2 Kings
2. FROM ELIJAH TO EXILE (2 Kg 1:1–25:30)
A. Chariots and fire (1:1–2:25). 1:1–2. Although the first chapter of 2 Kings begins with a notice about Moab’s rebellion (1:1), this thread will not be picked up until chapter 3. More pressing for the moment is Ahaziah’s awkward nosedive that reveals something about his character (1:2): he is not willing to consult the God of Israel but rather opts for an alternative deity, Baal-zebub (literally, “Lord of the Flies”; see the CSB footnote), here located in the Philistine city of Ekron, to learn his prospects for recovery.
1:3–12. The impotence of this god is further enhanced when Ahaziah’s messengers are intercepted by a prophet with a memo of doom for the king (1:3–6), and since Ahaziah is able to recognize Elijah from their description (1:7–8), the two must have had prior dealings. Not only is the bedridden Ahaziah under a death sentence; he is also singularly unsuccessful in bringing Elijah into custody. Instead of apprehending the prophet, two successive groups are arrested by fire at the top of a mountain (1:9–12), much like the sacrifice was consumed by fire on Mount Carmel back in 1 Kg 18.
1:13–18. The third captain has the sense to beg for mercy, and one gets the impression that if the angel of the Lord had not intervened, Elijah would have continued to call down fire (1:13–15). Ahaziah, like his father, tries in vain to nullify the prophetic word but discovers to his grave chagrin that such a task is beyond any earthly monarch (1:16). It is curious that Ahaziah has no son to succeed him (1:17), since the next chapter addresses the (formal) succession of Elijah by Elisha.
2:1–8. An extraordinary chapter narrates the stunning conclusion of Elijah’s career and the beginning of Elisha’s as a public figure. One aspect that emerges early in the narrative is the tenacity of Elisha, in dealing with both his master and the persistent questions from the “sons of the prophets” (2:1–6). Elijah’s upcoming experience is evidently common knowledge in prophetic circles, and yet Elisha’s tenacity early in the chapter foreshadows his difficult request in verse 10. Furthermore, the parting of the waters of the Jordan (2:7–8) is reminiscent of the wilderness years, carrying the implication that Elisha (“God Is Salvation”) will be the new Joshua (“The LORD Is Salvation”) for these times.
There are many parallels between the miracles of Elijah/Elisha and the miracles of Jesus, including healing people of leprosy, raising the dead, and feeding large groups of people with a small amount of food.
2:9–18. As Elijah and Elisha cross the river, the unexpected invitation for Elisha to ask for something evokes memories of Solomon in 1 Kg 3. The phrase “two shares of your spirit” (2:9) may be a reference to inheritance (see Dt 21:17, which uses the same Hebrew phrase for “two shares”), so perhaps Elisha wants a double portion to avoid prophetic burnout or a repeat of Elijah’s depression. He certainly witnesses Elijah’s departure, and tearing his clothes in two pieces is similar to sacrificing his oxen in 1 Kg 19 and anticipates his taking up of Elijah’s mantle in 2:13. Notably, like Elijah he too poses a question to God (“Where is . . . ?”), and his public profile begins with an answered prayer (2:14–15). All the while, the band of prophets has been watching, and their banal questions must function as comic relief after the unparalleled departure of Elijah (2:16–18); this group also observes firsthand the events of Elisha’s succession and stands in contrast to the “official” prophets of the Ahab court. [Immortality]
2:19–25. A couple of memorable events mark the beginning of Elisha’s public activity, as he retraces the journey (Jordan River, Jericho, and Bethel, then on to Mount Carmel and Samaria) of Elijah at the beginning of the chapter. The healing of water with salt (2:19–22) is somewhat offset by the bitter curses and bear-mauling of the forty-two youths from Bethel (2:23–24), yet both illustrate that a prophet’s response to “evil” can bring both healing and destruction. The entrance of the female bears as agents of judgment reminds us of the devouring lions earlier in the narrative.
B. Days of Elisha (3:1–8:29). 3:1–3. Because Ahaziah did not have a son, his brother Joram (Jehoram) succeeds him, with mixed results: he betters his parents by eliminating some vestiges of Baal worship but persists in the ways of Jeroboam—the negative standard by whom the rest of the northern monarchs are measured.
3:4–12. The rebellion of the king of Moab was mentioned at the outset of chapter 1 but is now explained as a failure to deliver the requisite sheep quota (3:4–5), prompting military action from Joram (aided by the kings of Judah and Edom). There are some immediate similarities with Ahab’s campaign in 1 Kg 22, including the summoning of Judah’s king Jehoshaphat, who once more volunteers his forces (3:7) and—in response to Joram’s complaint about no water in the desert of Edom—requests the aid of a prophet (3:11–12).
3:13–19. There is a state visit from this triumvirate of kings to the prophet Elisha, who sounds every bit as gruff as his master upon catching sight of Joram, and just as sarcastic as Micaiah (3:13). Only the presence of Jehoshaphat assuages the prophet, whose request for a “musician” is odd (3:14–15). Music has been connected with prophecy before (see 1 Sm 10), and the request for a stringed instrument might be in the same vein—and none of the assembled kings seems to have a problem with it. Elisha ends up having an encouraging word: dig some ditches, for not only will there be water in the desert but Moab will be overthrown (3:16–19).
3:20–27. As Elisha forecasts, the land is miraculously filled with water, and the defeat of Moab begins at “the time for the grain offering” (3:20), a description similar to the reference to Elijah’s actions at Mount Carmel back in 1 Kg 18:36. The water brings life for the three kings (Israel, Judah, and Edom) but brings death for Moab, as an optical illusion fools them into thinking the kings have slaughtered one another (3:21–25).
The victory is tarnished, however, by an utterly baffling turn of events (3:26–27). While it comes as no shock that the king of Moab engages in child sacrifice after his last stand proves ineffective, the penultimate phrase, “Great wrath was on the Israelites,” defies easy interpretation. Two kinds of sacrifices are contrasted here: the sacrifice for God’s people outlined by the law (3:20), and the kind of abominable sacrifice practiced by certain foreign rulers (3:27). The king of Moab becomes like the injured Ahaziah in chapter 1, a king who lacks a successor—a not-so-subtle critique of the house of Ahab and its policy of imitating the surrounding nations.
4:1–7. Early in Elijah’s career a Sidonian widow was sustained during a famine through a supply of oil (1 Kg 17:8–16); Elisha is involved with something similar, except this time the widow of a deceased Israelite prophet is the beneficiary (4:1). Here, one guesses the oil is limited (4:6) so as to facilitate trust in the prophetic word without fostering complacency, even as it delivers her from the immediate threat of her creditors (4:7)—and thus the woman is not childless.
4:8–17. Elisha’s care for the widow sets the tone for the rest of the chapter, as another female character features in the next episode (4:8–37). The two women are in different straits: the widow was in debt and stood to lose her offspring, while the next woman is married and affluent and yet has no children to lose.
This finely crafted episode has three movements, beginning with the announcement and subsequent birth of a son (4:8–17). The reader is given a first glimpse of Elisha’s aide-de-camp, Gehazi (a supporting actor in the next chapter as well), and through dialogue with Gehazi, it becomes apparent that the woman has needs that material wealth cannot satisfy (4:11–14). Through the prophet’s intervention, this elderly couple now have an heir (4:15–17)—unlike Ahaziah and the king of Moab.
4:18–21. The second movement revolves around sickness and death. In the woman’s case, barrenness was replaced by fertility, but fertility has now (after the passage of some time) been routed by illness that leads to death. Earlier the woman pleaded, “Do not lie to your servant” (4:16), and now surely she feels the victim of false hope.
A typical Israelite house in the time of Elisha. The ground floor has a central, open-air courtyard used for food processing and cooking. Three additional rooms or covered porches are available for storage and securing the family’s livestock. The upper story provides the living space for the family.
4:22–37. But the third movement of the episode involves intercession and revival, and the woman’s journey to Mount Carmel (recalling the God who answers by fire) is “Elisha-like” when she says she will not leave the prophet, just as Elisha once said to his master (4:25–30). Her perseverance is likewise rewarded with a double portion of rescue from death (4:31–37). Right after the account about an appalling child sacrifice (3:27), we have a narrative about the prophet as a catalyst in the birth and resurrection of a promised son, against all odds. In some ways this mirrors the story of God’s people: death and exile are not the end of the story.
4:38–44. Two feeding anecdotes round out the chapter, and while the accounts may seem randomly patched together, there are some organic connections to the chapter as a whole. In the first story (4:38–41) there are two problems: not only is there a famine, but the one meal for the prophetic guild is laced with poison (“death in the pot,” 4:40). Flour once more is used to bring life (see 1 Kg 17:12), and death is averted just as with the son (4:32–35).
In the second story (4:42–44)—presumably at the end of the famine—firstfruits are brought to the community of prophets, and despite the incredulity of Elisha’s assistant, there is more than enough for everyone to partake of the crop.
5:1–10. There is a change of focus in the next episode, which begins with some role reversal: Naaman is the commander of the Aramean forces and a palpable foe of Israel, yet he has a skin disease and is told of a (potential) cure by his wife’s servant girl who was kidnapped from Israel (5:1–3). As Naaman eventually visits Elisha (5:9–10), the overarching concerns of the story become evident. First, there is concern even for the non-Israelite—in this case Naaman, the military commander who was probably in charge of the raids (5:2). The word of Elisha begins to transcend traditional boundaries, paving the way for a rather more expansive view of salvation, and anticipating later prophetic oracles (e.g., Is 49). Second, Elisha seems to have at least a functional relationship with the king of Israel (5:8), and despite the fact that both kings have a deficient view of the situation, the prophet’s intervention creates peace (Hb shalom, 5:19) instead of more war.
In contrast to Elisha, who feeds one hundred men with twenty loaves of bread (2 Kg 4:42–44), Jesus will feed five thousand men with five loaves and two fish (Mk 6:30–44).
5:11–18. Naaman’s initial frustration eventually gives way to submission to the prophetic word, resulting in healing for the Aramean soldier. At first he is disappointed (5:11–12), wanting something akin to the fire of Carmel (1 Kg 18:38) rather than a still, small voice (1 Kg 19:12)! But the healing journey elicits a spectacular confession from an inveterate enemy (5:13–15), and the reader cannot help but notice a discrepancy: while the nation of Israel is descending into a spiral of idolatry, here is a foreigner who pledges to honor God alone. Such commitment is only enhanced when the newly converted Naaman asks for a wheelbarrow of earth, since he has to—on official duty—enter the equivalent of a Baal temple but is determined that his allegiance will not waver (5:17–18).
5:19–27. Though Elisha refuses any recompense (5:16), his servant Gehazi has a rather different view of the matter, and Gehazi’s avaricious behavior begins with an oath (5:20). After Gehazi secures a useful amount of material goods, he has an awkward interview with Elisha (5:21–27). The chapter begins and ends with skin disease, but with startling reversal, as Gehazi and his descendants will forever embody the decision to pursue Naaman and hoodwink him for some silver and new clothes (5:27).
A contrast emerges between Gehazi (a servant lad) and the captured Israelite at the beginning of the story (a servant girl). The girl in exile has deeper acquaintance with the prophetic word than the insider Gehazi, who spends day and night with the man of God. These two young people see Naaman differently, and it is the young girl in captivity who displays vastly more theological insight than her counterpart.
6:1–7. Elisha has enjoyed a fair bit of interaction with the band of prophets (“sons of the prophets,” 6:1) to this point; further activity is the subject of the first episode of this chapter, recovering the borrowed ax head (6:5). In this account, a miracle occurs when the man complies with the prophet’s directive, even if seemingly arbitrary (6:6–7), just as with Naaman the Aramean. Even the sons of the prophets need such periodic reminders, as do foreigners with skin disease and servants like Gehazi.
6:8–14. The narrative shifts to the court of the king of Aram, who suspects a mole in his camp because all his secret locations are somehow known to Israel (6:8–11). Elisha’s growing fame is evident, since an officer of Aram understands that the prophet is responsible (6:12). As Gehazi can testify (see 5:26), the prophet often has inside information, and in this instance it is presented in an almost slapstick manner.
Ax heads
© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Greek Ministry of Antiquities (Athens, Corinth, Delphi, Thessalonica).
6:15–23. A large posse having been sent to arrest the prophet, Elisha and his (unnamed) servant awake to find the house surrounded (6:15). Blindness and insight are key components of this scene, as the servant glimpses the matter from Elisha’s perspective (a vast multitude of the heavenly host surrounds them) while the Aramean troops are struck with blindness and led to Samaria by the very man they were sent to capture (6:16–20). If the captured Arameans are expecting the worst, such expectations are thwarted as the prophet orders hospitality for the prisoners and so transforms a situation of hostility into a season of peace (6:21–23).
6:24–7:2. The peace is temporary, however, as Ben-hadad continues his offensive and besieges Samaria. A city under siege invariably faces scarcity and massive inflation, and here mothers are driven to contemplate cannibalism (6:24–29; see Dt 28:53–57 for a warning). When the king of Israel is apprised of the situation, he directs his outrage at Elisha (6:30–31); no motive is stated, but one guesses that he wanted to destroy the captured Aramean soldiers earlier (6:21), while the prophet let them live.
The king orders the death of Elisha, but as the king of Aram knows full well, Elisha is an elusive foe. Not only does Elisha avoid assassination, but he also speaks a radical word about reversal (6:32–7:1). However, as in the repartee between Micaiah and Zedekiah in 1 Kg 22:24–28, Elisha encounters some opposition. The supporting officer’s expression of incredulity is met with a retort from the prophet, namely, that the fulfillment of the prophetic word shortly will come back on him like a stampede (7:2).
7:3–9. If Elisha’s utterance is implausible, the instruments used for delivering such a word are even more unlikely, as four men with a skin disease have their march to surrender turned into a discovery of an empty Aramean camp (7:3–7). This group of outcasts must be as hungry as the mothers in 6:29, and so we can appreciate their joy at this find. Their pricks of conscience introduce an important term: “good news” (7:8–9). In the biblical economy, “good news” generally refers to big events such as rescue from captivity, the end of exile, and the reversal of oppression (see Is 40:9; 52:7–10).
7:10–20. Reporting the news to the palace (7:10–13) launches an investigation team, confirming the empty camp and flooding the market with affordable food just as Elisha has forecast (7:14–16). In this case, the fulfillment of the prophetic word is yet another miracle in this stretch of text, where a divine interruption occurs in order to draw attention to particular facets of God’s character, and the prophetic word here turns apparent hopelessness into a moment of salvation. As for the skeptical officer (7:2), he is sadly trampled during the resulting pandemonium at the gate (7:17–20), a hard way to learn the benefits of submission to the prophet’s authority.
8:1–6. The next episode is introduced with a flashback to seven years earlier, when Elisha advised the Shunammite woman to sojourn outside Israel during a famine (8:1–2). Because she now has to reclaim her land from the king, one wonders if the king somehow appropriated the land in her absence (8:3). There is a miracle of timing: at the very moment the king is asking Gehazi about Elisha’s mighty deeds, the woman shows up with her (revived) son (8:4–5)! Gehazi’s cameo is almost as astonishing, since he was last seen at the end of chapter 5 “white as snow”—it is not clear why he is in the king’s presence, but his animated testimony aids the restoration of her property (8:6).
8:7–15. The prophet’s reputation continues to be a major theme, as Ben-hadad consults him about his own illness (8:7–8). The ensuing interaction between Elisha and Hazael of Damascus is significant for two reasons. First, it brings us back to the very outset of Elisha’s career in 1 Kg 19:15–17, when God informs Elijah that Hazael’s reign will be destructive. Now, closer to the end of Elisha’s career, that cryptic word is poised for fulfillment. Second, Elisha’s tears during the interview with Hazael become hauntingly appropriate when Hazael smothers Ben-hadad’s face with a wet rag (8:11–15). The same prophet who knows about Aramean troop movements (2 Kg 6:8–10) knows that Hazael—like Shakespeare’s Macbeth—is about to become a murdering usurper.
8:16–24. After a lengthy hiatus, attention returns to the south with regnal summaries of two kings of Judah (8:16–24, 25–29). The eight-year reign of Jehoram represents a downturn, and marrying into the northern royal family does not look good on his résumé (8:16–18). However, a repetition of the Davidic guarantee ensures that the southern kingdom will continue (8:19); otherwise, the most noteworthy event in Jehoram’s tenure is the revolt of Edom (8:20–22).
8:25–29. Jehoram is succeeded by his son Ahaziah, who does “evil in the LORD’s sight” during his reign of a single year (8:26–27). When Ahaziah joins the northern king Joram in an offensive against Hazael in the final scene, Joram is injured. Ahaziah’s visit to the convalescing Joram sets the stage for a new chapter to unfold (8:28–29).
C. Jehu’s ascendancy (9:1–10:36). 9:1–15. Without any prior notice, Elisha commissions an unnamed member of the prophetic guild to anoint Jehu king of Israel. The prophet is instructed to take a “flask” of oil (9:1–4). The only other king to be anointed with a flask is Saul (1 Sm 10:1); the allusion to his ill-starred reign may signal that Jehu’s term in office might be complicated.
A brief comparison between Elisha’s instruction (9:3) and the other prophet’s words to Jehu (9:6–10) highlights a discrepancy: the prophet’s report to Jehu is considerably longer. It is unclear whether such additions, including the command to massacre Ahab’s house for revenge, are authorized by Elisha. Does this prophet speak for Elisha or on his own initiative? Moreover, why is the assembled group so quick to proclaim Jehu as king (9:13)? Were they plotting an overthrow? A storm is brewing on the horizon, because Joram is still king over Israel and presently has a visitor, Ahaziah of Judah (9:14–15).
9:16–29. Jehu’s charioteering is hall-of-fame caliber (“he drives like a madman,” in the words of one eyewitness; 9:20), and such driving cannot augur well for the rival house of Ahab. Recruiting allies over the course of his wild ride, Jehu finally confronts Joram, at Naboth’s vineyard of all places (9:16–21). This spatial setting reinforces the idea that judgment day has arrived for Ahab’s dynasty, just as Elijah spoke in 1 Kg 21:20–24. Jehu’s archery is above censure (9:24), but it is Jehu’s remarks after killing Joram that merit attention. Turning to Bidkar, he outlines justification for his actions in light of Elijah’s oracle—one that Jehu claims to have heard (9:25–26). This is not reported in 1 Kg 21, but due to the relative accuracy of the words, Jehu should probably be given the benefit of the doubt. Despite Joram’s warning (9:23), Ahaziah is also killed by Jehu (9:27–29), making it a painfully effective day for regicide.
9:30–37. Joram and Ahaziah are dead, but Jezebel still remains, and one senses that her demise is imminent. Characteristically, she exits the stage with a flourish, after one last stand in Jezreel. With freshly arranged hair, she includes in her greeting to Jehu the term “Zimri” (9:30–31; see 1 Kg 16:15–20). By alluding to Zimri and his one-week reign of terror, Jezebel invites Jehu to partner with her if he wants a longer kingship. Jehu categorically rejects her offer; some eunuchs duly throw her out the window, and she is trampled by oncoming horses and chariotry (9:32–33). It almost seems an afterthought when Jehu finally gives orders to bury her, and only scant remains can be found, giving Jehu one more opportunity to point out the fulfillment of Elijah’s word (9:34–37).
10:1–17. To this point Jehu has not had much time for anything but rapid destruction. In the next episode he appears more calculating. There is a grisly irony with Jehu’s letters: through a letter Jezebel secured the death of Naboth in Jezreel, and now by a similar means Jehu destroys Ahab’s offspring by sending correspondence to the same address (10:1–3). Jehu’s intimidating epistle—not dissimilar to Jezebel’s—does not leave much room for negotiation, and so for the second time in recent memory the leadership of Jezreel is purged, and the heads of Ahab’s seventy sons are delivered to Jehu in baskets (10:4–8). (It is unclear whether the number seventy is symbolic and if the word “sons” indicates direct descendants.)
Jehu seizes the opportunity to once more cite the prophet Elijah and continue his purge of the Ahab administration (10:9–11). Ahaziah’s relatives are not exempt; they seem oblivious to recent events of destruction but are quickly apprised of Jehu’s policy of elimination (10:12–14). Jehu recruits one further character—Jehonadab son of Rechab (10:15–16)—whose descendants feature prominently in Jr 35. By all accounts the Rechabites are a conservative group of traditionalists, worth commandeering for their political capital.
10:18–27. If Jehu seemed deceptive in his letters, such inclinations are exponentially increased in the next scene. To be sure, there is no lack of drama in the episode: Jehu’s devious claim to worship Baal with great fervor (10:18), his threat that anyone who misses the event will be killed (10:19), everyone jammed into the temple (10:21), and the end result of Baal’s temple becoming a public lavatory (10:27). It certainly looks like a revolution, but its effectiveness will have to be measured over the long haul.
10:28–36. For all his undisputed zeal, Jehu does not achieve the best of grades when his reign is finally evaluated. The reader also learns that although Jehu earned divine approval for ridding the land of Baal worship (for this he is given a four-king dynasty, smaller than Omri’s!; 10:30), he was involved in worship of the golden calves (10:28–29) and did not offset the incursions of Hazael into Israelite territory (10:32–33). Jehu’s eradication of idolatry did not go far enough: the reform does not seem to have penetrated his own life to the same degree.
D. Twilight for Samaria (11:1–17:41). 11:1–3. Ahaziah, we recall, was related by marriage to the house of Ahab and was assassinated by Jehu. Attention now turns to the southern kingdom, where Ahaziah’s mother, Athaliah, assumes power by destroying “all the royal heirs” (11:1). Jehu has just purged the house of Ahab; now Athaliah (the daughter of Ahab and probably Jezebel) purges her own house. But the violent actions of one woman are counteracted by the resourceful actions of another (the otherwise unmentioned Jehosheba), and the fact that a young son (Joash) is hidden away in the temple precincts suggest a pocket of faithfulness within the inner circle of Judean leadership (11:2–3).
11:4–16. The anti-Athaliah conspiracy reaches its zenith after seven years, and its careful choreography is rewarded with success. Her arrest takes place in the temple (11:16) and is led by Jehoiada the priest, who arms the Carites with the ancient weapons of King David (11:4–11). We note the symbolism here, as the aged weapons of David are used to dislodge a pretender and secure the throne for a legitimate descendant of David. Jehoiada is labeled as the high priest in the next chapter.
As for the prominent role played by the “Carites” (11:4), this is a group who make no other appearance in the story. One theory links them with the Cherethites of 2 Sm 8:18, a foreign militia group hired for royal security. Regardless, the Carites facilitate the end of Athaliah, and the view of many citizens seems to be that Athaliah is not a legitimate monarch (hence their “rejoicing” in 11:14). She is given no regnal formula, and her own words ironically rebound on her. Like Jezebel, Athaliah finds her demise in a place where horses trample (11:16; see 1 Kg 9:33).
11:17–21. The formal circumstances of coronation for the seven-year-old Joash include a covenant ceremony (led by the priest) and eradication of Baal worship (the first and only mention of a Baal priest named Mattan—a foil for Jehoiada in this episode) (11:17–18). The narrator’s comment that “the city was quiet” (11:20) has a useful parallel in Is 14:7, and this episode hints at the possibilities for the temple and its personnel to create peace in the land.
12:1–3. During Joash’s reign there is a reversal of Athaliah’s policies, as Joash “did what was right in the LORD’s sight,” under the vigilant tutelage of Jehoiada (12:2). Part of his achievement might be credited to his mother from Beer-sheba (12:1), a city in the far south of Judah, as far as possible from northern corruption. The high places remain, however, and in this context the mention of incense burning and deviant sacrifices might serve as a bit of an ominous foreshadowing (12:3).
12:4–16. A major undertaking during Joash’s reign is the restoration of the temple (12:4–5). Although no motive is stated, one suspects that this rebuilding project is part of the long road away from apostasy. It is curious, therefore, that the priests are apparently negligent in their appointed tasks of renovation, and for that matter, that it takes Joash twenty-three years to make inquiries (12:6–8). During the reign of Athaliah it is likely that the Baal priest Mattan got a better deal, so perhaps the priests are simply recouping past losses.
Jehoiada’s solution of a voluntary offering chest—to be counted by representatives of both king and temple—is an effective one, and the proper accounting procedure results in everyone getting a fair share (12:9–16). It takes well over twenty years to combat a couple generations’ worth of corruption.
12:17–21. Elisha recently wept over the damage that Hazael of Damascus would inflict (2 Kg 8:12), and after Joash’s renovations of the temple, Hazael launches an offensive. While Joash buys him off and temporarily averts a crisis, he does so by emptying the temple (12:17–18), which had successively been restocked since the days of Asa (who also buys off the Aramean army in 1 Kg 15:18). The restoration of the temple under Joash was undoubtedly positive, but this action colors his reign with ambivalence.
As for the end of Joash, it is a sad irony that he leaves the narrative because his servants “conspired” against him (12:20), the same Hebrew term used by Athaliah when she is ambushed in the temple (“Treason!”; 11:14). The motives of Joash’s assassins are not clear (2 Ch 24 gives another perspective), but the fact that the conspirators put Joash’s own son on the throne (unlike in northern rebellions) suggests a degree of disillusionment with his reign (12:21).
13:1–9. The reader knows that Jehu’s dynasty will last four generations, and the accession of Jehoahaz after his death represents the next installment (13:1). Like the majority of his predecessors, Jehoahaz walks in the sins of Jeroboam (13:2–3). There is, though, one remarkable moment in Jehoahaz’s term of office that merits consideration: during a severe Aramean invasion, the king entreats the Lord (13:4), who responds favorably, much like during the turbulent times of the judges. A “deliverer” of unspecified identity (Elisha?) is raised up (13:5), and if 13:7 describes the state of the armed forces when the king cried out, the divine intervention occurs when Israel’s defenses have been decimated. Even though the northern kingdom has been guilty of widespread apostasy, God still responds to earnest prayer, and one would think this reality gives hope to anyone in exile.
13:10–13. The next generation, under Jehoash, does not fare much better, and there is no record of a royal prayer such as that in verse 4 (although Jehoash is triumphant over Judah in battle).
13:14–21. Jehoash’s sixteen-year reign does have one momentous event, and it is reported by means of a flashback dealing with the prophet’s illness and a royal visitation. Jehoash’s words in 13:14 mirror what Elisha said when Elijah was taken up (2:12), and his grief for the ailing prophet appears sincere. Even a recalcitrant king knows the power of a good prophet, and for a moment Jehoash seems to glimpse that Israel’s only chance lies with the power of God, not military force.
Elisha’s instructions to the king with the arrows might have a rough parallel with the actions of other prophets such as Ahijah in 1 Kg 12, where the prophetic signs function as a kind of test as well. Jehoash passes the test with shooting the arrows (13:15–17) but fails when it comes to striking them on the ground (13:18–19). Whether his enthusiasm or spirituality is censured here is unclear, but unlike Elisha, Jehoash certainly does not get a double portion as the prophet leaves the stage. Elisha may not exit the narrative as dramatically as his master, Elijah, but his grave site is known, and even his bones can raise the dead (13:20–21).
13:22–25. Near the beginning of the chapter God answers a prayer, and now near the end the narrator comments on the Lord’s benevolence toward his people (13:23). As Elisha has forecast, Jehoash launches three winning assaults against Aram; things could have gone better, but the northern kingdom also could have fared much worse. There has been remarkable divine forbearance until this point, but one is unsure how long it will hold out.
14:1–7. Amaziah of Judah replaces his slain father and is described as having something of a divided heart: some faithfulness mingled with compromise (14:3–4). Notably, he takes revenge for his father’s death (14:5), presumably on Jozabad son of Shimeath and Jehozabad son of Shomer for their role in the assassination in 12:21. Although the king acts within limits prescribed by Dt 24:16 (14:6), he himself will be struck down later (14:19), possibly in retaliation. His most impressive achievement is his victory over the Edomites described in 14:7, where renaming the city—some identify Sela as Petra—is probably self-aggrandizing behavior that reinforces his victory, anticipating his royal pride in the next scene.
14:8–14. In all likelihood fortified by this triumph over Edom, Amaziah proceeds to throw down the gauntlet to his northern counterpart Jehoash (14:8), perhaps eager to shake off the northern yoke now that he is in the ascendancy. Jehoash shows himself adept at prophetic satire and uses the metaphors of a thistle (Judah) versus a towering cedar (Israel) to tell the aggressive king to rest on his laurels and quit while he is ahead. Jehoash correctly predicts that this confrontation will not end well for the south (14:9–10).
Amaziah’s hearing impairment proves very expensive, and the face-off at Beth-shemesh results in a major loss for Judah and a crippling of Jerusalem (14:11–14). Sadly, this is not the last time the city will be invaded and looted, with prisoners taken. The same royal pride will resurface in the Babylonian conquest in the days ahead.
14:15–22. The regnal notice for the northern king Jehoash (14:15–16) may seem out of place or a duplication of the earlier note, but it does serve to effectively introduce the demise of Amaziah. Overall, Jehoash scores higher in terms of military and political effectiveness, especially when Amaziah dies as an embarrassed victim of an internal plot (14:19–20). The narrative does not spell out the identity of the conspirators, though it is possible that relatives of those liquidated in 14:6 are responsible, or perhaps a group that was upset with the recent debacle with the north. Amaziah is replaced, as in previous cases, by his son (14:21–22).
14:23–29. The southern kingdom, because of God’s guarantee, always has a descendant of David on the throne. The north, by contrast, is subject to constant upheaval and dynastic instability, and hence the immediate consequence of Jeroboam II’s reign is that Jehu’s dynasty is nearing its end. For the moment, however, Jeroboam II is not unsuccessful: despite an evil disposition (14:24), he does oversee an expansion of Israel’s landholdings to an extent not seen since the days of the Solomonic empire (14:25). This reclamation project is undertaken at the prompting of the prophet Jonah, whom the reader later meets in the book that bears his name. For the second time in as many chapters the narrator reflects on the quality of divine mercy (14:26–27), and so it is that Israel’s dominance during this period is due less to Jeroboam II’s acumen and more to God’s grace—to the point that he saves them through the king’s hand. It is as though the Lord is continually reaching out, as in the days of the judges.
15:1–7. The ignoble demise of Amaziah results in the succession of his son Azariah (also called Uzziah) to the throne of Judah, one of the better kings who enjoys a long reign, but one who also fails to do anything about the high places (whether because it was politically incorrect to do so, or because he lacked the requisite spiritual discernment; 15:1–4). It is conspicuous that Azariah is struck with a skin disease, with no precise explanation given except that “the LORD” is responsible. The affliction is severe enough to warrant confinement and limit his duties, and after his partition there is a coregency with his son Jotham (15:5).
15:8–12. A rapid parade of northern kings follows—few of whom are distinguished in any way, or particularly competent—beginning with Zechariah. The entire stretch of text is fraught with violent overthrows and coups, and Zechariah’s short tenure provides an overture. We suspected Jehu’s dynasty was nearing the end, and the king’s public assassination by Shallum brings to fulfillment the prophetic word spoken to Jehu (15:10, 12).
15:13–22. Shallum’s identity is obscure, and the report of his one-month reign gives little detail (15:13–15) other than his death at the hands of Menahem from Tirzah. Some scholars reconstruct a political background, suggesting that some leaders were interested in fostering ties with Aram while others were more enticed by an Assyrian alliance. Such a theory gains plausibility with the report of Menahem’s reign (15:16–22), as he gathers substantial revenues to pay off Pul (another name for the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III) during what must have been a sizable invasion; but making deals with foreign kings is always a perilous enterprise.
15:23–31. It is almost surprising when Menahem’s son Pekahiah succeeds him on his death (15:23–26), but the familiar pattern of usurpation continues with Pekah’s treacherous takeover (15:27–31). The twenty-year reign of the penultimate king of Israel is dominated by an increasing Assyrian presence in the region. Reports that Assyrian incursions are gaining in frequency and scope do not bode well for Israel or Judah.
15:32–38. Indeed, Judah is not exempt from the growing Assyrian pressure. Jotham’s political career in Judah began with coregency in 15:5, but his formal reign commences when he accedes to the throne after the death of his father (15:32–33). Jotham manages to rebuild the “Upper Gate” of the temple (15:35), but this project is eclipsed by mounting anxiety over external matters, such as the northern alliance (Israel and Aram) against Judah. Yet there is a powerful assertion in 15:37 that even the growing maelstrom of international hostility is under the aegis of divine sovereignty.
16:1–20. Hostility toward Judah is not abated, and in fact it increases in the next segment of the story, the reign of Ahaz. The Ahaz administration has a bad start (16:2–4): previous kings were censured for not removing the high places, but Ahaz goes a step further by actually worshiping at these installations. Even worse, he adheres to the terrifying practice of child sacrifice, and such conduct presages a litany of compromises and surrenders in this chapter. Ahaz follows the ways of the nations that the Lord drove out, and his egregious conduct paves the way for such nations to return.
Ahaz’s deal with Assyria is prompted by the so-called Syro-Ephraimite pact of aggression (see also Is 7): the kings of Aram and Israel want Judah to join in against Assyria, and to signal their ambitions the port of Elath is seized (16:5–6). Ahaz resists the invitation by pilfering the treasury and pleading for Assyrian assistance. Ahaz opts for submission, and the king of Assyria is all too willing to fulfill his end of the bargain by decimating Damascus (16:7–9).
In the aftermath of destruction Ahaz is invited to the humbled city of Damascus, and the reader now realizes that submission to Assyria comes at an even steeper price. In an attempt to ingratiate himself with his new master, Ahaz sends blueprints for the redesigned altar of the temple in Jerusalem after a foreign prototype, and thus the place of worship becomes corrupted as a place of political servitude (16:10–18). It is hard to determine the degree of complicity on the part of Uriah the priest, but he certainly does not appear to be a “Jehoiada” for these times (cf. 2 Kg 11–12). After sixteen years Ahaz dies and is succeeded by Hezekiah (16:19–20), a son who inherits a legacy of Assyrian accommodation.
17:1–6. A heightening sense of inevitability of the northern kingdom’s doom is poised for climax. In Dt 8:19 Moses warns, “If you ever forget the LORD your God and follow other gods to serve them and bow in worship to them, I testify against you today that you will perish.” Such a warning has not been sufficiently heeded and finds its grim realization during the truncated reign of the woeful Hoshea, who probably regrets attacking and usurping Pekah (15:30). Curiously, Hoshea is described in better terms than previous kings of Israel (17:2), but his attempt to rebel against Assyria and seek assistance from Egypt is rewarded with incarceration and a three-year siege of Samaria by the new king, Shalmaneser (17:3–5). Once the city is captured, the population is deported to various outposts of the Assyrian Empire (17:6). [The Assyrian Empire]
17:7–23. In the lengthy catalog of indictments against the northern kingdom, it is as though the author comes out from behind the curtain to address the audience directly. The catalog is self-explanatory and requires little commentary: it constitutes a theological explanation for the fall of the north. It is not just the leaders who are guilty—although they are implicated beyond doubt—but there has been widespread collaboration of all the people in covenant unfaithfulness and chasing after “worthless idols” (the same word translated as “futility” in Ec 1:2) (17:15). Interlaced in the midst of the catalog is also an assessment of Judah (17:18–19), and the southern kingdom is just as guilty. Judah survives for the time being, however, because of the promise to David. But in this context is laced a profound sense of caution, as though Judah is given one more chance to avoid the disaster that has just engulfed the north.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire
17:24–41. The city of Samaria is hit hard by the Assyrians, but the deportation of the population is only half the story. By resettling different groups of Mesopotamian deportees in the “cities of Samaria,” the king of Assyria also introduces a cornucopia of new deities and attendant ideologies into the land (17:24). Lion attacks (see 1 Kg 13) only serve to bring back a local priest to conduct basic theological education (17:25–28); whether a priest of Samaria is to be understood as a pillar of orthodoxy is not under discussion, but what results is a hybrid syncretism (17:29–33). Samaria, as the epicenter of northern corruption, was a snare to Judah before the collapse, and there are hints that it will continue to be so in the future, albeit in a different guise with a different population (17:34–41). This religious threat may prove more trouble in the end than Assyria’s military, but for the moment, Judah has its hands full with that situation.
E. Hezekiah’s Assyrian crisis (18:1–20:21). 18:1–8. Although the destruction of Samaria has taken place, the Assyrian ambition is far from quenched. The accession of Hezekiah occurs in less than enviable circumstances, but the early report of his reign ushers in a spring of hope after a long winter of despair. Part of his comprehensive housecleaning includes pulverizing the bronze snake, a venerated object from the days of Moses (18:4). One recalls that Moses made the snake for healing, but now this great symbol has to be destroyed, as it has become irredeemably corrupted. Such actions earn Hezekiah the highest commendation from the narrator—even to the point that his rebellion against Assyria and defeat of the Philistines is praiseworthy (18:5–8).
18:9–15. While Hezekiah is undertaking his reforms, we are reminded that the northern kingdom is dismantled by the Assyrians (18:9–12). Working their way south into Judah, they find that the “fortified cities” are no match for them (18:13); with Jerusalem firmly in the Assyrian sights, Hezekiah has little option except to grovel and pay a hefty fine (18:14–15).
18:16–25. The amount Hezekiah pays is ridiculously high, and to generate enough gold the temple has to be stripped right down to the baseboards (18:16). Although the fine is paid, it seems to avail little, as the highest-ranking officials of Assyria still show up in Jerusalem. The confrontation with the royal spokesperson happens at the “aqueduct,” a poignant spatial setting that strongly suggests a possible siege (18:17). With a long speech, he lampoons Hezekiah’s strategic initiatives with Egypt and the recent religious reforms (18:19–25). The Assyrian ambassador claims, boldly, to speak for the Lord!
The Assyrian Attack of Lachish and Jerusalem
18:26–37. After Hezekiah’s representatives request Aramaic, the orator calls the bluff: not only does he respond in Hebrew, but he ups the rhetoric a notch, talking about the gloomy realities of a siege (18:26–27). As the reader knows, history is on his side (e.g., 6:24–29, and the cannibal mothers). The “war of the words” reaches a crescendo with a verbal assault on the person of the king, followed by lavish promises about peace and security, promises that must be more appealing than drinking urine (18:28–35). The speaker sounds like a passionate prophet talking about a land of milk and honey—and he intones that Assyria is like a juggernaut crushing every land and god! In light of this onslaught, the self-control of the people indicates the kind of respect they have for their leader (18:36).
This royal cuneiform prism describes the eight military campaigns of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, including his campaign against Judah.
© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the British Museum, London, England.
19:1–4. To this point in the confrontation Hezekiah has been represented by proxy, through leading representatives within his circle of advisers. Now his personal response is detailed, and his impulse is to send a message to the prophet Isaiah—who makes his first appearance in the text at this point (19:1–2). Earlier we are told that Hezekiah “relied on” the Lord (18:5); the practical ramification is that he is willing to call on the prophet here rather than make an arrest (cf. 6:30–31). Dressed for a funeral and citing proverbial metaphors about difficult childbirth (meaning no hope for the future), the king pleads for prayer on behalf of “the surviving remnant” against an infinitely superior and mocking oppressor (19:3–4).
19:5–19. Isaiah’s response sets up a confrontation between two counselors, and he now appears as a counterpart to the king of Assyria’s representative. Isaiah’s message is unequivocal: the onslaught will not finally succeed (19:5–7). It is unlikely that the Assyrians are aware of this message, but they continue their southern offensive and send a further message to Hezekiah—rather more terse this time—about his certain defeat (19:8–13). On receiving this deadly epistle, Hezekiah visits the temple and, presumably in the presence of the ark, utters an intense supplication (19:14–19). The relative postures of the two kings seem to be a point of issue: one is powerful and all about military hardware, whereas the other is powerless and all about prayer.
19:20–34. The Assyrian spokesperson scaled considerable rhetorical heights in his long speeches of the previous chapter. Isaiah also sends a message (19:20–34), seemingly unsolicited, and the field commander’s bravado pales before the oracle of Isaiah. In Isaiah’s poetic economy, the powerful king is mocked by a young lady (19:21), as he eventually returns with a hook in his nose (19:28). The words for the king of Assyria are highly personal, informing him that his sweeping victories are not because of his logistics but because of God’s foresight to use the Assyrians as part of his divine plan (19:23–26). Hezekiah is also given a sign (encouraging him to give patient leadership to the remnant who will survive; 19:29–31), and the immediate crisis will be resolved as God will defend Jerusalem (19:34).
19:35–37. While no response of Hezekiah is preserved, the resolution of the conflict surely provides some vindication for prophet and king. The same “angel of the LORD” who visits Elijah with bread in 1 Kg 19:7 now visits the vast Assyrian army with death (19:35). As for Sennacherib, he too spends time in a temple, like Hezekiah. But according to this text Nisroch does not undertake on behalf of his supplicant, as Sennacherib is cut down with the sword, courtesy of his own offspring (19:37).
20:1–11. Although the Assyrian threat has spectacularly subsided, Hezekiah’s struggles are the subject of a pair of episodes in 2 Kg 20 that pertain to the king’s person and his progeny. In the first (20:1–11), by means of a flashback the reader discovers that in the midst of the Assyrian attack, Hezekiah was gravely ill (20:1). A precise diagnosis of Hezekiah’s sickness is not the point; rather, this sophisticated literary technique allows Hezekiah’s illness to become a moment of parabolic reflection on the Assyrian invasion and its aftermath. Hezekiah is threatened with certain death, just like the city, yet he prays and is miraculously delivered (20:2–7). For the sake of God’s promise, Jerusalem too is delivered, but just as Hezekiah is given fifteen more years (20:6), Jerusalem’s time is ultimately limited. The purpose for the shadow sign (20:8–11) is to demonstrate that God can turn back the time of judgment, should he be willing.
20:12–19. It is entirely intentional, therefore, that the next episode about emissaries from the king of Babylon follows the account of Hezekiah’s recovery. Ostensibly arriving to offer congratulations to the king, the Babylonian diplomats get an extensive tour of the royal precincts (20:12–13). The temporal note “at that time” (20:12) implies that the visitors arrived while the Assyrian crisis was still going on and thus provides a clue as to the real motives: the Babylonians are seeking an ally in the west against Assyria. Their exact motives (and the motives of Hezekiah, for that matter) quickly become peripheral as the episode continues. [Spices]
Isaiah, having given a series of powerful words of hope, does not appear thrilled at the presence of the envoys, and his words are scathing. This is not, Isaiah declares, the last time the Babylonians will lay eyes on the treasures of Jerusalem, for the time is coming when the treasures will be forcibly exported there (20:14–18). Hezekiah’s reaction is staggeringly shortsighted: his own descendants will be emasculated, but he is happy that he will retire in peace (20:19). It is hard to deny that Hezekiah’s response puts a real damper on an otherwise remarkable reign.
20:20–21. The chapter ends with a regnal summary, including the ingenious engineering feat still called “Hezekiah’s tunnel” to this day.
F. Babylon rising (21:1–24:17). 21:1–18. The visit of the Babylonian dignitaries is a prelude to the role Babylon plays through the end of 2 Kings. Hezekiah is succeeded by his son Manasseh (21:2), and a reader could be forgiven for expecting good things from this era. The fifty-five-year reign of Manasseh, though, is described in the worst possible terms (21:2–9), and under his leadership more evil is done than even in the dispossessed nations.
It is hard to believe that such an all-inclusive program of idolatry can be implemented in light of the recent deliverance from the Assyrians, but it earns Manasseh a unique prophetic censure: a group of prophets, speaking with unanimity, condemns the king and forecasts disaster for the nation (21:10–15). Manasseh is likened to Ahab, and the fate of Jerusalem is likened to that of Samaria, hardly a flattering set of comparisons. It is also said that Manasseh filled Jerusalem with innocent blood “from one end to another” (21:16). The shedding of innocent blood points to massive injustices alongside religious apostasy.
21:19–26. When Manasseh dies, there is no sign of improvement under his son Amon, who engages in the same evil practices as his father (21:20–22). Amon falls victim to a conspiracy led by his officials, who are summarily executed by the “common people” (or the “people of the land”; see the CSB footnote; 21:23–24). One recalls that the “people of the land” were active in the overthrow of Athaliah in 11:14, so it is most likely the same kind of popular uprising here. Furthermore, the installation of the eight-year-old Josiah is reminiscent of young Joash’s replacing Athaliah (21:26).
22:1–2. Josiah’s arrival has been long anticipated. Back in 1 Kg 13, the man of God from Judah arrived in Bethel, and with the highly unusual disclosure of a proper name hundreds of years ahead of time, prophesied that this son of David’s house would obliterate the altar of this northern shrine. Given such advance billing, there is a sense of great expectation when Josiah’s reign begins after he is installed by the people of the land (22:1). His father and grandfather were the worst royal tandem ever, and so it is against the odds that Josiah earns the unique commendation (see Dt 5:32) as he does what is upright in God’s sight (22:2).
22:3–13. Like Joash before him, Josiah sponsors renovations of the temple (22:3–7). Just after the halfway point of Josiah’s reign, during the routine duties of paying workers and supervising the project, a discovery is reportedly made by the high priest Hilkiah: the book of the law (the Torah; 22:8). It is not hard to imagine how the book was eschewed during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon, and whether a cadre of priests kept it hidden or it was literally lost, the book is back on the radar after a long absence.
The book is not only found, but it is also read in the king’s presence (22:9–10). Most scholars agree that Deuteronomy must form a significant portion of this scroll that is read aloud before the king. Josiah’s response (22:11–13) confirms as much: his actions (garment tearing) and his words (calling for a prophet) parallel the response of Hezekiah to the fearful oratory of the Assyrian spokesman (19:1–2). Josiah understands these words to have a similar kind of present-tense reality, and a similar threat.
22:14–20. By calling for a prophetic interpretation, Josiah shows his immediate concern is to take a drastically new course of action. His officials are dispatched to “inquire” of the Lord (2 Kg 22:13), the same request that Jehoshaphat made back in 1 Kg 22. The officials go to Huldah, who has not been mentioned in the story before; she resides in Jerusalem and is part of a prominent family circle (22:14).
Huldah addresses two different audiences: first the nation, then the king himself. As for Judah, the prognosis is dire: “disaster” is forecast (22:16–17). Huldah’s words are in line with the unified prophetic declaration of 21:10–15. As for the king, Huldah’s words affirm his personal piety and laudable reaction to the words read from the scroll (22:18–19). His reward is somewhat counterintuitive: he will journey to the grave in “peace” (Hb shalom) and not lay eyes on the disaster that will befall Judah (22:20). Since Josiah dies rather violently at the end of the next chapter, some have pointed to inexact prophecy here. But on the contrary, the manner of Josiah’s death is “peaceful” when compared with Jerusalem’s invasion, which is now dead ahead on the horizon.
23:1–14. Although the prophetess Huldah has unequivocally announced certain doom, the king calls together Judah’s leadership for a public reading of the “book of the covenant” and a covenant renewal ceremony (23:1–3). Commentators often point to texts such as Jos 24 as an analogue, or, more recently, to the ceremony led by Jehoiada (2 Kg 11:12). After the assembly, a host of idolatrous installations are removed, not just the typical Baal and Asherah equipment, but also all the paraphernalia associated with practices like child sacrifice, astral deities, and chariots dedicated to solar worship (23:4–14). From the highly detailed description of the removal one sees the vastness of the installations, here pictured with more specificity than at any other point (even chapter 17, with its catalog of northern abuses). Not only are these installations recent (as in the eras of Manasseh and Amon), but such activity goes as far back as the syncretism of Solomon as well.
A figurine of a Canaanite goddess, probably Asherah
© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Istanbul Museum, Turkey.
23:15–20. There was an early hint in 23:4 that Bethel would not be exempt from the reforms, and singled out for special attention is the altar of Bethel constructed by Jeroboam. Not only does the destruction of the altar fulfill the prophetic utterance spoken long ago; it also indicates Josiah’s willingness to travel outside Judah, and even to Samaria.
23:21–23. After Josiah’s return to Jerusalem, it is symbolically appropriate that the Passover is celebrated, as Dt 16:5–6 outlines that this most important feast—commemorating the saving events of the exodus from Egypt—needs to be held in the place that God “chooses.” It has been many days since the land has seen this celebration, maybe since the time of Jos 5 (although see 2 Ch 30).
23:24–30. On the heels of another commendation of Josiah (23:24–25) is a further reminder of imminent destruction (23:26–27), and even these extensive and far-reaching reforms are not enough to offset Josiah’s end or Judah’s invasion. The shadow of judgment does not move backward, as in the days of Hezekiah, and the story is marching inexorably toward exile.
Josiah’s untimely death at Megiddo takes place, literally and figuratively, between two superpowers as he tries somehow to thwart the Egyptians who are coming to aid Assyria (23:29–30). His death resembles his reform movement in Judah: although brave and passionate, he is unable to stem the rising tide of Babylon.
23:31–35. A fair bit of narrative space is dedicated to Josiah’s kingship, but now there is a sense of narrative acceleration as we move more quickly to the end, beginning with the short and profoundly ineffective reign of Josiah’s son Jehoahaz. Under the control of Pharaoh Neco, Jehoahaz is transferred as a prisoner from Riblah in Syria to Egypt and has to pay a fine (although it is a pittance compared with Hezekiah’s fine, showing how economically crippled the nation is; 23:33). Jehoahaz dies in Egypt, in a house of bondage, with an Egyptian king once more acting aggressively against God’s people (23:34). The brief reign of Jehoahaz will be typical, since there will be no political autonomy for Judah from now until the end. Instead, Judah’s affairs are seemingly determined by foreign superpowers.
23:36–24:7. The reader is reminded, however, that these nations are not operating of their own volition but are subject to “the LORD’s command” (24:3). This includes the first Babylonian invasion of the land during the reign of Jehoiakim, who is, like his predecessor, subservient to a more powerful king (24:1). Historians inform us that Jehoiakim made several alliances, bouncing back and forth before Babylon forcibly won the day.
Josiah Dies in Battle at Megiddo
24:8–17. When Jehoiachin assumes the throne, Babylonian hostility has reached the point of a siege on Jerusalem (24:10). No doubt aware of the kind of exigencies created by a siege, the king and company surrender and are taken into exile (24:11–12). During the visit of the Babylonian envoys way back in 2 Kg 20, Isaiah warned that all the valuables would be taken from the treasury, and that word begins to be fulfilled during the days of Jehoiachin (24:13). With the king in Babylon, his uncle Mattaniah takes his place (24:17). [The Babylonian Empire]
The Babylonian Empire
G. Judah’s captivity (24:18–25:30). 24:18–25:12. Zedekiah’s name may have changed, but he is powerless to change the times. It is under his leadership that the kingdom of Judah reaches its end.
For some reason, Zedekiah rebels against the king of Babylon, in all likelihood by siding once more with Egypt (24:20). Whatever Zedekiah was hoping to achieve through such a rebellion does not happen, and Nebuchadnezzar’s retribution is fierce: Jerusalem becomes a city under siege, and the siege is a long one (25:1–3). Finally, the wall is breached (in 586 BC), resulting in the worst day in the history of God’s people (25:4a). Rather than surrender like Jehoiachin did ten years earlier, Zedekiah and his sycophants flee, but they are duly overtaken, and the last thing Zedekiah ever sees is the execution of his sons. Blinded, he is marched to Babylon (25:4b–7). Meanwhile, the city of Jerusalem is looted, and a high percentage of the population is likewise sent into exile (25:8–12).
25:13–21. A careful description is provided for the dismantling of the temple, but there is no mention of any idolatrous paraphernalia, only implements and vessels known from the blueprints of the Torah.
The destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of Judah bring to a close the Deuteronomy-based history (Joshua–2 Kings). Israel and Judah have ignored Deuteronomy and thus suffer the dire consequences.
25:22–30. Judah is sent into captivity, but Nebuchadnezzar does install a provisional government for those who remain, with Gedaliah (grandson of Josiah’s official in 2 Kg 22) as the superintendent in the town of Mizpah (25:22–23). His directive to settle down and serve the Babylonians does not sit well with a faction led by Ishmael (25:24–25), whose “royal” bloodline receives no elaboration (though some interpreters point to Elishama, David’s son in 2 Sm 5:16). This faction is probably pro-Egypt, because Egypt is where they head after the assassination of Gedaliah, motivated by fear of Babylonian reprisal (25:26).
One can immediately sense that this moment—with a remnant of the people in Egypt—functions as an important preface to the final scene of the chapter, indeed, of 1–2 Kings as a whole. God’s people are now in exile and needing an exodus, just like in the days of old. With the last king of Judah chained in Babylon, such hope looks slim. But Jehoiachin’s parole in the concluding lines of the book (25:27–30) becomes a reminder that God’s promise to the house of David will endure. The promise will end not with a restoration of the monarchy but with a movement toward the Messiah.
Judeans Flee to Egypt
