of God, just as in the case of Ananias and Sapphira.

If the idealistic picture of the community as provided in 2:42–47 and 4:32–37 points to the dawn of the eschatological reality, the account of Ananias and Sapphira reminds the readers that the full consummation of this reality has yet to arrive. Within the narrative of Luke, this account that highlights the presence of Satan and the temptation of wealth also points back to the character of Judas (Lk 22:1–6). As Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples, this early Christian community is also threatened by two of its own.

5:11. The concluding statement is important for two reasons. First, the mentioning of “great fear” points to the presence of God within this community. “Fear” is often the response of those who witness God’s acts in history. In this context, the presence of God is manifested by his act of judgment. But in judging, God is able to show how this community truly is his elected people (cf. Lv 10:1–5; Dt 17:12–16). Second, in Acts the word “church” first appears in this context. Through God’s act of purification, this people becomes the community that will testify to the gospel throughout the world. Moreover, instead of an ideal community, this “church” is one that will struggle but will become victorious through the power of God.

E. Continuing opposition to the apostles by Jewish leadership (5:12–42). 5:12–16. This summary of the miracles performed by the apostles provides a different manifestation of the power of God. While the deaths of Ananias and Sapphira point to the powerful act of God in judgment (5:1–11), here the mighty acts performed through the hands of the apostles point to the powerful saving acts of God. This summary also points to a return to a state of affairs prior to the disruption caused by Ananias and Sapphira: performance of “signs and wonders” (5:12a; cf. 2:43), meeting in Solomon’s Colonnade (5:12b; cf. 3:11), significant increase in the number of believers (5:14; cf. 2:41, 47; 4:4), and healing of the sick (5:16; cf. 3:1–10).

The apparent tension between 5:13 and 5:14 can be resolved by recognizing that the word “join” in this context does not refer to “believed in the Lord” (cf. 5:14) but indicates simply adhering to the group of believers (cf. 9:26; 10:28; 17:34). Other details in this account highlight the continuity between Jesus and his apostles. The power that is transmitted even through Peter’s shadow (5:15) reminds one of Jesus’s own magnificent power (Lk 8:44), and the presence of large crowds that gather from surrounding towns (5:16) likewise reminds one of Jesus’s own popularity (Lk 7:16–17).

5:17–32. In light of the success of these apostles, the Jewish leaders decide to take action against them (5:17–42). This section repeats Peter’s earlier statement that one “must obey God rather than people” (5:29; cf. 4:19), and the narrative itself also makes clear that the Jews are not standing on the side of God. After the Jews first arrest the apostles, an angel of the Lord comes to deliver them (5:19). This becomes an emphatic statement that the Jews are opposing the work of God himself. While the high priest and the Sadducees (5:17) are considering ways to further punish these apostles (5:21, 27–28), a Pharisee (5:34) provides a more reasonable proposal.

In Ac 5:12, the church gathers in Solomon’s Colonnade, a covered area that runs along the east side of the temple complex. It is visible on the far side of this model of the temple.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Israel Museum.

5:33–42. In Luke’s first volume, the Pharisees are the primary early opponents of Jesus (e.g., Lk 5:17–39; 6:1–11; 7:29–50; 14:1–24). In Acts, however, the high priest and the Sadducees become the primary opponents of the word. When the Pharisees do appear on the scene, they are relatively benign characters, among them Paul (23:1–10; 26:1–8), who provides the model response of a Pharisee confronted by the risen Jesus. In this episode Gamaliel the Pharisee (5:34) is likely Rabban Gamaliel I, the student of the well-known Hillel. Paul later acknowledges him to be his former teacher (22:3).

Gamaliel suggests that Jesus may be no more than someone like Theudas (5:36) and Judas the Galilean (5:37), the leaders of two unsuccessful revolutionary movements. Gamaliel’s advice is that if the work of these Christians “is of human origin, it will fail” (5:38). In light of the narrative that follows, Luke has already proved that their work is not “of human origin.” More important, Gamaliel further suggests that if they are from God, then the Jews who fight against them are “fighting against God” (5:39). The continued persecution of the Christians by the temple leadership shows that they are indeed “fighting against God” (cf. 6:12–15; 7:59–8:3; 12:1–19; 13:45, 50; 14:2; 16:3; 18:12; 20:3).

F. Unity and division in the early church: Appointing the seven (6:1–7). After the portrayal of the unity of the Christians in the proclamation of the good news (5:42), Luke presents an urgent problem in the church that ultimately leads to another stage of the progression of the gospel message.

6:1. In light of the repeated call for the care of widows in the Mosaic law (Ex 22:22–24; Dt 10:18; 14:28–29; 16:11; 24:17–21; 26:12–13), the neglect of the “widows” is a pressing problem in a community that claims to have “not a needy person among them” (4:34). The severity of the problem is highlighted by Luke’s use of the term “complaint”; the same Greek term often is used in the Septuagint in reference to the grumbling of the Israelites in the wilderness (Ex 16:7–12; Nm 17:5, 10). In this context, God’s people likewise face a crisis when the care of one group is neglected. The identity of the two parties involved has been debated. The “Hellenistic Jews” and “Hebraic Jews” are Jews who literally speak different languages (Greek and Hebrew/Aramaic, respectively) and have different cultural identities.

6:2–6. Due to the urgency of the problem, the Twelve (6:2) gather to appoint the seven and to lay their hands on them (6:6). These seven all have Greek names (6:5), and it is therefore possible that they are representing the Hellenistic Jews. They are not called deacons (Gk diakonoi) in this passage, but they are called to “wait on” (diakoneō, 6:2) tables.

This passage has two main issues. First, it is puzzling why there is a need for those waiting on tables to be “full of the Spirit and wisdom” (6:3). Second, the job description of the seven seems to be contradicted by the actual account of at least two of them in the narrative that follows (6:8–8:40). These questions force the readers to rethink the main purpose of this account. Instead of simply focusing on conflict within the community, this account draws attention to the need to include those who are often neglected. The speech of Stephen (7:1–53) and the ministry of Philip (8:1–40) extend this theme, as the outcasts are now to be included in this eschatological community. Moreover, to “wait on tables” is not simply a menial job. In Luke’s Gospel, Jesus has already repeatedly evoked the imagery of table fellowship in the discussion of the inclusion of the outcasts and Gentiles in God’s eschatological banquet (Lk 5:27–32; 7:34; 14:8–24; 19:7). Therefore, when the seven are called to “wait on tables,” they are to extend the work of the Twelve as they witness God’s power beyond the confines of Judea.

6:7. This account concludes with a summary statement: “So the word of God spread [literally “grow”].” Being the first of three similar summary statements that focus on the powerful word of God (cf. 12:24; 19:20), this statement concludes the first part of Acts, as the apostles minister in and around Jerusalem. Despite the disagreement among the believers, the word of God continues to grow and become strong.

G. Stephen and the preparation for missions beyond Judea (6:8–7:60). 6:8–15. In introducing Stephen, one of the seven (6:5), Luke again points the readers back to his portrayal of Jesus. Like Jesus, Stephen is “full of grace and power” (6:8; cf. Lk 2:40; 4:22), performs “great wonders and signs” (6:8; cf. 2:22), and is full of “wisdom” and the Spirit (6:10; cf. Lk 2:40, 52; 3:22). He debates with his opponents in the synagogue (6:9; cf. Lk 4:16–27) and is seized and brought before the Sanhedrin (6:12; cf. Lk 22:66), being accused by “false witnesses” (6:13; cf. Lk 23:2). With the prospect of suffering under their hands, Stephen acquires “the face of an angel” (6:15; cf. Lk 9:29, 32). The connection between Stephen and Jesus is confirmed when, at the end of his speech, he sees “the Son of Man” (7:56), and his last prayer also resembles that of Jesus (7:59–60; cf. Lk 23:34, 46). The power of the risen Jesus is not limited to the Twelve; he is also present with Stephen and others who are to extend his work beyond Judea.

In introducing the issues involved, Luke notes that Stephen is accused of “speaking against this holy place and the law” (6:13). This “holy place” can refer to the temple (1 Kg 7:50; Pss 24:3; 28:2; 46:4; Is 63:18), but this “place” can also refer more generally to the promised land (Dt 1:31; 9:7). In Judaism, the “law” represents the covenant that God has made with his elected people (Ex 24:7; 34:28; Dt 4:13; 9:11). To speak against the “holy place” and the “law” is to challenge the gifts of God to Israel and their unique status in his plan. These issues are dealt with in Stephen’s speech and are questions that dominate the rest of Luke’s narrative.

7:1–36. In response to these charges, Stephen gives a lengthy speech (7:1–53) that recites the history of Israel. He begins by emphasizing the active role of God in his covenant with Abraham (7:2–8). Then he moves to Joseph and the rebellious nature of his brothers (7:9–16), and then he provides an extensive treatment of Moses where the faithfulness of God is evident even when Israel rebels against God (7:17–43). The final section focuses on the Jerusalem temple, as Stephen responds to the charges leveled against him (7:44–53).

The main themes of this speech emerge through the precise selection of details and events. First, in response to those who focus on the unique status of the land, Stephen emphasizes the mighty acts of God that happened outside the land of Israel. The numerous geographical names clearly highlight this point: Abraham was called while he was in Mesopotamia (7:2); Joseph experienced the presence of God in Egypt (7:9), and his family was also delivered from the famine by following Joseph to Egypt (7:12); Moses grew up in Egypt (7:21–22) and was called by God “in the wilderness of Mount Sinai” (7:30; cf. 7:38); and Israel experienced God’s powerful hand as they left Egypt (7:36). The emphasis on God’s mighty acts outside the land of Israel is heightened by the short summary in 7:45, which covers the period from Joshua to David—nothing comparable happened after Israel entered the promised land. This emphasis challenges the idea of a territorial religion, as reflected in the accusations against Stephen (cf. 6:13).

7:37–43. In addition to responding to the charge concerning the “holy place,” Stephen addresses their charge concerning “the law” (cf. 6:13). Instead of emphasizing that he himself has been faithful to the law, he charges the ancestors of his accusers with being unfaithful to the law once it was delivered to them (cf. 7:53). Immediately after the provision of the torah on Mount Sinai (7:38), the people of Israel “made [an idol in the form of] a calf” (7:41). Stephen shows that this is not an isolated incident, however. In the time of the patriarchs, the brothers of Joseph sold him into Egypt because of jealousy (7:9). When Moses first stood up for his fellow Israelites, they rejected him as their leader, a fact that Stephen repeats twice in this speech (7:27, 35).

7:44–50. After dealing with the land and the law, Stephen focuses on the temple. Unlike the tabernacle, which was built in the wilderness according to the pattern provided by God himself (7:44), this temple is considered one “made with hands” (7:48), a phrase that was used to describe man-made idols (e.g., Is 31:7; cf. Lv 26:1; Is 46:6; Ac 17:24). Unlike the tabernacle, which traveled through the wilderness, this temple seeks to limit the work of God (7:49–50; see Is 66:1–2). This polemic, however, is not directed against the temple itself but against those who consider the temple the guarantee of God’s presence among their community alone.

7:51–53. In the concluding section, Stephen accuses them of being “stiff-necked people,” with “uncircumcised hearts and ears,” and of resisting the Holy Spirit (7:51). This statement not only identifies them as the enemies of the Holy Spirit (cf. Is 63:10) but also, by calling them “uncircumcised,” denies them their covenantal rights as God’s elect (cf. 7:8). Stephen further distances himself from them by shifting from “our ancestors” (7:11–12, 15, 38–39, 45) to “your ancestors” (7:51–52). This final shift is likely prompted by the most serious case of their rejection of God’s plan, as they persecuted and killed the Messiah, whom God sent to Israel. This violent act confirms that they have not obeyed the law (7:53).

Stephen also provides a significant discussion of the role and status of Jesus. Stephen cites Dt 18:15 in identifying Jesus as a “prophet” like Moses (7:37). This eschatological prophet once again reveals the mighty acts of deliverance among God’s people. The title “the Righteous One” (7:52), however, appears in the context of persecution and alludes to the righteous sufferer in Isaiah (cf. Is 53:11). God has vindicated Jesus even when his own people have rejected him. The two titles in the section that follows this speech, “Son of Man” (7:56) and “Lord” (7:60), point further to the vindication and glorification of this suffering Messiah. Through these titles Stephen’s message is clear: although God’s people rejected his Messiah, they are not able to thwart his plan.

Summary. This speech that focuses on the God who is not limited by a geographical region or a people who have rejected him provides a significant theology of mission. As God worked beyond the land of Israel in the past, he will be able to do so once again in this eschatological age. This speech, then, paves the way for the spread of the word beyond Judea after the death of Stephen (cf. 8:1).

7:54–60. Stephen’s martyrdom provides a bridge between the past and the future of the gospel ministry. The continuity of Stephen’s ministry with that of Jesus is highlighted not only by his final prayer (7:59–60) but also by his witness of “Jesus standing at the right hand of God” (7:55; cf. 2:34; see also Ps 110:1), which points to the continuation of God’s work through the risen Lord. Not only does the risen Lord receive Stephen and vindicate his work, but the fact that he is standing may indicate the beginning of yet another stage in the work of God in history when the gospel reaches beyond the region of Judea (cf. Ac 1:8). [Martyrdom in the New Testament and the Early Church]

This martyrdom account also points forward to the next episodes of Luke’s narrative. The introduction of Saul (later referred to as Paul), who is among those who are stoning Stephen (7:58), points forward to his call and conversion in 9:1–19. This note may also point to Saul’s affiliation with the Sanhedrin, as he plays the role of a witness in this trial narrative.

3. REUNIFICATION OF GOD’S PEOPLE IN JUDEA AND SAMARIA (8:1–12:25)

A. Saul and the persecution of the church (8:1–4). The summary statement that comes after the account of Stephen’s death provides a glimpse of the dire situation of the church. But it is precisely in such a situation that God is able to introduce the next stage of his plan, when believers are to be witnesses in all “Judea and Samaria” (8:1; cf. 1:8). The apostles have remained in Jerusalem probably because they felt the need to hold firm to the work that the Holy Spirit had established there. This also allows others to continue their work beyond the confines of the city of Jerusalem while they continue to minister to the Jews (cf. Gl 2:9).

Paul, once a fierce persecutor of the church (Ac 8:1–3), would soon suffer persecution himself as part of his mission as apostle to the Gentiles (Ac 9:15–16; cf. 2 Co 11:22–33).

Luke again locates Saul among those who are persecuting the church (8:3). His failure to “ravage” the church completely testifies to God’s faithfulness to his own chosen ones.

B. Ministries of Philip (8:5–40). 8:5–13. Introduced in chapter 6 as one of the seven, Philip becomes the first to bring the gospel to the region of Samaria (8:5–25). Embedded within this narrative is the portrayal of Simon, the one who opposes the word. While Philip proclaims “the Messiah” (8:5), this Simon claims to be “somebody great” (8:9). The appellation applied to him, “the Great Power” (8:10), may indicate that he is worshiped as a god, especially when the “Great Power” could be a Samaritan name for the God of Israel. The eventual acceptance of the word by the Samaritans (8:12) and by Simon himself (8:13) shows that “the name of Jesus Christ” is superior to other claims to divinity.

8:14–17. Luke highlights the symbolic significance of “Samaria” in this account. According to the OT, the end of time will witness the reconciliation of Judah and Samaria (cf. Is 11:13). By evoking the ancient city of Samaria (see 8:5), Luke is pointing to the significance of Philip’s ministry in the reconciliation of the two parts of the divided kingdom. This explains why the Jerusalem apostles send delegates out to Samaria when they hear that the people there have accepted the word of God (8:14). The climactic reunification of Judea and Samaria occurs when the people in Samaria receive the Holy Spirit as Peter and John lay their hands on them (8:17).

8:18–25. After his apparent conversion, Simon continues his attempts to gain possession of the divine power by offering money to the apostles (8:18–19). The expression “poisoned by bitterness” (8:23) evokes the anti-idol language of Dt 29:18, and “bound by wickedness” alludes to Is 58:6, a verse that has already appeared in the narrative (Lk 4:18; cf. Ac 10:38). The contrast between Jesus, who releases the chain of wickedness, and Simon, who is condemned to such chains, cannot be missed.

Early Travels of Philip and Peter

8:26–40. When Philip leaves Samaria, “an angel of the Lord” leads him to the road that runs down from Jerusalem to Gaza (8:26), where he meets an Ethiopian eunuch. The conversion of this Ethiopian is puzzling because Luke makes it clear that Cornelius is the first Gentile to be converted (10:1–48). Nevertheless, Luke’s focus here is not on the ethnic identity of the eunuch. He is an “Ethiopian” and a “high official” (8:27), but it is his status as a “eunuch” that is emphasized throughout this passage (8:27, 34, 36, 38–39). Luke’s discussion of the eunuch recalls Is 56:4–5. Isaiah’s vision of the restoration of God’s people emphasizes the inclusion of outcasts such as eunuchs. These eunuchs then become symbols of God’s salvation beyond the covenantal community. Luke therefore points to the fulfillment of this significant part of God’s promises for the community of the end times. [Candace]

The importance of Isaiah is confirmed by the lengthy quotation from Is 53:7–8 (8:32–33). Isaiah 53 presents God’s servant who is rejected by his own people. In response to the eunuch, who asks the identity of this rejected servant, Philip preaches the good news about Jesus, the one who fulfills the plan of God (8:34–35). The experience of being baptized (8:38) allows this eunuch to participate in God’s eschatological community, just as other Israelites are invited to do (Ac 2:38); his “rejoicing” (8:39) also testifies to the reality of this experience of God’s salvation (cf. Lk 1:24; 6:23; 10:20; 15:5, 32).

C. Conversion and call of Paul (9:1–31). 9:1–2. Luke’s portrayal of Saul (Paul) is comparable to the previous descriptions (7:58; 8:3): he is depicted as the enemy of the word, except that his involvement in the persecution against the church has intensified (9:1). He has also become a leader of a movement, as he has requested letters from the high priest to capture disciples in Damascus (9:2). This narrative thus reads as the confrontation between Saul and the work of God. Instead of suffering the same fate as Judas (1:18–19) or Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11), this enemy of the word is to be transformed into one of the most significant leaders of the early Christian movement.

Damascus is about 135 miles northeast of Jerusalem. Archaeological evidence suggests that for a few years Rome was unable to maintain firm control over this city, which explains why the high priest in Jerusalem would be able to give permission to Saul to capture Jesus’s disciples in that city. Luke describes these disciples as those “who belonged to the Way” (9:2; cf. 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22). This terminology is most likely derived from Is 40:3 (quoted in Lk 3:4). In Isaiah, this “way” points to the fulfillment of the eschatological salvation. In Acts, Luke indicates that this eschatological salvation can be found only in the gospel that these apostles are preaching.

9:3–9. Saul’s Damascus Road experience is an encounter with the risen Jesus. Saul is not simply persecuting Jesus’s disciples; he is opposing the work of the risen Jesus himself (9:4; cf. Lk 10:16). Facing this Jesus he has persecuted, Saul recognizes that this is the Lord to whom he needs to submit (9:5). In fact, the lordship of Jesus is emphasized more in this section than in any other in Acts (9:1, 5, 10–11, 13, 15, 17). This is not simply a private vision, although Saul’s companions saw “no one” (9:7). The appearance of “a light from heaven” (9:3) points rather to a theophany event (cf. Ex 24:16; Is 9:2; 42:16). It is likely that Saul’s companions did witness the light (cf. 26:13–14), although they fail to “see” the meaning behind such an event.

To Saul this encounter is undoubtedly a conversion experience, although not in the modern sense of changing religion. Instead of abandoning his past, he finds fulfillment of the torah that he cherishes in Jesus himself (24:14–16). This experience of encountering Christ affects both his behavior and his understanding of the God whom he has attempted to serve.

9:10–19a. This encounter is also a call narrative, as through Ananias Saul is called to be God’s “chosen instrument” (9:15). Although Saul is ultimately the object of God’s call, this account also emphasizes the call to Ananias. The account contains many standard features of OT call narratives (cf. Is 6:1–13; 49:1–6; Jr 1:4–19): vision/encounter (9:10a), initial response (9:10b), call (9:12), obstacle/doubt (9:13), reassurance (9:14), and obedience (9:15). Ananias is called to approach Saul and to relay the message that he has received from the risen Jesus. This call to Ananias draws attention to the need of divine intervention for the early Christian community to accept God’s work through his servant Saul. The repeated mentioning of Saul’s past (9:1–2, 13–14, 21) highlights the resistance to accepting Saul’s conversion, but Luke emphasizes the need to accept God’s work and not be an obstacle to the unfolding of God’s plan.

Wall painting of Paul on the Grotto of Saint Paul in Ephesus

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Ephesus Museum, Turkey.

Jesus tells Ananias that Saul “must suffer” for his name (9:16), but when Ananias relays this message to Saul, he promises him that he will “be filled with the Holy Spirit” (9:17) instead. This apparent tension should be examined within the life of Jesus himself. In his Gospel, Luke records that Jesus must “suffer many things” (Lk 9:22) even when he is the one who has been anointed by the Spirit (Lk 3:22; 4:18). In this context, therefore, Ananias is not changing the message that he has received from Jesus. He is emphasizing the continuity between the mission of Jesus and that of Saul.

9:19b–25. After his Damascus Road experience, Saul spends some time in Damascus before joining the disciples in Jerusalem. With the only appearance of the phrase “[Jesus] is the Son of God” (9:20) in Acts, Luke points to the center of Saul’s preaching as evidence of his significant realization during his encounter with the risen Lord. Moreover, the account of his rejection by his fellow Jews (9:23–25) also points to the dramatic reversal, in that the one who has persecuted Jesus is now being persecuted because of his name. This also provides an immediate fulfillment of Jesus’s prophecy through Ananias (9:16).

9:26–31. Saul’s visit to Jerusalem causes anxiety among those who have heard of his acts against the believers (9:26). His reception by Barnabas (9:27) confirms the meaning of Barnabas’s name (“Son of Encouragement,” 4:36). This account also paves the way for their ministry together in Antioch (11:22–26). Saul’s postconversion experience also appears in his own letters (Gl 1:11–24; 2 Co 11:32–33). There he also notes the opposition by King Aretas in Damascus, but Luke focuses on the persecution by the Jews.

D. Ministries of Peter (9:32–11:18). 9:32–43. With this section, Luke shifts his attention back to Peter. The brief account of the healing of Aeneas (9:32–35) again points to Jesus Christ as the power behind the ministry of the apostles (9:34). The more detailed account of Peter’s raising Dorcas from the dead (9:36–43) brings him to Joppa, the place where he will receive the significant vision concerning the conversion of Gentiles (10:9–23).

These two miracles remind readers of similar acts of healing during the earthly ministry of Jesus (Lk 5:17–26; 7:11–16). The powerful Peter portrayed in these healing accounts is contrasted with a reluctant Peter in the next episode, when he must be convinced to reach out to the Gentiles. This further highlights the greater miracle that follows, as God shows that he is also the savior of the Gentiles.

10:1–8. The conversion of Cornelius is considered to be a major point in the progression of the word (10:1–11:18). The first part of the story (10:1–23) focuses on the visions of Cornelius and Peter, while the second part (10:24–48) provides an account of the preaching of Peter and the conversion of Cornelius and those with him. Peter then repeats this story in his report to the church at Jerusalem (11:1–18). The significance of this story is highlighted by the space it occupies in Luke’s narrative.

The story begins by highlighting its geographical and cultural context (10:1). Caesarea was founded by Herod the Great but became a major Hellenistic port occupied mostly by Gentiles. Cornelius is introduced as a centurion of the Italian Regiment. “Centurion” (a leader of about one hundred soldiers) has already served as a symbol of the faith of a Gentile in Luke’s work (Lk 7:1–10; 23:47). Cornelius is a “devout man” who “feared God” (10:2), a phrase that likely points to the Gentiles who worshiped the God of Israel in Jewish synagogues but were not converted to Judaism as full proselytes (10:22, 35; 13:26). Cornelius’s regular prayer life and his acts of charity (10:2–3) point to his devotion to God, which is not unlike the devotion of the Diaspora Jews in Gentile lands. Throughout the narrative, however, Luke firmly identifies Cornelius as a Gentile, one who has been excluded from God’s covenantal people. It takes a vision for Cornelius to send his messengers to Peter (10:3–8), and it will take another vision for Peter to accept these messengers and follow them back to the house of Cornelius. [Roman Soldiers in the New Testament]

Marble statue depicting Roman military dress

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the British Museum, London, England.

10:9–16. Luke’s detailed account of Peter’s vision, which happens three times, points to its significance. The vision involves the issue of unclean food (10:12–14; cf. Lv 11:1–47) and reaches its climax with the declaration by a voice (10:15). In context, this declaration refers to a new stage in salvation history when Gentiles are no longer considered unacceptable to God. This reading is confirmed by Peter’s statement later in reference to the Gentiles (10:28). In the OT and Second Temple Judaism, the observance of clean and unclean laws is often used as an identity claim whereby Jews are publicly set apart from the Gentiles (cf. Dn 1:8–12). God’s vision for Peter directly challenges this separatist claim, as God indicates that the Gentiles are now fully acceptable to him.

10:17–43. While Peter is still trying to discern the meaning of the vision, the messengers sent by Cornelius come to his house (10:17–23a). Realizing the connection between the vision and their visit, Peter goes to Cornelius’s house, and they exchange information concerning the visions that they have received (10:23b–33). Then Peter preaches and speaks to Cornelius and those around him about the death and resurrection of Jesus (10:34–43).

Peter’s speech begins with a strong critique of the Jewish theology of election (10:34–35). The suggestion that “God doesn’t show favoritism” challenges the very foundation of the identity of Israel as God’s unique instrument. This affirmation of God’s impartiality becomes the central article of faith in this account of God’s work in the eschatological era. The dawn of this new era is possible because of the mighty acts of God through his Messiah, who is now the “Lord of all” (10:36). Peter proceeds to redefine the elect people of God. The criterion to join this people is no longer one’s ethnic identity but belief in Jesus (10:43). This gospel is to be spread through his “appointed” ones, but these appointed ones are now the witnesses who can testify to Jesus’s life, death, and resurrection (10:41).

Although this is undoubtedly a new era in God’s salvific plan, Luke also emphasizes its continuity with the past. First, this salvation to the Gentiles originated with the gospel that God sent to the Israelites (10:36). The priority of Israel even in this eschatological era is repeatedly affirmed (cf. 13:5, 46; 14:1; 18:4). Second, Peter emphasizes that “all the prophets testify about him” (10:43), thus suggesting that the gospel of Jesus Christ reaching the Gentiles is not an accident in history. Finally, the fact that this gospel is preached by a pillar in the Jerusalem church also points to the continuity between the Jewish and Gentile churches.

10:44–48. God’s acceptance of the Gentiles is confirmed by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit among these Gentiles (10:44–45). As in the Pentecost event, where God’s people experienced the miracle of tongues, these Gentiles also receive this gift when they are accepted as equal to Jewish believers (10:46). In response to the manifestation of divine approval, Peter also has them baptized in the name of Jesus Christ (10:47–48).

11:1–4. The surprising work of God among the Gentiles forces Peter to defend his acts, as he is accused by “the circumcision party” (11:2) upon his return to Jerusalem. The accusation that Peter ate with uncircumcised men (11:3) points to the central issue of contention. Peter already realized that a Jew is not supposed to associate with a Gentile (10:28), but through a vision of unclean animals God forced Peter to realize that Gentiles are now considered “clean” in the eyes of God (10:15), and Peter is therefore urged to have table fellowship with the Gentiles.

11:5–18. Peter does not simply repeat the earlier account; he also highlights the role of certain characters. First, he points to the role of God. Peter mentions a vision that contains a declaration from God (11:5–9) and the appearance of an angel (11:13), as well as guidance (11:12) and confirmation (11:15) by the Spirit. At the end, Peter notes that “God gave them the same gift that he also gave to us” (11:17), and the crowd responds by praising God (11:18). The fact that God has granted the Gentiles such privilege means that they are to be included into God’s people as Gentiles. [Baptism in the Spirit]

Second, the active role of Cornelius is emphasized. Cornelius sent for Peter to “speak a message to you by which you and all your household will be saved” (11:14). This highlights Cornelius’s role as he accepts the angel’s call so that he can be saved. While the emphasis on God underscores his sovereignty behind all these events, the focus on Cornelius points to his active role in the reception of this gift.

Third, this report highlights the role of the Jerusalem apostles. The fact that Peter is the agent through which a Gentile can hear the gospel highlights the central role of the Jerusalem church (cf. 8:14). The need for Peter to report to the Jerusalem church reinforces this point (11:2). The unity of the Jerusalem church and the church of the Gentiles is thus maintained.

Finally, the role of the word of God should not be missed. Earlier references emphasize the progress of the word among the elect people of God (cf. 6:7); in his speech to Cornelius and those around him, Peter also notes that this word was sent by God to the Israelites (10:36). In his introduction to Peter’s speech in Jerusalem, Luke announces that the Gentiles have finally received the word of God (11:1). This signifies yet another stage in the progression of this powerful word of God.

E. Church at Antioch (11:19–30). 11:19–20. The note concerning the scattering of the believers (11:19a) recalls the earlier account after Stephen’s death (8:1). The preaching of the gospel in Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Antioch (11:19b) pushes the gospel beyond Judea, Samaria, and even the coastal area near Caesarea. The focus of this section is on Antioch, the third largest city in the Roman world. Luke notes that some begin to speak to the “Greeks” (11:20). In light of the fact that this group is to be contrasted with “Jews” (11:19b), Luke most likely refers to Gentiles here.

11:21–30. The connections between the Jerusalem church and the Antioch church are emphasized in a number of ways: (1) “the Lord’s hand was with them” (11:21a) recalls God’s mighty hand among the believers in Judea (4:30); (2) the report of an impressive growth (11:21b, 24) points to earlier reports (2:41, 47; 4:4; 5:14); (3) Barnabas is sent to Antioch by the Jerusalem church (11:22); (4) prophets come from Jerusalem to Antioch (11:27); and (5) relief help is sent by the believers in Antioch to Jerusalem (11:29–30). Luke thus highlights the unity between missions in Judea and in the Gentile lands.

This section picks up on the earlier mentioning of the relationship between Barnabas and Saul (9:27) and places them now in Antioch (11:25–26). This paves the way for the later narrative, as the church in Antioch will send out Barnabas and Saul (13:1–3). The believers are first called “Christians” in Antioch (11:26), pointing to the distinct presence of this community in this significant city. “Called” probably indicates that outsiders applied this label to the believers. It is likely that this was originally a derogatory term (26:28; 1 Pt 4:16). In any case, this term points to the identity of believers as those who follow “Christ.”

The mentioning of the “severe famine” (11:28) is confirmed by extrabiblical accounts that point to the existence of several famines during Claudius’s reign (AD 41–54). It is possible that this famine relief effort is the same as the one mentioned by Paul in Gl 2:1–10.

Early Travels of Paul

F. Persecution in Jerusalem (12:1–25). In the midst of the demonstration of the church’s unity, one again finds the persecution of the church by the Jews. The first section of this account (12:1–19) focuses on Herod’s persecution of Peter and God’s deliverance of Peter from prison. The second section (12:20–25) focuses on the demise of Herod. Placed side by side, these two sections provide a stark contrast to one another as the work of God proceeds in the midst of persecution.

12:1–19. The King Herod (12:1) introduced here is Herod Agrippa I, the grandson of Herod the Great, who in AD 41 gained control of the entire reign of his grandfather. Popular among the Jews, he ruled until AD 44. His popularity was probably rooted in his constant desire to please the Jews; this is supported by Luke’s statement that Herod persecuted the early apostles to strengthen his standing among the Jews (12:3). In listing the evil deeds of Herod, Luke mentions Herod’s execution of James the brother of John (12:2). Since James was one of the Twelve (Lk 5:10; 6:14), his death signifies the martyrdom of the first apostle, one of the leaders of the Jerusalem church.

The miraculous deliverance of Peter from prison recalls a similar event in 5:17–24, but the details included here point back to the death and resurrection of Jesus. These include the appearance of a Herodian ruler (12:1; cf. Lk 23:6–16) during the Festival of Unleavened Bread and Passover (12:3–4; cf. Lk 22:1, 7), the arrest and the intended trial (12:4; cf. Lk 22:54–23:25), the appearance of an angel (12:7; cf. Lk 22:43), the call to “get up” (12:7; cf. Lk 24:7, 46), the presence of a woman witness (12:13; cf. Lk 24:1–8), the disbelief of other disciples (12:15; cf. Lk 24:11), and the assumption that Peter is only a disembodied spirit (12:15; cf. Lk 24:37). Luke again points to the continuity between Jesus and his apostles. The mentioning of James (12:17) the brother of the Lord (cf. Ac 1:14) confirms the connection between Jesus and the apostolic church in that he was considered to be one of the “pillars” of the Jerusalem church (Gl 2:9).

Details of Peter’s arrest and rescue from prison point back to the exodus traditions. The evil deeds of Herod (Ac 12:1) recall the acts of Pharaoh (Ex 3). The Passover reference (Ac 12:4) evokes this significant event, and Peter’s escape from prison recalls the Israelites’ departure from Egypt (Ex 12–14; 18). The command to put on “sandals” (Ac 12:8) recalls a similar command in Ex 12:11. The death of Herod (Ac 12:20–23) likewise recalls that of Pharaoh (Ex 14–15).

12:20–25. Luke’s portrayal of Herod’s death provides a strong contrast to the depiction of Peter’s deliverance. Luke explicitly identifies the cause of Herod’s death as his refusal to give glory to God (12:23), when the people declared, “It’s the voice of a god and not of a man” (12:22). The act of honoring Herod is therefore interpreted as an act of idolatry that cannot be tolerated. Herod’s arrogance is contrasted with the humility of Peter, who, after escaping from prison, honors God as the one who has saved him (12:11). Herod’s failure to recognize that Jesus is the only Lord of all leads to his destruction by “an angel of the Lord” (12:23), the same agent that earlier delivered Peter from prison (12:11).

A king dressed in royal robes being killed by God in the presence of an audience consisting of people from Tyre (12:20) points one to the prophetic oracle against the King of Tyre in Ezk 28. In rebuking this ruler, the Lord reminds him that he is “a man and not a god” (Ezk 28:2), and he “will die a violent death” (Ezk 28:8). Other prophetic books contain similar warnings that those who claim to be “like the Most High” (Is 14:14) will fall from their exalted place of power (Is 14:12). In the context of Acts, anyone who challenges the sovereignty of the “Lord of all” (10:36) will be overcome by the power of God.

This point is illustrated by the summary statement at the end of this narrative (12:24). As the second of the three similarly worded summary statements (cf. 6:7; 19:20), this points to the completion of the second stage in the progression of the word. The first summary concludes the preaching of the gospel in Jerusalem (6:7), and this statement points to the completion of the preaching in Judea and Samaria. The full-blown mission to the Gentiles will start in chapter 13 with the first missionary journey of Paul. Acts 12:25 paves the way for this journey by bringing Barnabas and “John who was called Mark” back from Jerusalem to Antioch.

4. MISSION TO THE GENTILES (13:1–21:16)

A. Paul’s first missionary journey (13:1–14:28). 13:1–3. The third stage in Luke’s portrayal of the progression of the word begins with the sending off of Saul and Barnabas by the church of Antioch. The list of prophets and teachers is important, as it points to the diversity of backgrounds of those who serve in Antioch (13:1). Although they are most likely all Jews, they come from different parts of the Roman world. Barnabas is from Cyprus (4:36), while Saul was born in Tarsus (22:3). Judging from the Latin name Niger, which means “black,” it is possible that Simeon was from Africa, and Luke explicitly notes that Lucius is from Cyrene, in North Africa. Finally, Manaen’s connection with Herod the tetrarch points to his social location, and he is to be counted among the aristocrats. It is perhaps not an accident that among such a group God would raise up two who will champion the first extensive mission trip.

The explicit guidance of the Holy Spirit at the beginning of this journey points to the significance of this event. The fact that Barnabas and Saul are “set apart” (13:2) for the work of God by his own initiative and that they receive the laying on of hands (13:3) points to the account of the commissioning of the Levites in Nm 8:5–11. This not only provides sufficient justification for their work beyond the land of the Jews; it also provides a redefinition of God’s people, as these messengers will serve God’s elect ones beyond the confines of Israel.

Paul’s First Missionary Journey

13:4–12. The account of their ministry on the island of Cyprus begins with a note concerning the guidance of the Holy Spirit (13:4), not unlike the one found at the beginning of Jesus’s ministry (Lk 4:1, 14). It is in this episode that Luke first calls Saul by his Roman name, Paul (13:9), thus indicating the shift that the gospel is now reaching an increasingly Gentile audience. While preaching to the proconsul Sergius Paulus in Paphos, Barnabas and Paul are met with opposition by the false prophet Bar-Jesus (13:6), who is also called Elymas (13:8). [Roman Names and “Saul—Also Called Paul”]

Paul’s direct speech against Elymas reveals his true nature not only as a false prophet and a sorcerer but also as a “son of the devil” and an “enemy of all that is right” (13:10). This is in contrast to Paul, who is “filled with the Holy Spirit” (13:9). Moreover, the description of Elymas’s work as “perverting the straight paths of the Lord” (13:10) is the exact reversal of the one who prepares for the eschatological work of God (Lk 3:4; cf. Is 40:3). The attempt of Elymas “to turn the proconsul away from the faith” (13:8) is therefore an attempt to turn the proconsul from the true God to the false deity that Elymas himself represents.

The triumph of the word is manifested when the punishment uttered by Paul is fulfilled (13:11). This punishment of loss of sight reverses the promises of the OT prophet that “everyone will see the salvation of God” (Lk 3:6; cf. Is 40:5; see also Ac 26:18). The conversion of the proconsul also points to the power of the word of God as a Roman governor subjects himself to the authority of the risen Lord.

13:13–15. The center of this account of the first missionary journey lies in Paul and Barnabas’s experience in Pisidian Antioch, of the Roman province of Galatia (13:13–52). The account begins by locating them in a synagogue (13:14). As Jesus did (Lk 4:14–31), Paul begins his public ministry in a synagogue. Paul’s sermon also provides a unique glimpse into his preaching, because although Luke mentions Paul visiting the synagogue often (14:1; 17:1–2; 18:4–5; 19:8), only here does he provide the content of his synagogue preaching.

13:16–41. The content of this lengthy sermon occupies much of the first part of this section. The first section (13:16–25) presents a review of history that connects the mighty acts of God during the exodus event to the eschatological deliverance that comes through Jesus. Paul also identifies Jesus as the descendant of David, whom John the Baptist testified to be the one who fulfills God’s promises. The second section (13:26–31) focuses on the climax of salvation history: although the people of God rejected the Savior promised by God, God raised Jesus from the dead. The third section (13:32–37) lists three OT promises that point to the resurrection of the Son of God (13:33 [Ps 2:7]; 13:34 [Is 55:3]; 13:35 [Ps 16:10]). These quotations pick up Paul’s earlier claim as they point to Jesus as the fulfillment of the Davidic promise. Psalm 2:7 identifies Jesus, the descendant of David, as the Son of God. Isaiah 55:3 points to the faithfulness of God toward his own people as he fulfills his promises to David. Psalm 16:10 points to the resurrection as a sign for God’s eternal blessings on his Son and his kingdom. The final section (13:38–41) calls the people of God to believe in Jesus and his gospel. This section ends with a quotation from Hab 1:5, one that warns the audience not to follow their leaders in Jerusalem in rejecting God’s mighty acts through his Son.

When traveling from Paphos to Pisidian Antioch, the missionary team would have to face the imposing Taurus Mountains. This is when John Mark turns back for Jerusalem.

13:42–46. As in the case of Jesus’s experience in Nazareth (Lk 4:22), the Jews’ initial response to Paul’s message is positive (13:42–43). Like Jesus (Lk 4:23–29), however, Paul is soon rejected by many who are jealous of him (13:44–45).

In response to the Jewish opposition, Paul makes a striking proclamation (13:46). This statement seems to indicate that Paul will not continue to preach the gospel to the Jews, but the fact that he “entered the Jewish synagogue, as usual” during his next stop in Iconium (14:1) argues against this conclusion. This statement should instead be compared to the critique by OT prophets: the ultimate goal of such warning is to urge the people of God to repent. Other statements Paul will utter later in the narrative (cf. 18:6; 28:28) reflect similar intention. In this context, Paul’s statement points to the responsibility of the Jews for rejecting the gospel. Although God is faithful to his people, his people continue to reject him.

13:47–52. Paul then quotes from Is 49:6 in justifying his turn to the Gentiles (13:47). This text from Isaiah has been alluded to a number of times in the Lukan narrative (Lk 24:47; Ac 1:8), but most striking is its connection with Lk 2:32, where the phrase “a light for revelation to the Gentiles” is applied to Jesus. In this context, however, the introductory note (“this is what the Lord has commanded us”) indicates that the “light” is now referring to Paul and Barnabas, who are bringing the gospel to the Gentiles. The continuity between the mission of Jesus and that of his followers is therefore emphasized by Is 49:6, a verse that describes God’s work in an eschatological era.

This account concludes with a description of Gentile reception (13:48) and continued Jewish rejection (13:49–52) of the gospel. As they learned from Jesus’s own instructions to his disciples (Lk 9:5), Paul and Barnabas shake the dust off their feet to signify how the Jews are to be responsible for their rejection of the gospel (13:51). In the midst of persecution, however, the disciples continue to be “filled with joy and the Holy Spirit” (13:52).

14:1–7. The experience of Paul and Barnabas in Iconium is comparable to their experience in Pisidian Antioch. Paul and Barnabas enter “the Jewish synagogue, as usual,” and initially they receive a positive response (14:1). But some of the Jews decide to oppose them and those who have believed (14:2).

Luke’s description concerning a plot (14:5) recalls the prayer by the believers who quote from Ps 2:2 in describing the persecution suffered by the earthly Jesus (Ac 4:26). Their persecution provides another confirmation that they are walking in the steps of their Lord. This also fulfills the prophecy of Jesus when he called Paul (Ac 9:16). In addition, the fact that Paul and Barnabas, in the midst of opposition, speak “boldly for the Lord” and “do signs and wonders” (14:3) also points to God’s answer to the prayer of the believers that they would “speak your word with all boldness” and perform “signs and wonders” (Ac 4:29–30).

14:8–10. After leaving Iconium, Paul and Barnabas travel to Lystra (14:8–20). Their ministry in Lystra begins with the healing of a crippled man (14:8–10). In numerous ways, this account recalls the earlier miracle performed by Peter in 3:1–10: both men are crippled (14:8; cf. 3:2), and in both accounts the apostle looks directly at the man (14:9; cf. 3:4). After being commanded to stand, both men “jumped up” and “began to walk” (14:10; cf. 3:8). Through this account, the connection between Paul and the original Twelve is reaffirmed. It is perhaps not by accident that it is on their first missionary journey that Luke first calls Paul and Barnabas “apostles” (14:4, 14).

14:11–13. When the crowd sees what has happened, they shout, “The gods have come down to us in human form!” (14:11). Barnabas they call Zeus, and Paul, Hermes (14:12), and the priest of Zeus and the crowd want to offer sacrifices to them (14:13). Archaeological remains testify to the worship of Zeus and Hermes in this region in the Roman period. The fact that Barnabas is called Zeus, the head of the Olympian Pantheon, points to the fact that he is not considered to be of a lower status than Paul. Hermes is the god of eloquence and is probably considered to be a spokesperson for Zeus. This also points to the role of Paul as one who is primarily responsible for proclaiming the gospel.

14:14–20. The reaction of Paul and Barnabas to such response is noteworthy. Unlike Simon Magus (8:9–10) and Herod (12:21–23), Paul and Barnabas refuse to be honored as deities (14:15). While rejecting such acclamations, they urge the crowd to turn from “worthless things,” a phrase often used in reference to idols in the Greek Septuagint (Lv 17:7; Is 2:20; 30:15; cf. Is 44:9). Instead of worshiping idols, they should worship “the living God” (14:15a), a description that affirms the sovereignty of God over against idols, which are neither able to see nor hear, nor to save those who worship them (cf. Dt 5:26; 1 Sm 17:26; Jr 10:10; Dn 6:20). Unlike these idols, which are created things, this living God is the Creator (14:15b; cf. Ex 20:11; Ps 146:6) and in control of all, including the nations and the rulers (cf. Is 37:16–20). This would explain the transition from the affirmation of the sovereignty of the Lord in 14:15 to the concern with “all the nations” in 14:16. Although God’s specific revelation has yet to be revealed to the nations, he has shown his kindness to them, thus testifying to his own existence. [Common Grace]

This speech, which is addressed to Gentiles, is very different from the one addressed to the Jews in the synagogue in Pisidian Antioch. There, Paul focused on Jesus as the fulfillment of OT promises. Here, Paul argues from nature and creation that the God of Israel is the Lord of all. This address also paves the way for a more detailed and elaborate discussion in Paul’s Areopagus speech in Athens (Ac 17:22–31).

As in Pisidian Antioch, the crowd is again turned against the apostles, at which point Paul and Barnabas leave for Derbe (14:20).

14:21–28. Luke does not provide any description of their ministry in Derbe; instead, he focuses on their return trip to Antioch of Syria. What Paul and Barnabas do when they revisit the churches in Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch is an important part of their ministry as apostles. Moving beyond mere conversion, they strengthen the disciples, encourage them to be faithful to the gospel (14:22a), and appoint leaders for the newly formed communities of believers (14:23). [Elder]

The direct statement in 14:22b is an important one. First, it identifies suffering as an essential part of the growth of the believers. Second, the word “necessary” (Gk dei) points to the necessity that is grounded in the plan of God. Therefore, this statement should be interpreted as, “Going through many hardships as we enter the kingdom of God is part of the plan of God.” Third, earlier the risen Lord revealed to Ananias that Paul “must [dei] suffer” for his name (9:16). Now Paul in turn expands this prophecy to include all those who follow Jesus. As Jesus himself suffered, those who follow him will have the honor to suffer for his name.

B. Jerusalem Council and the identity of Gentile believers (15:1–35). 15:1–6. With the conversion of the Gentiles during the first missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas, the church is confronted with the question concerning the ethnic identity of Gentiles who enter the people of God. This issue is sharply raised by those believers who are Pharisees (15:5). Paul and Barnabas, among others, go to Jerusalem to meet with the leaders of the Jerusalem church (15:2–4). The meeting, often called the Jerusalem Council, provides an important occasion for the clarification of significant issues that touch on the heart of the gospel message.

Luke’s report of the meeting focuses on the speeches of Peter (15:7–12) and James (15:13–21), the latter of which concludes with the “apostolic decree” (15:19–20). Luke’s emphasis on the significance of this event is reflected by the inclusion of the letter to be sent to the Gentile believers (15:22–35), a letter that summarizes the discussion in the Jerusalem Council.

Jewish Population Centers in the First Century AD

15:7–12. Peter’s speech recalls the conclusion reached in the Cornelius story (11:12), when he again points to the implication of the vision from God (15:9). The equality between Jews and Gentiles in this eschatological era is reaffirmed with the striking statement that there is no distinction “between us and them,” a statement that again challenges the Jewish theology of election. Significantly, this discussion of equality is tied to the issue of purity in the assertion that God is able to cleanse the hearts of the Gentiles. The Jews often emphasize their special status before God through their meticulous practice of the purity laws that separate them from the unclean Gentiles. Peter’s statement therefore focuses God’s initiative to cleanse the Gentiles and erase the distinction between Jews and Gentiles. This active role of God is called grace, and Peter makes it clear that both Jews and Gentiles are saved through this “grace of the Lord Jesus” (15:11).

15:13–21. The speech of James moves the discussion one step forward: these Gentiles who are saved by grace are part of the people of God (15:14). James then quotes from Am 9:11–12 (15:16–18), which deals with the renewal of the house of David and the restoration of the people of God. In quoting from this passage, James is situating God’s acceptance of the Gentiles within the wider restoration program that he promised. Not only is Jesus the Son of David, but the eschatological era that his death and resurrection introduce is one that fulfills God’s promises to David.

James concludes his speech with a recommendation that Gentiles should observe a minimal set of requirements as they participate in the people of God (15:20; see the article “The Ruling of the Jerusalem Council”). This decree and the flow of the arguments presented by James and Peter should be considered in interpreting the final statement of James’s speech (15:21). James essentially is saying, “Moses has been preached and read in every city from the earliest times, but we still fail to observe his commandments; why, then, should we require the Gentiles to do that which we failed to do?”

15:22–35. With the church adopting this recommendation, they send Judas and Silas, leaders of the Jerusalem church, with Paul and Barnabas to Antioch with a letter that outlines the decree (15:22–29). This letter emphasizes that this is not simply a decision reached by humans but is also affirmed by the Holy Spirit (15:28). Judas and Silas’s ministry among those in Antioch (15:30–32), along with the blessing of “peace” they receive from these believers (15:33), once again points to the unity of the Jerusalem and Antioch churches. [The Ruling of the Jerusalem Council]

C. Paul’s second missionary journey (15:36–18:22). 15:36–41. Luke’s account of Paul’s second missionary journey begins with a note concerning the disagreement between Paul and Barnabas because of John Mark, which leads to their parting of company (15:36–39). This surprising account points to the historicity of Luke’s account, as he does not shy away from the problems among those proclaiming the gospel, although Paul’s own writing points to his eventual reconciliation with John Mark (2 Tm 4:11). In terms of literary function, this short paragraph explains the disappearance of Barnabas while introducing “Silas” (15:40), a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:27), as Paul’s new missionary partner.

16:1–5. After arriving at Lystra and visiting the converts of his earlier missionary journey, Paul decides to bring Timothy along as he travels farther west. Luke describes Timothy’s mother as a Jew, his father as a Greek (16:1). Paul’s ministry among the Gentiles has already generated some criticisms among “the circumcision party” (11:2; 15:1). These criticisms led to the convening of the Jerusalem Council (15:6–29), which decided that Gentiles did not have to be circumcised in order to be saved. Paul’s act here focuses on the Jewish identity of Timothy. On the one hand, Paul’s decision to circumcise Timothy (16:3) shows that he is not opposed to the practices of the Jews. On the other hand, Paul makes it clear that he circumcises Timothy not because this is a requirement for Timothy to participate in God’s people but rather because Paul does not want to offend the Jews in those places. This brief account, then, only confirms the decision reached by the Jerusalem Council (16:4).

Paul’s Second Missionary Journey

16:6–10. When Paul and his companions move beyond “the region of Phrygia and Galatia” (16:6), an area that may refer to the places Paul visited in his first journey (13:15–14:20), they are prohibited by the Holy Spirit from preaching in both the province of Asia to the west and the province of Bithynia to the north (16:6–7). They then travel to Troas, where Paul has a vision in which a man begs them to come to Macedonia (16:9). In this account, which introduces a new direction of the Pauline mission, Luke emphasizes the role of God through the appearance of the “Holy Spirit” (16:6), the “Spirit of Jesus” (16:7), and a “vision” (16:10). The redirection through divine intervention recalls a similar description in the exodus event when God redirects his people according to his own plan (Ex 13:17–18).

Timothy becomes an important figure in Paul’s ministry (Ac 16:1–3; 17:14, 15; 18:5; 19:22; 20:4), as evidenced by Paul’s numerous references to Timothy throughout his letters, as well as the two letters addressed to Timothy preserved in the NT. He is considered by Paul to be his “coworker” (Rm 16:21; cf. 1 Th 3:2), his “brother” (1 Co 16:11; 2 Co 1:1; Col 1:1; Phm 1), and even his “son” or “child” (1 Co 4:17; Php 2:22; 1 Tm 1:2, 18; 2 Tm 1:2).

The sudden appearance of the first-person plural pronoun “we” in reference to the traveling of Paul and his companions (16:10) introduces the first of a series of we-passages (16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). These passages can best be explained by the fact that Luke himself is among the companions of Paul in these sections of his journeys. These passages also point to the significance of eyewitness reports in his narrative (cf. Lk 1:2).

16:11–15. After arriving in Macedonia, Paul and his companions travel to Philippi (16:12). The “place of prayer” (16:13) that they visit on the Sabbath may be a synagogue. Here occurs the conversion of Lydia, a “God-fearing” woman (16:14), a description that applies to Gentile half-proselytes like Cornelius who worship the God of Israel (10:2). The social status of Lydia is emphasized in a number of ways. First, purple clothing belongs to the wealthy (Lk 16:19). The fact that Lydia is a “dealer in purple cloth” (16:14) reflects her exalted social status. Second, the mentioning of “her household” (16:15) may point to her status as a widow, but her possession of a household shows that she is not a poor widow. Moreover, her invitation to Paul and his companions to stay with her also reflects that she is a person of means.

16:16–18. Lydia’s status as a wealthy and independent woman is contrasted with that of the “slave girl” who is manipulated by her owner (16:16). In this first explicit exorcism account in Acts, one finds a surprising confession by the evil spirit through this girl (16:17). While she is a slave of the evil spirit, she recognizes that the apostles are “servants of the Most High God,” a title that points to the supreme authority of God and the risen Lord (cf. 7:48). The word “way” in “way of salvation” also correctly points to the eschatological saving acts of God through Jesus Christ (cf. Lk 3:4). Among such acts is the releasing of those who are enslaved to the power of evil. This is precisely what this slave girl experiences when the evil spirit is cast out in the name of Jesus Christ (16:18).

16:19–34. In reaction to this demonstration of power, Paul and Silas are persecuted and imprisoned (16:19–24). While they are in prison, they are once again delivered by the power of God (16:25–26). The deliverance of the slave girl from the power of the evil spirit and the deliverance of Paul and Silas from prison both testify to the liberating power of the work of God and the fulfillment of Isaiah’s promise (Is 58:6; 61:2; see Lk 4:18–19).

While Paul and Silas remain in prison even after the miraculous earthquake that forces open the prison doors (16:26–28), it is the jailer who realizes that he needs to be saved (16:29–30). The ones in physical chains are able to deliver a message that frees the jailer from the chains of darkness (16:31–33).

16:35–40. The relationship between Rome and the early Christian movement begins to take center stage when Luke introduces Philippi as “a Roman colony” (16:12), although other cities to which Paul has already been were also Roman colonies (e.g., Pisidian Antioch, Lystra). The significance of this fact is made clear when Paul and Silas later refuse to just walk out of the prison because they have been treated unfairly in light of their status as Roman citizens (16:37). Although they are accused of “promoting customs that are not legal for . . . Romans to adopt or practice” (16:21), they have proven to be law-abiding Roman citizens and are finally escorted from their unjust treatment (16:39). [Roman Prisons]

17:1–3. After Paul and Silas leave Philippi, they pass through several cities on the Egnatian Way and arrive at Thessalonica, the capital of the province of Macedonia (17:1). The fact that Paul goes into a Jewish synagogue, “as usual” (17:2), shows that he still insists on preaching to the Jews even though he has constantly been persecuted by some of them. The summary statement of his preaching (17:3) apparently presupposes the knowledge of his synagogue sermon elsewhere (cf. Ac 13:16–41), but this summary itself is important in that it points to the death and resurrection of Jesus as the center of the gospel message. Moreover, his explanation points again to the necessity of Christ’s suffering (cf. Lk 9:22; 13:33; 17:25; 24:7, 26, 44–46), which provides continuity between his own mission (Ac 9:16) and the ministry of the earthly Jesus.

17:4–9. As in the previous instances (cf. 13:43–45; 14:1–2), Paul’s preaching of the gospel also provokes a divided response (17:4–5). Neither the identity of the converts nor that of Jason, who has welcomed the apostles into his house, is discussed further. The focus is rather on the charge against these apostles and their followers (17:7). This accusation resembles those made against Jesus (Lk 23:2) during his trial. While Paul and his companions never preach the existence of an earthly political kingdom that challenges the Roman Empire, it is true that Jesus is indeed “the king,” as Jesus himself admitted (Lk 23:3). This charge of subverting the claims of the Roman imperial system moves beyond the accusations at Philippi (16:21). The Jews realize that while they have not been able to deter the growth of the early Christian movement, they can use the power and fears of the Roman provincial officials to oppose this movement.

17:10–15. Paul and Silas’s experience in Berea is more pleasant, as many Jews and Gentiles accept the gospel. In the eyes of Luke, these Bereans are “of more noble character” (17:11a); thus a lack of noble character is ascribed to those who oppose the gospel message. These Bereans are noble because they have “examined the Scriptures daily to see if these things were so” (17:11b). This description points not only to their serious attitude when they receive the message but also to the intimate relationship between the gospel and the OT Scriptures. Jesus fulfills the plan of God, and a proper understanding of the gospel requires a proper reading of the Scriptures of Israel. When the Jews from Thessalonica cause unrest, Paul is led out of the city and sent to Athens (17:13–15).

17:16–21. Paul’s stay in Athens, a city with rich cultural and intellectual history, provides an occasion for him to preach directly to the Gentiles who are not affiliated with the Jewish synagogues (17:16–34). The theme of this major speech is introduced by a note that Paul “was deeply distressed when he saw that the city was full of idols” (17:16). [The Greco‐Roman Religious Setting of the New Testament]

The Egnatian Way. Paul would likely use this road segment in his travels from Neapolis to Philippi and then on to Thessalonica.

Paul is confronted by Epicurean and Stoic philosophers (17:18). The Epicureans affirmed a thoroughly materialistic worldview and saw the acquisition of pleasure as the highest principle. The Stoics affirmed a pantheistic worldview and saw reason as the underlying principle of both society and the cosmos. While these two schools diverged in their understanding of the world and the place of humans in such a universe, they both wrestled with a way to explain reality. These attempts were deemed necessary in light of the diminishing influences of the classical Olympian deities and of the mythologies that sought to explain the practices attached to the worship of these deities. When Paul preaches the good news about Jesus and his resurrection (17:18), these philosophers naturally question him, especially since this Jesus seems to be a foreign deity. The “Areopagus” in 17:19 could refer to a particular location (Mars Hill) or to a council that meets there.

17:22–34. In his speech, Paul begins by referring to an altar “to an Unknown God” (17:23) that is erected in Athens. Then Paul draws on OT anti-idol polemic in response to the religiosity of the Athenians. First, God is the one “who made the world and everything in it” (17:24; cf. Is 42:5). Since God is the Creator of all, he “does not live in shrines made by hands” (cf. Lv 26:1, 30; Is 10:11; 46:6; see also Ac 7:48). Moreover, 17:29 recalls Dt 29:15–16, which describes the idols in the land of Egypt, and Is 40:18–20, which describes the construction of idols. Finally, as in OT anti-idol polemic, Paul affirms the authority and power of God over all the nations (17:26–27). This God of all nations “commands all people everywhere to repent” (17:30) because he will be the judge of all (17:31).

At the end of the speech, Paul moves beyond the OT in drawing attention to the climactic event in salvation history—the resurrection of Jesus (17:31). It is the mentioning of this event that caused the Athenians to sneer at him earlier (17:18), but Paul emphasizes that this is precisely the proof that all human beings will eventually be judged.

Paul refers to a day when God “is going to judge the world in righteousness” (Ac 17:30–31). On this judgment day, all human beings will face their day in court. It will be a day of wrath, when God’s righteous anger against sin is fully displayed (Rm 2:5). The book of Revelation concludes with a harrowing vision of the final judgment, when God sits on his great white throne and holds court, and the dead rise and answer for their deeds, whether good or bad (Rv 20:11–13).

As Paul draws from the OT traditions, one also finds phrases from the Greek writers. In 17:28, Paul explicitly points to the “poets” that they are familiar with. “We are also his offspring” came from Aratus (Phaenomena 5), while the earlier statement “For in him we live and move and have our being” resembles a phrase from Epimenides’s Cretica. Paul’s quotations from the Greek poets points to his educational background and his attempt to establish connecting points with an audience whose cultural background is not identical to his.

18:1–4. Leaving Athens, Paul travels west to the Roman city of Corinth (18:1), the capital city of Achaia, whose political and economic influence surpassed that of Athens. As a city that boasted two significant harbors, Cenchreae, which led to the Greek East, and Lechaion, which led to Italy, Corinth was also a significant cultural center. This helps explain why Paul would spend a year and a half in this city (18:11).

Acts 18:2–3 provides significant historical details for this narrative. First, Aquila is introduced as “a Jew” (18:2). This can refer to Aquila as part of the target of Paul’s preaching (18:4), but it more likely aims at explaining Aquila and his wife Priscilla’s move to Corinth. This note also introduces an important couple in the ministry of Paul (see 18:18–19, 26; cf. Rm 16:3; 1 Co 16:19; 2 Tm 4:19). Second, while explaining Aquila and Priscilla’s presence in Corinth, Luke points to the edict of Claudius that forced “all the Jews to leave Rome” (18:2). This edict is mentioned by Suetonius (Life of Claudius 25.4), who notes that Jews were expelled from Rome because of Chrestus, a reference that probably points to the unrest caused by the preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ. This edict can be dated to AD 49, which provides a key date to anchor the events of Acts within the wider historical setting. Third, this passage describes Paul as a “tentmaker” (18:3), a term that can refer to a variety of occupations related to textiles. Paul is not “idle” when he visits the various communities (2 Th 3:11; cf. 1 Th 5:14; 2 Th 3:6–7), nor does he preach the gospel for his own profit and benefit.

18:5–8. Paul’s experience in Corinth is consistent with his previous receptions, with the Jews rejecting the gospel and opposing him. That Paul “shook out his clothes” in protest (18:6) recalls Jesus’s earlier instruction to his disciples (Lk 9:5; cf. 10:11) and Paul’s earlier act in response to Jewish opposition in Pisidian Antioch (Ac 13:51). Paul’s statement that follows explains this act. “Your blood is on your own heads” evokes the language of the OT (Jos 9:24; 2 Sm 1:16; 1 Kg 2:33), and “I am innocent” points to the responsibility of the Jews for their rejection of the gospel. Paul’s claim to go to the Gentiles (18:6) likewise recalls his earlier statement in 13:46; as in the earlier episode, this is not an indication of his giving up on the Jews (cf. 18:19, 26; 19:8).

18:9–17. The vision from the risen Lord (18:9–10) provides an introduction to the judgment of Paul before Gallio (18:12), the proconsul of Achaia in AD 51–52. “Don’t be afraid” (18:9) evokes the “fear not” formula that is often used in divine war contexts when God promises to fight for his people (cf. Nm 21:34; Dt 3:2; Jos 8:1–2). The risen Lord promises Paul that he will be present with him as he struggles against those who oppose the work of God (18:10). The fact that Gallio dismisses the case the Jews have brought against Paul fulfills the promise made by the risen Lord (18:14–16). Gallio’s verdict is important in that the early Christian movement is not to be considered a subversive sect but is seen as related to Judaism, a religion approved by Rome. This verdict shows that even the Roman officials are but an instrument of God as he reveals his glory to the ends of the earth (cf. Ac 4:28).

18:18–22. Luke’s description of Paul’s return to Antioch provides the itinerary of Paul to Antioch through Ephesus, Caesarea, and Jerusalem. This brief account serves two additional functions. First, it emphasizes Paul’s connection with the Jewish believers and the Jerusalem church. The “vow” (18:18) that Paul takes most likely refers to a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:1–21). Paul’s cutting off his hair is probably an act prior to the observance of the vow that ends when he has his hair “shaved” (Ac 21:24; cf. Nm 6:18). Luke does not provide the occasion for this vow, but this brief note emphasizes Paul’s adherence to Jewish traditions. The note that he went to Jerusalem to greet the church (18:22) also highlights his connection with the center of Jewish Christianity. Second, this account introduces Paul’s return to Ephesus during his third missionary journey. In 18:21, he evokes his obedience to God’s will in his plan to return. His eventual return to Ephesus (18:24–19:41) is therefore to be understood as dictated by the will of God.

D. Paul’s third missionary journey (18:23–21:16). 18:23–28. The account of Paul’s third missionary journey begins with a note on Paul’s travels through the region of Galatia and Phrygia (18:23). The focus of the first episode in this section is, however, on a native of Alexandria who has moved to Ephesus. Apollos is described as an eloquent and learned man (18:24). He knows only John’s baptism, but the fact that he has been instructed “in the way of the Lord” and he teaches accurately about Jesus suggests that he is at least a believer (18:25). Whatever is missing in his knowledge and experience is amended by the teaching ministries of Priscilla and Aquila (18:26). [Faith]

19:1–7. When Paul himself arrives at Ephesus, he confronts a group of disciples who have not received the Holy Spirit (19:1–2). Paul then places his hands on them, and they receive the Holy Spirit, which is confirmed by their ability to speak in tongues and to prophesy (19:6). This brief account highlights the significance of Paul and his message. Paul’s role here parallels that of the Jerusalem apostles in the earlier description of the Samaritans’ reception of the Holy Spirit (8:19), as the Spirit descends on the believers through his placing his hands on them. The emphasis is on the continuation of the Jerusalem church and the mission to the Gentiles. The message Paul preaches is also of significance. Because the disciples in Ephesus did not receive the Holy Spirit (19:2), Paul preaches to them, and they are baptized in the name of Jesus (19:5), and then the Holy Spirit comes on them (19:6). The reception of the Spirit is then equated with submission to the lordship of Jesus.

Paul’s Third Missionary Journey

19:8–10. In the summary statement that follows, Paul again faces opposition from those who oppose “the Way” (19:9). Significantly, it is through his ministry in Ephesus that “all the residents of Asia” heard the word of the Lord (19:10). This statement points to the strategy of Paul’s missions. He would often spend considerable time in key cities of the region (e.g., Antioch, Corinth, Ephesus), and his preaching would affect those living in the entire region. This note also signifies the reversal of the prohibition in 16:6, in that the word has finally reached those who live in the province of Asia. The phrase “Jews and Greeks” (19:10) also points to the universal focus of the eschatological gospel.

19:11–16. Luke’s account of Paul’s ministries in Ephesus focuses on two episodes, the first of which points to the superiority of the name of Jesus (19:11–20). Luke begins with a description of the work of God through Paul as he effortlessly heals the sick and casts out demons (19:11–12). Such acts of power attract the attention of the seven sons of the Jewish high priest Sceva, who have been trying to use the name of Jesus but have failed to produce any results (19:13–14). More important, the evil spirit admits that he knows only Jesus and Paul (19:15). This episode draws a line between the Jews and the apostles. Even the sons of a Jewish high priest cannot compete with the apostles, who preach in the name of Jesus. The failure of these Jews even when they invoke the name of the Lord Jesus (19:13) also shows that the power of the apostles does not lie simply in a magical formula, as the earlier description of Simon the Sorcerer demonstrates (cf. 8:18–23).

19:17–20. The ministry of the apostles is also distinguished from the work of the pagan magicians. When these magicians burn their books (19:19), they acknowledge that the apostles are not simply magicians like them. This episode, which focuses squarely on the exalted status of the name of the Lord Jesus (19:17), paves the way for the next event, which describes the demise of Artemis. This manifestation of the power of God among both Jews and Gentiles is but an example of how “all the residents of Asia, both Jews and Greeks,” witness God’s power (19:10).

The appearance of the last of the three similarly worded summary statements, in 19:20, is noteworthy. As the previous statements provided a conclusion to the stage of the mission of the apostles in Jerusalem (6:7) and Judea and Samaria (12:24), this statement provides a concluding note to the Gentile mission of Paul at the end of his third missionary journey. Not only is the growth of the word of the Lord noted, but the term “prevailed,” which is often employed in military contexts in Hellenistic literature, describes the word’s victorious advance. In spite of opposition, this powerful word is able to conquer the world.

19:21–34. Sending Timothy and Erastus to Macedonia (19:21–22), Paul stays behind in Ephesus. There he witnesses a great disturbance caused by those who see Paul’s message as a challenge to the cult of Artemis (19:23–41). In this second event in Ephesus that Luke chooses to focus on, one again finds a challenge to “the Way” (19:23). Through the mouth of the silversmith Demetrius, the ministry of Paul is described as undermining idols and foreign gods (19:26). Although the rest of the narrative in Ac 19 does not portray the collapse of the cult of Artemis, the assertion that Paul’s ministry will bring the magnificence of Artemis to the verge of ruin (19:27) points to the power of the word of God. [The Cult of Artemis]

In the midst of this disturbance, the Jews in the crowd push Alexander to the front (19:33). Most commentators understand Alexander as a Jew who represents the Jewish community in an attempt to dissociate themselves from the Christians. Although both the Jews and the Christians opposed the worship of idols, the Jews feel the need to make a distinction between themselves and the Christians. The Romans, however, consider this too fine a distinction to make. Therefore, when they realize that Alexander is a Jew, they ignore him and continue to shout praises to their goddess (19:34).

The rampaging crowd rushes Paul’s companions Gaius and Aristarchus into the amphitheater, seeking action against them (Ac 19:29). The theater in Ephesus (shown here) could seat twenty-four thousand people.

19:35–41. The response of the city clerk reflects his confidence in the strength of the Artemis cult. The statement that Artemis “fell from heaven” (19:35) is a response to Paul’s claim that Artemis is no more than a man-made object of worship, although this may also reflect myths related to this goddess. The center of his argument lies in the political consequences this riot might have (19:38–40). Those who oppose Paul should bring their cases to the proper authorities because the continuation of such a riot will only lead to the intervention of the Romans. After all, one of the primary functions of a provincial governor is to secure the social and political stability of a region.

20:1–4. After the unrest in Ephesus, Paul travels through Macedonia and Greece and decides to travel back through Macedonia because of a plot against him (20:1–3). In this brief account, a considerable amount of space is spent on introducing those who accompany Paul on his journey back. These include Sopater from Berea, Aristarchus (Ac 19:29; 27:2; cf. Col 4:10; Phm 24) and Secundus from Thessalonica, Gaius from Derbe, Timothy from Lystra (Ac 16:1–3), Tychicus (cf. Eph 6:21; Col 4:7; 2 Tm 4:12; Ti 3:12) and Trophimus (Ac 21:29; cf. 2 Tm 4:20) from Asia (20:4). This list points not only to the success of Paul’s missions but also to Paul’s strategy as he trains up leaders from various locales. Moreover, the delegation from churches in different regions may represent the widespread concern of the Gentile churches for the saints in Jerusalem, underscored by the fact that this is a journey to bring back the collection from the Gentiles to the Jerusalem church (cf. Rm 15:25–33).

20:5–12. The incident in Troas provides a glimpse of a local worshiping community. Paul speaks to and breaks bread with a group that meets in a room “on the first day of the week” (20:7; cf. 1 Co 16:2). In its context, then, this account may serve as an introduction to Paul’s farewell address that follows, as well as his journey back to Jerusalem. This function is made clear by a number of parallels with the account of Jesus with his disciples right before his arrest (Lk 22:7–46). Paul starts his journey back to Jerusalem after the Festival of Unleavened Bread (20:6), and the account of the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples is situated during the Day of Unleavened Bread (Lk 22:7). Eutychus sinks “into a deep sleep” (20:9), and the disciples also fail to stay awake during a critical moment (Lk 22:45). Jesus travels to Jerusalem to suffer, and Paul also travels to Jerusalem with the full realization of his impending suffering (cf. Ac 21:4, 10–11). Jesus delivers his farewell address after breaking bread with his disciples (Lk 22:14–28), and Paul will also deliver his farewell address (Ac 20:22–35) after the act of breaking bread (20:11). Paul’s raising Eutychus from the dead “on the first day of the week” may also remind the audience of Jesus’s own resurrection (cf. Lk 24:1). What is striking is that while Jesus—who has the power of resurrection—is willing to go to the cross, Paul—who is able to deliver Eutychus from the dead (20:10)—is also willing to suffer at the hands of those who oppose the gospel of the risen Lord.

20:13–17. When Paul travels from Troas to Miletus (20:13–16), Luke again highlights the goal of the journey by noting that Paul decides to pass by Ephesus because “he was hurrying to be in Jerusalem” (20:16).

In Miletus, however, Paul sends for the elders of the church of Ephesus and delivers a farewell speech (20:17). In this context, the speech not only provides a concluding note to Paul’s ministry in Ephesus but also aims at introducing a different stage of his ministry, as he is transformed from a traveling missionary to a prisoner of the Romans. As in other farewell speeches (cf. Gn 49:1–32; Lk 22:13–28), this speech provides a review of the ministry of a central character. The focus is not on the individual, however, but on the community that will survive after the character passes from the scene.

20:18–24. In his review of his labors in the province of Asia (20:18–21), Paul points to his status as a slave, serving the Lord with “all humility” and “tears” (20:19). This “humility,” not simply an attitude, is the actual experience of being humiliated for the sake of the gospel. The connection between the preaching of the gospel and the suffering he endures not only evokes the call on his journey to Damascus (9:15–16) but also serves as an example to those who follow him.

Paul Travels from Troas to Miletus

To fulfill his call, Paul will travel to Jerusalem with the full awareness of the “chains and afflictions” awaiting him (20:22–23). Through such hardships, however, he will carry the name of Jesus “to Gentiles, kings, and Israelites” (9:15), as the narrative that follows testifies.

20:25–31. Shifting his focus to the community of believers, Paul warns them of the challenges they will face. He first urges them to be shepherds of their flock (20:28), a set of metaphors often used in depicting the relationship between God and his people (cf. Pss 80:1; 95:7; Is 40:11; Jr 23:2–3; Ezk 34:8, 12; Zch 10:3). In this context, Paul is urging the elders to carry on the work that God has already accomplished through the death of his Son on the cross. Paul then warns them of the wolves that are to come (20:29). These wolves are the enemies of God (cf. Ezk 22:27; Hab 1:8; Zph 3:3); but what is striking is that some of these wolves are from among them. This prophetic note is again fulfilled, as Paul’s own epistles testify. [Pastor]

20:32–38. Finally, Paul commends these elders to the power of God (20:32–35). Paul fully realizes that the power to protect one’s flock does not reside in the inherent virtue and power of the elders. Paul points rather to God and to the word of his grace that can build up the church (20:32). In depicting God and his word in parallel terms, Paul is affirming that the powerful word that has conquered the world (cf. 19:20) will sustain th community that it creates. Moreover, “the word of his grace” points to the word of his power because “grace” can point to the power of God (cf. Lk 4:22; Ac 6:8). As the mighty God in the past was able to lead his people into the promised land, the “inheritance” that had been promised to them (20:32; cf. Gn 15:7; Ex 6:8; 15:17; Dt 1:8; Jos 11:23), God and his powerful word will also be able to give them the “inheritance” that his prophets have prophesied (Is 49:8).

In his farewell to the Ephesian elders, Paul predicts that false teachers will emerge from the church leadership (Ac 20:29–30). This is exactly the problem Paul addresses in 1 Timothy (e.g., 1 Tm 1:3–7).

21:1–7. After his farewell speech, Paul continues his journey to Jerusalem. The first few verses provide yet another detailed itinerary, as Paul and his companions travel through Cos, Rhodes, Patara, and Phoenicia and arrive at Tyre (21:1–3). There disciples confirm what the Holy Spirit has already told Paul: he will face hardships in Jerusalem (21:4; cf. 20:23).

In this context, it is best to understand the role of the Holy Spirit as revealing what is going to happen (cf. 21:11–15), and the disciples infer from what the Spirit has revealed that Paul should not go on to Jerusalem. Paul’s decision to move forward is therefore not in defiance of the Spirit; on the contrary, he is following “the Lord’s will” as he travels to Jerusalem (21:14). As he leaves Tyre, he prays with all the disciples (21:5), an act that highlights the significance of the event (Lk 3:21–22; 6:12; 9:28). As a prayer before his arrest, this prayer also resembles Jesus’s Gethsemane prayer (Lk 22:39–46).

21:8. When they arrive at Caesarea, Luke and his companions stay at the house of Philip. Luke reminds readers of the earlier narrative of Philip by calling him an “evangelist,” a word whose verbal form has been used more than once in describing his ministries (8:12, 35, 40). Moreover, the phrase “one of the Seven” also points back to the choosing of the “seven men” in 6:3. The fact that Paul is now staying with Philip not only points to the unity of the missionaries who work in different regions but also testifies to the reconciliation between Paul and the ones he persecuted, especially as the ministries of Philip started, when the Jerusalem church suffered from the persecution carried out by Paul and other Jewish leaders in Jerusalem (8:1).

21:9–11. The prophecies of Philip’s four daughters and of Agabus point to the presence of the Holy Spirit with the church and with Paul in particular as he moves toward Jerusalem. Luke’s calling the daughters of Philip “virgin” (21:9) may recall the “virgin” Mary (Lk 1:27), who likewise utters words of prophecy (Lk 1:46–55). In this context, however, the word “virgin” most likely refers to their status as “daughters” of Philip, thus fulfilling the prophecy of Joel as noted in Peter’s Pentecost speech (Ac 2:17; see Jl 2:28). The prophecy of Agabus also resembles that of OT prophets, as he uses prophetic symbolic acts to demonstrate what will happen to Paul in Jerusalem (21:11; cf. Jr 19:1–15; Ezk 5:1–12). In OT prophetic tradition, these are efficacious acts that signify the beginning of a chain of events. The point is often to show that God is in control even in the midst of apparent chaos. In this context, Luke’s account of Agabus’s prophetic act is to emphasize that God is still in control even though his apostle is suffering at the hands of those who oppose him.

21:12–16. Paul’s response also recalls the journey of Jesus to the cross. Acts 21:13 recalls similar notes in Luke (Lk 9:21; 18:32). Acts 21:14 also points back to Jesus’s Gethsemane prayer (Lk 22:42). In light of such parallels, Luke is emphasizing that Paul’s suffering is part of the plan of God.

5. APPEAL TO CAESAR AND THE PROCLAMATION OF GOD’S KINGDOM (21:17–28:31)

A. Paul’s arrest and imprisonment in Jerusalem (21:17–23:35). 21:17–19. Luke’s account of Paul’s arrival at Jerusalem reflects both the warm welcome Paul receives and the tension that lies behind his reception (21:17–25). First, Luke emphasizes that the church welcomed them warmly (21:17). As in the past, Paul and his companions go to James and the elders and report to them what God has done among the Gentiles (21:18–19; cf. 14:27). These Jerusalem leaders respond by praising God (21:20), thus recognizing that what they have heard are indeed the mighty acts of God (Lk 5:25–26; 7:16; 13:13; 17:15; 18:43; 23:47; Ac 4:21; 11:18).

21:20–25. The Jerusalem leaders then report that the many Jews who are “zealous for the law” have been informed that Paul teaches “all the Jews who are among the Gentiles to abandon Moses” (21:20–21). Therefore, they request that Paul join four men in the purification rites in the temple and pay their expenses, to show that Paul is faithful to the Jewish customs (21:23–24). Two questions remain in this account. First, the exact nature of the rites to fulfill the vows and the reason why Paul has to fulfill the vows are left unexplained. Because of the note on the shaving of heads (21:24), it is possible that Luke is again referring to the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:1–21). Although the Mosaic regulations concerning this vow do not stipulate a purification rite, they do point to the need to remain in a state of purity (cf. Nm 6:9–12). Whether the Jerusalem leaders consider Paul unclean is not stated, but his act would at least show his observance of the Mosaic law.

The second question has to do with the position of the Jerusalem leaders. The fact that they do not stand up to defend Paul against false accusations may reflect their own doubt concerning his missionary practices. That none of these “many thousands” of Jewish believers (21:20) defend him when he is later arrested (cf. 21:27–36) only strengthens this suspicion. Luke does not encourage readers to doubt the sincerity of the Jerusalem believers here. What he emphasizes are Paul’s innocence and his willingness to follow the instructions for the sake of the gospel.

21:26–36. When the days of purification are nearly over, some Jews from Asia see Paul in the temple, stir up the crowd, and seize him (21:26–27). The accusation (21:28) recalls the accusation against Stephen in 6:13, but it is ironic to accuse Paul of this offense precisely when he is fulfilling his vow in the temple area. The additional charge that he has brought a Gentile into the temple area is also one based on false assumptions (21:29), although a Gentile who steps beyond the Court of the Gentiles is subject to death. The crowd then goes against Paul, but he is delivered by and falls into the custody of the “commander of the regiment” (21:31), a Roman tribune of a cohort of a thousand soldiers. As this commander is trying to find out what Paul has done, the crowd shouts, “Get rid of him!” (21:36), as the Jewish crowd did when they were trying to have Jesus put to death (Lk 23:18).

21:37–40. As Paul is taken by the soldiers, he is questioned whether he speaks Greek and whether he is the Egyptian who led a revolt in circa AD 54 (21:37–38). These questions imply that the soldiers have assumed him to be an uneducated rebel from the outlying regions of the Roman Empire. Paul identifies himself not only as a Jew but also a citizen of Tarsus (21:39; cf. 9:11, 30; 11:25). Being “a citizen of an important city” allows him to defend himself, and being a Jew allows him to address the crowd to clarify the charges launched against him (21:40).

22:1–5. In his first defense after his arrest, Paul provides a detailed account of his background, conversion, call, and subsequent vision that brings him to the land of the Gentiles (22:1–22). His addressing the crowd as “brothers and fathers” (22:1) reminds the readers of the speech of Stephen (cf. 7:2), one that is given under similar circumstances. As a “defense,” this becomes Paul’s first formal defense speech in Acts.

Paul begins by emphasizing his credentials as a pious Jew (22:3–5). Beyond merely growing up in Jerusalem and studying under the respected Gamaliel (cf. 5:34), he demonstrated his being “zealous for God” by his persecuting those who belong to the Way. While the Jews may be “zealous for the law” (21:20), Paul is equally zealous, but his zeal is directed toward God. In addition to the details contained in the earlier report in 9:1–2, Paul claims that he persecuted “to the death” (22:4). His connection with Jewish authority is further secured by his connection with the high priest and the council of elders (22:5).

22:6–16. Paul then describes his experience on the Damascus Road. Compared with his previous account (9:1–19), here Paul lays particular emphasis on the intense light able to impress him even around noon (22:6). In emphasizing the striking presence of the risen Lord, Paul highlights this experience as an epiphany. According to 9:7 and 22:9, Paul’s companions saw the light but not the risen Lord, and they failed also to comprehend the significance of the event. The fact that Paul emphasizes that they “saw the light” highlights the public reality of this event.

Instead of the reluctant messenger described in 9:10–14, Ananias is portrayed here as a devout man with a good reputation (22:12). The emphasis on the status of Ananias in the eyes of the Jews aims at situating both the conversion and the call of Paul within the work of God among his people. In both accounts, however, Ananias is the messenger through whom Paul’s mission is explained (22:14–16; cf. 9:15–17).

22:17–22. In this account, Paul inserts a report of the vision he had when he returned to Jerusalem. Significantly, he mentions Stephen, the one who has already been persecuted because of the name of Jesus. Paul calls Stephen a “witness” (Gk martys, 22:20). Paul is earlier called by the risen Lord to be his “witness” (martys, 22:15), and ironically his mission is to continue the work of one whose death he consented to (Ac 8:1).

The crowd is willing to listen to Paul’s conversion account, and they do not even object immediately to calling “Jesus of Nazareth” (22:8) the “Righteous One” (22:14), but when Paul mentions that he was sent “to the Gentiles” (22:21), the crowd erupts with anger (22:22). For hundreds of years, Jews had lived under Gentile rule. To many Jews the mission of the Messiah was to punish the Gentiles and deliver the Jews from their hands; instead of preaching a message against the Gentiles, however, Paul emphasizes that this Messiah is sending him to preach the good news among the Gentiles.

22:23–29. As the commander prepares to flog and question Paul (22:23–24), Paul again invokes his status as a Roman citizen (22:25–26; cf. 16:37). Luke does not explain the origin of his citizenship, but the fact that he was “born a citizen” (22:28b) may point to the contribution of his family to Rome or to the Roman army stationed near Tarsus. What Luke does emphasize is how Paul is in some way more honorable than the commander, who paid “a large amount of money” (22:28a) for his own citizenship, a practice not unheard of in the time of Paul. This claim of being a Roman citizen will pave the way for his later appeal to the Roman emperor (25:11). [Roman Citizenship]

22:30–23:3. To clarify the nature of the accusations made by the Jews, Paul is brought before the chief priests and the Sanhedrin (22:30). Paul’s opening words are significant (23:1). In stating that he has “lived [his] life before God,” Paul declares that he is directly responsible to God, not to those who claim to represent him. The note on his “good conscience” also highlights that he is responsible only to God. In the NT writings, this phrase refers to submission to the will and sovereignty of God (cf. 1 Tm 1:5, 19; 1 Pt 3:21). Finally, “to this day” also points to the consistency and determination of Paul (cf. 2:29; 26:22) as he aims at fulfilling God’s call. From this basis, Paul makes it clear that he is defending not merely himself but the God whom he preaches.

Apparently because of Paul’s claim in regard to his relationship with God, the high priest Ananias (AD 47–59) orders Paul to be struck on his mouth (23:2). In response, Paul says, “God is going to strike you” (23:3), a phrase that evokes a curse on those who are disobedient to God (cf. Dt 28:22). The label “whitewashed wall” points to his hypocrisy (Ezk 13:10–16; Mt 23:27–28; cf. Lk 11:37–44), a point made explicit when Paul further claims that Ananias violates the law he claims to uphold.

23:4–5. When Paul is accused of insulting “God’s high priest” (23:4), he claims he was ignorant that he was in the presence of the high priest. This statement should be understood as a veiled criticism of Ananias, who has failed to act as a faithful high priest of God. Similarly, though Paul’s citation of Ex 22:28 in his self-criticism (23:5) can be understood as expressing regrets, it can also point to his knowledge of and obedience to the Mosaic law, while the high priest himself is the one violating the law (cf. 23:3), thus not deserving to be treated as “a ruler of [God’s] people.”

23:6–10. The center of Paul’s defense lies in the issue of resurrection. While most of the council members would have been Sadducees (cf. 5:17), some Pharisees are also present because without them the common people would not support the decision of the council. Paul brings up the issue of resurrection (23:6) because he knows that the Pharisees believe in resurrection, angels, and spirits, though the Sadducees do not (Lk 20:27).

Luke repeatedly highlights the dissension that arises among the members of the council on the issue of resurrection (23:7, 9–10). The dissension among the Jews has been noted a number of times in Acts (2:12–13; 4:1–4; 5:12–18; 13:45–50; 14:1–7; 17:4–5, 12–14; 19:8–9); such dissension is in contrast to the unity of the church (1:14; 2:43–47; 4:24, 32–35; 5:12; 8:6; 15:25). In this context, the failure of the Jews to stand united in their interpretation of the law disqualifies them from judging Paul on the basis of the law, especially when the center of Paul’s preaching is precisely on the resurrection of Jesus.

23:11. The appearance of the risen Lord at this point affirms that God is present with Paul. The comforting words from the risen Lord also affirm that Paul is innocent in the eyes of God. The point of these trials is not, therefore, to determine Paul’s innocence but to bring him to Rome. That it is “necessary” (Gk dei) for Paul to testify about Jesus in Rome further gives meaning to the events that are about to transpire (23:12–22). The plot against Paul is now to be understood as within God’s plan in bringing Paul to Rome to testify to the power of the name of Jesus.

23:12–22. The conspiracy by the Jews to have Paul killed moves him one step closer on his way to Rome. In light of verse 11, the act of the Jews shows that they are indeed “fighting against God” (5:39). As Paul did earlier (9:1–2), these Jews also go “to the chief priests and elders” and conspire with them to oppose those belonging to the Way (23:14). Three times Luke mentions the oath they take (“under a curse,” 23:12–14, 21), presumably to show their determination to kill Paul. Their assumed failure to fulfill the oath also shows that they are the ones who are not faithful to the law (cf. Nm 30:2). Paul, though, has already proved that he is a faithful Jew by fulfilling a vow that he himself did not make (21:20–26).

23:23–35. The commander then decides to transfer Paul to Caesarea, the capital of the province of Judea. The 470 soldiers that are sent to protect Paul are about half of the cohort under this commander (23:23). The size of this force not only points to the significance of Paul the Roman citizen but also reflects the opinion of this commander that Paul has not committed any crime worthy of death, a point made explicit in the letter he writes (23:29). This declaration of innocence parallels a similar claim by Pontius Pilate concerning the crimes brought against Jesus (Lk 23:4, 14–15, 22), and it is the first in a series of similar declarations in Acts (cf. 25:18, 25; 26:31–32). [Herod’s Palace]

Omitting any reference to his intention to flog Paul (cf. 22:25), the commander, Claudius Lysias, writes that he has delivered Paul from the Jewish crowd because he knows of Paul’s status as a Roman citizen (23:27). In sending Paul and his accusers to Felix, he also transfers the responsibility to deal with this case to another Roman provincial official. Antonius Felix (23:26) was a Roman freedman whose ascent to power reflects the opportunities available to slaves of the Roman aristocrats. He was sent by Claudius to be the procurator of Judea, Samaria, Galilee, and Perea in AD 52–60 before he was replaced by Festus (cf. 24:27).

Roman governors like Pilate, Felix, and Festus used this palace in Caesarea Maritima as their primary residence when they were assigned to Israel. Paul was kept under guard at this palace during his two-year stay in this city.

B. Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea (24:1–26:32). 24:1–3. The trial before Felix (24:1–27) provides one of the most detailed accounts in Acts of the formal interaction between plaintiff, defendant, and judge. The charges against Paul are presented by Tertullus, a legal advocate who represents Ananias and other elders of the council (24:1). Tertullus begins by praising Felix for his accomplishments and his care for the Jewish people (24:2–3). While such flattery is not unexpected in a speech of this nature, Tertullus’s praise (24:2) moves beyond any reasonable perception of reality. Not only were there revolutionary movements during his reign, but Felix was also accused of being ruthless in his dealings with his subjects.

24:4–9. The center of Tertullus’s charge against Paul is that he stirs up riots everywhere (24:5a), he is the leader of “the sect of the Nazarenes” (24:5b), and he “tried to desecrate the temple” (24:6). Like those who accused Jesus (Lk 23:2), Tertullus understands that Felix cares about only the maintenance of political stability. The threat of riots and the existence of a political “sect” that is influential everywhere certainly deserve serious consideration. Moreover, the charge of the desecration of the temple also threatens the stability of a state where the centrality of the temple as a political institution has long been recognized, even by the Roman governors. In a brief paragraph, therefore, Tertullus is able to outline the threat Paul poses to Felix and his rule.

24:10–13. In response, Paul provides a defense that links his acts with the gospel he preaches (24:10–21). First, he begins by noting that Felix has been “a judge of this nation for many years” (24:10). It is noteworthy that Paul does not mention any of Felix’s deeds as a benefactor of the Jewish people. The reference to “many years” may be explained by the fact that Felix is said to have been involved in the governing of the province when Cumanus was a procurator in AD 48–52. In appealing to his experience in this province, Paul attempts to reveal the weaknesses of Tertullus’s argument.

24:14–16. The focus of Paul’s speech is, however, a confession of a different sort. What he admits is that he worships the God of Israel, he is faithful to Israel’s tradition, and he hopes for a resurrection (24:14–15). In this way, Paul turns this defense speech into a testimony to the work of God through Jesus, who is the first one to be raised from the dead (cf. 24:21). In his Areopagus speech, which was also addressed to a Gentile audience (17:22–31), Paul raised the issue of resurrection when he noted that through this resurrected one God is going to judge the world (17:31). In this speech before Felix, the phrase “a resurrection, both of the righteous and the unrighteous” (24:15) also alludes to the future judgment, where God is the ultimate judge. In this sense, then, Paul is implying that although he is the one now being judged, the one who is accusing him and judging him will one day be judged by the God whom Paul preaches.

24:17–21. In the final part of his speech, Paul returns to the matter of his innocence. In highlighting his faithfulness to his tradition, Paul mentions that he came to Jerusalem “to bring charitable gifts” (24:17). This may be a reference to the collection from the Gentiles for the believers in Jerusalem (Rm 15:26; 1 Co 16:1–4; 2 Co 8–9; Gl 2:10). “To bring . . . offerings” (24:17) refers back to his presence in the temple to accompany others in fulfilling their vows (21:26). Paul then points to the Jews from Asia (24:19) as responsible for stirring up the crowd. This section of the speech is linked with the previous section by yet another reference to resurrection (24:21). Paul again admits that he is guilty only of one charge: preaching the resurrection of Jesus.

24:22–26. Felix’s response reflects his weakness, as he refuses to declare Paul innocent (24:22–23). Felix returns with his wife Drusilla (24:24a). According to Josephus, Drusilla was a Jew who was persuaded to leave her own husband and marry Felix. If Luke and his readers were aware of this, the sudden appearance of Drusilla may enhance the ironic effect: the one who has been unfaithful to the law is now the judge concerning matters of the law.

In this second meeting, Paul again testifies to his faith in Jesus Christ (24:24b). Instead of Paul, it is Felix who is afraid (24:25), when he realizes that he may one day be judged. Luke concludes his depiction of Felix by noting that he is hoping for a bribe from Paul (24:26). In light of Luke’s discussion of possessions elsewhere (e.g., Lk 5:11; 11:39; 12:13–21; Ac 1:18; 5:1–11), Felix’s act is to be understood as a reflection on his character.

24:27–25:5. With Festus succeeding Felix (24:27), Paul finds himself being tried by yet another Roman procurator (25:1–22). Porcius Festus was the procurator in Judea for only two years (ca. AD 60–62) before his death. Josephus credits him with maintaining peace in Judea by controlling the activities of revolutionaries. The political situation quickly deteriorated after Festus was replaced with others far less sensitive to Jewish law and custom. His ability to control his subjects is reflected in this brief account of his interaction with Jewish leadership (25:1–5), where he refuses to have Paul transferred to Jerusalem as suggested by the Jewish leaders who plan to kill him during the transfer. This account also points to the heightened tension between Paul and the Jews, as their leaders are now personally involved in the plot to have him murdered. [Caesarea]

25:6–12. Paul’s appearance before Festus again emphasizes the failure of the Jews to prove their charges against him (25:7). Luke’s summary of Paul’s defense (25:8) repeats his earlier claims that he has not done anything against the Jewish law (cf. 22:23; 24:14) or against the temple (24:12). In this context, however, Paul adds that he has not done anything against Caesar.

The focus on Caesar in this account is enhanced by two other references in Paul’s response to Festus about standing trial in Jerusalem (25:9). First, Paul recognizes the authority of Festus as an agent of the Roman imperial system, and he would rather be tried under this system than by those who claim to be faithful to the law of God. Acts 25:10 again points to the plan of God to have Paul appear before “Gentiles, kings, and Israelites” (9:15). Second, it is in this context that Paul explicitly appeals to Caesar (25:11). This provision to appeal to the Roman emperor, which was available only to Roman citizens, is one of the provisions instituted by Augustus in 18 BC. This provision also allowed the Roman emperor to have direct control of the provinces since provincial officials ceased to be considered the final authority. Provincial officials who failed to acknowledge such rights of Roman citizens were liable to death. In this context, the emperor to whom Paul was appealing would have been Nero (AD 54–68).

25:13–22. Before Festus allows Paul to leave for Rome, he decides to first consult King Agrippa. This is Agrippa II, the son of King Herod Agrippa I (cf. 12:1, 19–25). Agrippa rose in power during the reign of Claudius, and under Nero he gained control over areas surrounding Judea and Samaria. Traditions point to his incestuous relationship with his sister Bernice (25:13).

In his report to Agrippa, Festus emphasizes his adherence to proper legal procedures as well as his effectiveness as a judge (25:16–17). Festus concludes that the charges have to do with “their own religion” (25:19). Significantly, while the issue of resurrection has already been brought up in Paul’s defenses (23:6–8; 24:15, 21), Festus specifically points to “a certain Jesus, a dead man Paul claimed to be alive” (25:19) as the center of Paul’s dispute with the Jewish leaders. Little does he know that Paul’s traveling to Rome allows him to continue to preach this gospel of the risen Lord at the center of the Roman Empire.

25:23–27. Paul’s trial before Agrippa begins with Festus’s presentation of Paul and the charges brought against him. This presentation makes three significant points. First, Paul is opposed by “the whole Jewish community” (25:24). This is consistent with Luke’s portrayal of these Jews as being like their ancestors in their opposition to the work of God and his prophets (cf. 7:51–52). Second, Festus again emphasizes that Paul does not deserve death (25:25). Third, this presentation indicates that the purpose of Paul’s appearance before Agrippa is to allow Festus to know exactly what he should write to the emperor when Paul is transferred to Rome (25:26–27).

26:1–3. Paul responds with yet another defense speech that points to the heart of the gospel he preaches (26:1–23). The note on Agrippa’s knowledge of “Jewish customs and controversies” (26:3) separates this ruler from the Roman procurators, who were often ignorant of and insensitive to the concerns of the Jews. In this speech, this note also suggests that Paul’s trial is concerned mainly with Jewish matters. In other words, he is not guilty of any of the political crimes with which he has been charged.

26:4–8. Paul begins by establishing his faithfulness to Jewish traditions. He has led an impeccable life as a faithful Jew (26:4) and as a Pharisee (26:5). Then he ties the gospel that he preaches to the hope of the twelve tribes of Israel (26:6–8). This claim is important for a number of reasons. First, Paul is claiming that the gospel is the fulfillment of God’s promises to Israel (cf. Lk 2:25, 29–31; 16:16; 24:27, 44–49; Ac 3:18–26). To reject this gospel is to reject God’s promises. Second, the continuity with the traditions of Israel is emphasized by the term “twelve tribes” (26:7). Luke’s conscious use of the connotation of the number twelve has already been noted (see the commentary on 1:15–26), and here it points again to the continuity of Israel and the church. Third, in claiming that he is on trial because of this hope of Israel (26:6; cf. 28:20), Paul is also accusing the Jews of misunderstanding the plan of God (cf. 26:12–18). Fourth, Paul locates this hope in the fact that God raises the dead (26:8). Paul also made this link between hope and resurrection in his earlier defense speeches (23:6; 24:15), and here it becomes a key to his argument. This connection between hope and resurrection may be drawn from Ps 16:8–11, a passage quoted in Peter’s Pentecost speech (2:25–28).

26:9–18. After noting his efforts in persecuting the Christians in different cities (26:9–11), Paul returns to his Damascus Road experience (26:12–18). Compared with the previous accounts (9:1–31; 22:6–16), this one emphasizes the role of God in Paul’s conversion and call. The omission of Ananias focuses on the direct revelation from God apart from any human agency. The use of the Greek verb meaning “I have appeared” (26:16) in the mouth of the risen Lord may evoke divine epiphanies, when God shows his presence among his people (cf. Lk 9:31; 22:43; Ac 7:2). Moreover, the statement “It is hard for you to kick against the goads” (26:14) points to the futility of fighting against God. The point is clear: if Paul’s mission is ordained by God, opposing his ministry is fighting against God (cf. Ac 5:39).

26:19–23. The emphases on the role of God as well as the fulfillment of the OT are extended through Paul’s description of his ministry after his encounter with the risen Lord. His preaching is to turn people to God (26:20), and he experiences God’s help “to this very day” (26:22a). What he preaches is “nothing other than what the prophets and Moses said would take place” (26:22b). What Jews may find surprising is, again, Paul’s emphasis on Christ’s death and resurrection as the climax and fulfillment of God’s promises to Israel (26:23).

The continuity of Paul’s mission with OT promises is stressed by the concentration of OT phrases and expressions in the account of his conversion in Ac 26: “servant” (Ac 26:16; cf. Is 41:9; 42:1; 52:13), “witness” (Ac 26:16; cf. Is 43:10, 12; 44:8), “I will rescue you from your people” (Ac 26:17; cf. Jr 1:7–8, 19), “from darkness to light” (Ac 26:18; cf. Is 42:6; 49:6; Mc 7:8–9), and “forgiveness of sins” (Ac 26:18; cf. Is 58:6; 61:1).

26:24–32. In reaction to Paul’s speech, both Festus and Agrippa reject his message, but both fail to find him guilty of the charges brought against him (26:30–31). In response to Festus, who ironically claims that he is “out of [his] mind” (26:24), Paul states that he can “speak boldly” to him because all these things were “not done in a corner” (26:26). In this context, to “speak boldly” demonstrates the courage of the one who proclaims the truth, and “not done in a corner” points to the public nature of the content of his preaching. It is possible that Paul is evoking the model of an ideal philosopher in expressing how Christianity is not a sect that “agitat[es] among all the Jews throughout the Roman world” (24:5).

In response to Agrippa, who rightly realizes that Paul’s defense is a proclamation of the gospel (26:28), Paul also concedes that his concern is not with his freedom but with the spiritual state of his audience (26:29). While Agrippa’s final comment that Paul could have been set free had he not appealed to Caesar (26:32) rightly affirms Paul’s innocence, it also reflects Agrippa’s ignorance of God’s plan; Paul’s journey to Rome as a prisoner is indeed a way to fulfill Paul’s role as the ambassador of the gospel even to the center of the Roman world.

C. Paul’s voyage to Rome (27:1–28:16). 27:1–12. The first part of this account brings Paul from Caesarea to Crete. The sudden reappearance of “we” (27:1; cf. 21:18) probably helps explain the details in the following narrative. Also important is Julius the centurion, who will serve as both a guard and a witness to all that happens in this fateful journey to Rome. Paul’s companions also include soldiers (27:31), sailors (27:27, 30), and other prisoners on board (cf. 27:1, 42).

After a difficult journey from Sidon (27:3), they land in Fair Havens on the southern coast of Crete (27:8). Luke notes that it was after the Day of Atonement (27:9), in September-October. Paul warns them of impending disaster if they continue with their journey (27:10), but the centurion decides to follow the advice of others and insists on moving ahead (27:11). In the ancient Mediterranean region, late May to mid-September was considered a safe season for sea travel, and mid-November to mid-March was considered to be extremely dangerous. Paul’s journey would have been just past the safe season for traveling, and the fact that this journey would last for months (cf. 28:11) points to the risk in setting sail from Crete. The owner of the ship (27:11) insists on setting sail, likely because his ship transported grains from Egypt to Rome and to delay the trip for months would incur incredible loss. [Shipping in the Ancient World]

27:13–26. As Paul has predicted, they encounter a storm as soon as they leave Crete. When hope is fading that they will be saved (27:20), Paul reveals to them the vision that he has had (27:23–24). “Don’t be afraid” (27:24a) recalls the earlier words of comfort from the mouth of the risen Lord (18:9). Instead of a promise to be freed from the chains, Paul was promised that “it is necessary for [Paul] to appear before Caesar” (27:24a). The promise is comforting only when one realizes that Paul’s journey to Rome is not an accident in history but part of God’s plan. For the rest of those traveling with him, the second part of the vision is probably more encouraging (27:24b). The power of this prophecy lies in the fact that Paul’s earlier prediction has already been fulfilled (27:21; cf. 27:10).

27:27–38. As in the preceding account, Paul’s prophecy that “there will be no loss of any of your lives, but only of the ship” (27:22) is again fulfilled (27:27–44). The dire situation is dramatically illustrated by the attempt of the sailors to escape (27:30), but Paul stops them. Acts 27:34 points to their deliverance from this storm. Elsewhere in Luke, however, other “hair” references point to the significance of the salvation of one’s soul (cf. Lk 12:4–7; 21:16–19).

Paul’s Journey to Rome

The significance of the meal scene (27:33–35) has been a subject of debate. The taking of bread, giving thanks to God, and breaking it and eating it (27:35) recalls the Last Supper (Lk 22:19), but similar acts also appear in other Lukan meal scenes (cf. Lk 9:16; 24:30; cf. Ac 2:42, 46). Nevertheless, if the Last Supper is to serve as the key to understanding the other meal accounts, this meal may point specifically to the presence of God. Moreover, considering that numerous parallels do exist between the trials of Jesus and those of Paul, this meal may recall Jesus’s last meal with his disciples before his death on the cross.

27:39–44. After the ship runs aground, the soldiers are about to kill the prisoners, but the centurion stops them (27:41–43). Eventually, all the passengers on the ship are able to reach land safely (27:44). This again points to the fulfillment of the prophecy of Paul (27:22). These prophetic activities confirm Paul’s earlier defense that he is constantly benefiting from God’s help (26:22). If so, this would also point to his innocence. Throughout this shipwreck experience, however, Paul’s innocence is affirmed not by political rulers but by God himself. This focus on Paul’s innocence is explicitly noted in the next episode.

28:1–10. Coming on shore, Paul and those around him find themselves on Malta, an island about sixty miles south of Sicily (28:1). Their experience on this island centers on Paul being bitten by a viper (28:3). At first, the islanders think that he has been punished by “Justice” personified (28:4). When Paul survives without injuries (28:5), the islanders realize that he must not be guilty because he has survived not only the storm but also the viper attack. To Luke’s ancient readers, Paul’s deliverance from such calamities would prove that he is innocent in the eyes of God.

As in a previous account (14:8–20), Paul is considered to be a “god” (28:6). Luke again clarifies that Paul is simply the messenger of God by noting that Paul has to invoke the power of God through prayer (28:8) to heal those who are sick. Paul is in chains to the one who is able to free people from their chains of illness (28:9; cf. Lk 4:18–19). The remark that these islanders “heaped many honors on us” (28:10a) may point to their expression of gratitude through tangible gifts. The final phrase then should be read as an elaboration of the “honors” Paul and his companions receive (28:10b).

28:11–16. The final leg of the journey brings Paul from Malta to Rome (28:14). The ship they are in has “the Twin Gods” as its figurehead (28:11). Considered to be the sons of Zeus and Leda, these twin gods (Castor and Pollux) are venerated as the protectors on the sea. The previous account has made it clear, however, that it is the God that Paul worships who has protected them. The note that Paul thanked God (28:15) recalls his earlier act of thanksgiving during the storm (27:35); in both situations, Paul acknowledges God to be his ultimate guide and protector.

When Paul arrives in Rome, he finds a thriving church there. The church in Rome was most likely started by anonymous Christian missionaries or by Jewish Christians who had been in Jerusalem for Pentecost and returned to Rome. Paul expresses his desire to visit this church in his Letter to the Romans.

D. Paul’s proclamation of God’s kingdom in Rome (28:17–31). 28:17–23. After Paul has arrived in Rome, he calls together the leaders of the Jews and explains the false charges that have been launched against him (28:17–22). When they meet again on a certain day (28:23a), Paul again turns the defense of his own innocence into a defense of the gospel (28:23b). After noting their response, Paul utters a final word concerning the Jews who fail to receive the gospel (28:24–28). What is surprising about this sequence of events is that Paul no longer acts like a prisoner. Instead, he becomes the judge who summons people before him (28:17). His final word becomes the judgment against the Jews, who are found guilty before God. After Paul’s long journey to stand trial before the Roman emperor, what Luke emphasizes is not the final trial of Paul but the final trial of the Jews. The opinion of the Roman emperor is no longer important, but the status of the Jews before God again becomes the center of Luke’s attention.

28:24–25. In verses 24–25, Luke again focuses on the disagreement among the Jews (cf. the commentary on 23:6–10). This disagreement points to their failure to stand on the side of truth, and significantly, as they are about to leave, Paul’s final word of judgment is directed against both those who are persuaded by him and those who do not believe (28:24). The severity of this “one statement” is highlighted by Paul’s evocation of the Holy Spirit and the prophet Isaiah (28:25). Moreover, the change from “our ancestors” in the previous speech (28:17) to “your ancestors” (28:25) shows Paul’s distancing himself from this disobedient people of God.

28:26–29. Paul’s use of Is 6:9–10 in 28:26–27 points to the fact that these Jews are like their ancestors who refused to respond to God’s call to repentance. Isaiah employs anti-idol language in describing God’s people: as idols have eyes but do not see, have ears but do not hear, have mouths but do not speak, God’s people have become like the idols that they worship (cf. Pss 115:8; 135:15–18). Paul likewise accuses the Jews of their failure to worship the true God, who has sent his Messiah to suffer on the cross and to be raised from the dead. The quote from Isaiah is therefore not a curse but a statement of the consequence of their hardening of heart, rejecting God as their ancestors did.

The note that salvation will now go to the Gentiles (28:28) indicates the consequence of the Jewish rejection of the gospel. As in similar notes earlier in the narrative (13:46–47; 18:6), however, this does not aim at closing the door of salvation on the Jews. Just as Isaiah utters those harsh words in an attempt to urge God’s people to repent, so too Paul’s quote from Isaiah and his statement here in 28:28 should be considered a prophetic call for the people of God to repent.

28:30–31. Luke ends his narrative by noting that Paul was “proclaiming the kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ with all boldness and without hindrance” (28:31). At the center of the Roman Empire, where the emperor is honored as the Lord of all, Paul is proclaiming the existence of a different “kingdom” whose “Lord” is Jesus Christ himself. The gospel together with its claim of submission has finally reached the center of the world. Paul has also completed his call to carry the name of Jesus “to Gentiles, kings, and Israelites” (9:15).

The remains of the Roman forum. The forum was a center of Roman public life, worship, and government, with numerous temples and key administrative buildings gathered around a rectangular plaza.