2 Corinthians

1. EPISTOLARY INTRODUCTION (1:1–11)

1:1–2. Paul again opens his letter with a customary greeting (see 1 Co 1:1–3). After naming himself as the sender of the letter, together with Timothy, he describes himself to the church in words almost identical to those used in his earlier letter: as an apostle of Christ, by God’s will (1:1). The letter’s address indicates that Christians elsewhere in Achaia, probably principally at Cenchreae (Ac 18:18; Rm 16:1) and Athens (Ac 17:34), have been affected by the recent affairs in the church at Corinth (likely the largest in Achaia). The salutation concludes with Paul’s usual Christian greeting (1:2).

1:3–11. Thanksgiving typically follows the greeting (see 1 Co 1:4–9), but Paul’s thanksgiving here is not given over to God for his grace and love at work in the church. Instead, Paul praises God for his comfort made manifest in a particular experience of suffering in Paul’s life (1:4). The experience itself, which he compares to the “sufferings of Christ” (1:5), remains unmentioned (perhaps indicating that the Corinthians knew the facts well enough, including the part their own failure to honor Paul and his gospel had played in the apostle’s sufferings). Paul chooses rather to extol God (1:3), from whom he has received the strength to sustain himself in suffering.

Furthermore, precisely because of his experience, which forced him to rely exclusively on God in a situation in which he had given himself up for dead (1:8–10), Paul has become uniquely equipped to minister to “those who are in any kind of affliction,” bringing to them the “comfort we ourselves receive from God” (1:4). In the light of his own experience, Paul seeks to minister comfort and conciliation to the church at Corinth (1:6–7), and he begins by asking for their prayers (1:11).

2. PAUL’S EXPLANATION OF HIS CONDUCT IN RECENT MATTERS (1:12–2:13)

A. The basis for Paul’s behavior and an appeal for understanding (1:12–14). Paul appeals to the Corinthians in conciliation to reassess their estimation of him and his ministry. Boasting and the kind of criticism that belittles one in order to exalt another had consistently troubled the church and severely complicated its relationship with Paul (1 Co 3:21; 4:7; 5:6). Such boasting and criticism were also no doubt responsible in large measure for the pain that Paul had experienced on his last visit to Corinth, pain which led him, in turn, to compose a letter that struck back severely in anguished self-defense (2 Co 2:1–4).

But now Paul seeks to clear away the selfish boasting of the past and to make a boast in which he invites the Corinthians to share, a boast in the Lord. In conduct, Paul has always sought to relate to the church “with godly sincerity and purity” (1:12a). In speech and writing he has similarly shunned the attempt to present a wisdom that invites comparisons between his message and those of others, in favor of a simplicity of thought and advice rooted in “God’s grace” (1:12b–13). It is Paul’s hope, therefore, that the Corinthians will come to understand that the only boast to be made among Christians is a boast that unites them with their leaders, a mutual boast in God’s holiness, sincerity, and grace at work in their lives (1:14).

B. The cause for Paul’s change of plans (1:15–2:2). 1:15–17. In 1 Co 16:2–8 and at the beginning of this section (1:15–16) are found two different itineraries relating to Paul’s plans to revisit the Corinthian church. However, as 2:1 indicates, neither plan was carried through. Thus, it appeared as though Paul were at best not truly concerned with his relationship to the church and at worst a fickle person who made promises with “two minds” (1:17) and constantly went back on his word.

1:18–22. Once more Paul meets this obstacle to reconciliation squarely and clarifies the reasons for his conduct by relating his actions to the conviction he shares with the Corinthians concerning God’s faithfulness (1:18). Paul, Silvanus, and Timothy preached Christ with consistency in such a way as to emphasize that all God’s promises were faithfully fulfilled in him (1:19–20). No matter their number or the length of time taken in mercy to bring them to fulfillment or the manner, expected or unexpected, in which they are fulfilled, the eventual fulfillment of God’s promises demonstrates his glorious faithfulness. Those who are in Christ place their hope for what is yet to come on this kind of faithfulness, demonstrated especially in the receipt of the Holy Spirit (1:21–22).

1:23–2:2. But it is also just this kind of faithfulness that has motivated Paul to change the manner in which his plans should come to pass. Not out of a faithless, fickle sense of self-importance, but out of a merciful desire not to grieve the church (2:2), Paul has changed his plans; his desire is to work with the Corinthians rather than to act based purely on his own original agenda (1:24). This goal has led Paul to set aside his previous plans and to work out a different schedule for their eventual fulfillment (2:1).

C. The purpose of Paul’s last letter (2:3–11). 2:3–4. As a part of his altered agenda, Paul wrote a third letter to the church (for reference to the first, see 1 Co 5:9; the second is our canonical 1 Corinthians), the purpose of which he now seeks to explain. It was written so that on his next return to Corinth he might not “have pain from those who ought to give me joy,” in confidence and trust that such distress could be avoided so as to produce a joyful visit for all (2:3). But in order to achieve its end, Paul’s letter had first to deal openly and honestly with the source of the problem. To write such a letter was certainly not easy, for its purpose was not simply to rebuke but to share with the church the anguish of an unrequited love (2:4).

Throughout the Bible, God is sometimes called as a witness either for or against human behavior (2 Co 1:23; cf. Gn 31:44; 1 Sm 12:5–6; 20:42; Is 43:10; Jr 42:5).

2:5–11. The letter seems to have achieved its intent (2:9), and with reconciliation now possible, Paul hastens to make sure that it is accomplished. He urges the cessation of the punishment inflicted on the individual who opposed his authority (2:6), causing distress both for Paul and for the church (2:5), and counsels forgiveness (2:7), granting it freely himself in concert with the rest of the church (2:10). Then, with particular pastoral sensitivity to the needs of the offender as well as those of the body and himself, Paul encourages the community not only to forgive the offender but also to comfort him and to reaffirm its love for him (2:7a, 8). This they should do lest he be “overwhelmed by excessive grief” (2:7b) and the discipline that was meant to be remedial become simply retributive, thus allowing Satan yet another entrance into the situation (2:11).

D. The motive for Paul’s movement from Troas to Macedonia (2:12–13). In this, the final segment of Paul’s explanation of his recent conduct, he seeks to acquaint the church with events in his ministry from the time of his last letter until the present moment of composition. In all probability Paul’s painful letter had been dispatched to Corinth with Titus from Ephesus. But from there, before receiving a reply, Paul departed to Troas (2:12). Despite the open door for the gospel of Christ that presented itself to Paul in Troas, he had been unable to feel at peace without news from Titus, and so in an attempt to meet Titus on the route of his return, he had gone on to Macedonia (2:13).

3. PAUL’S REFLECTION ON HIS MINISTRY (2:14–5:21)

A. The source and character of Paul’s ministry (2:14–3:6a). Surprisingly, the conclusion to the account of Paul’s anxious attempt to meet the returning Titus is not immediately related. Instead, we are made to wait until 7:5 to receive the conclusion of the narrative. In the interim, Paul gives us the opportunity to share in some of his own reflections on the nature of his ministry. The catalyst for these reflections is clearly the relationship between Paul and the church at Corinth in general, and the return of Titus to Paul with news of his recent visit to Corinth in particular. But in their breadth and scope, Paul’s words within this section describe, perhaps better than any other part of the Pauline correspondence, the apostle’s own sense of mission and ministry.

2:14–17. Paul begins his reflections, accordingly, by giving thanks to God, for in its essence his apostolic ministry is simply a part of “Christ’s triumphal procession,” which is directed and guided by God (2:14). The verbal imagery used here is intended to allude to a Roman triumph, a procession carefully orchestrated by a Roman military commander to display the results of a significant military victory (see the article “Triumphal Procession”). The image, however, is mixed here with another drawn from the OT (where a pleasing aroma is said to result from a ritual sacrifice; see Lv 1:9, 13, 17). The aroma of Paul’s ministry, as a part of the aroma of Christ, can be said to ascend to God at the same time that it diffuses among men and women, both those who are being saved and those who are perishing (2:15; cf. 1 Co 1:18). [Triumphal Procession]

To be the bearer of an aroma so potent as to lead to life for its recipients and death for those who reject its fragrance is a heavy responsibility (2:16). But, at the same time, it is important to Paul to note that, unlike many who “market the word of God for profit,” he has made a conscientious attempt to bring himself to the task with sincerity and a sense that the proclamation of the gospel is always made before God as well as a human audience (2:17).

3:1–6a. His words, however, in the context of the competition for ecclesiastical leadership that had been going on at Corinth (1 Co 1:12; 2 Co 10:1–13:13), needed careful clarification on two counts. First, there was the possibility that they might be read by some as a purely subjective self-commendation, and, second, there was the likelihood that they might prompt an immediate comparison between Paul and others who carried formal letters of recommendation (3:1).

Paul takes up the latter point by first claiming the Corinthians themselves as the recommendation for his ministry (3:2). And unlike a letter that Paul or anyone else might write, the testimony commending the faithful work of the apostle has been permanently written by the Spirit of the living God in their lives (3:3). Then, moving back to the former point, Paul reminds his readers that his confidence is a product not of self-analysis but of his relationship with God through Christ (3:4). Therefore, only God can give persons the competence that makes them equal to the task of functioning as ministers of a new covenant (3:5–6a).

B. The message of Paul’s ministry (3:6b–4:6). As is so often the case in Paul’s writings, the terms that are used to conclude one argument lead inevitably to the opening of another. (This is also commonplace in Jewish literary style in general.) Here the mention of a new covenant (3:6a; see Jr 31:31–34) inspires a transition in thought from discussion about the source and character of Paul’s ministry to a consideration of its message. Paul presents it in terms of a comparison between the ministry that carried as its essence the written covenant “of the letter” (Ex 24:3–8) and the ministry that proclaims the new covenant of the Spirit. (The nature of the comparison suggests, as does 11:22, that the distress in the church at Corinth has come from some who pressured the whole of the church toward a strict allegiance to the law and customs of Judaism.)

3:6b–11. The comparison does not proceed by way of deprecation, describing the latter ministry as glorious and the former as inglorious. Rather, Paul makes a comparison between the recognized and authentic “glory” of the former covenant (3:7, 9a, 11a) and the surpassing glory of the latter (3:8, 9b, 10, 11b). The argument is strengthened by allusion to the account of the gift of the law (Ex 34:29–35). Paul provides an interpretative commentary on the meaning of this passage, inferring from the Septuagint (the Gk translation of the OT) that the glory radiating from Moses’s face when he brought the gift of the law down from the mount was a fading rather than a permanent possession, one perpetuated only by Moses’s frequent reentrance into God’s presence. The glory of Moses’s ministry in bringing to Israel the covenant of the law was therefore real but transitory (3:7). The glory of Christian ministry in proclaiming the new covenant is greater, for it endures (3:11).

In this context of comparison, Paul proceeds to set forth a contrast between the two ministries, a contrast between the effect of the “letter” and that of the Spirit (3:6b). The contrast, however, is marked. For the letter, being lifeless, had no power to effect the way of life it commanded, and consequently it became that which “brought death” and “brought condemnation” rather than life (3:7, 9). But the Spirit, a living and active part of God’s being, has precisely that power which the law lacked, the power that effectively “brings righteousness” (3:9; not only a knowledge of righteousness) and gives life. Thus the conclusion follows by contrast, as well as comparison, that a ministry in service of the new covenant surpasses one in service of the old.

In Paul’s Letters, he emphasizes that the goal of the Christian life is to become like Christ (see 2 Co 3:18; cf. Rm 8:29; 12:1–2; 2 Co 4:16; Gl 4:19).

3:12–18. This perspective on the value of Christian ministry then motivates Paul to bold proclamation (3:12). He has put no veil on his message in an attempt to shield the surpassing glory of the gospel from his fellow Jews, as had Moses, who had hidden the glow of God’s glory behind a veil (3:13; cf. Ex 34:33–35). Instead, it was quite the reverse. If Paul’s message was veiled, that was only because the law and its traditional interpretation (given when the old covenant is read) had veiled and dulled Jewish minds to the truth of the gospel (3:14–15). But, as experience has shown, whenever they turn to the Lord, that veil is removed (according to Paul’s interpretation of Ex 34:34) under the inspiration of the Spirit (3:16). For the Spirit brings freedom from the systematic adherence of Judaism to the law and its traditional interpretation; the Spirit actually enables the transformation of existence that was the intention behind the letter of the law (3:17–18).

4:1–6. And so, transformed “because we were shown mercy,” Paul has been given the ministry of bearing the message that transforms its recipients (4:1). Because he has been sent from God, his proclamation can embrace neither deception nor the distortion of anything that God has said in the past (4:2). Thus, where the message remains obscure, such obscurity is not a result of the proclamation but a result of the work of the enemy, the god of this age (cf. Jn 12:31), who has blinded the minds of those who persist in unbelief to the light of the gospel (4:3–4). Neither can the proclamation promote its bearer; it can promote only its subject, Jesus Christ, the Lord (4:5), who is the very image of God (and therefore the true and second Adam, the beginning of a new creation; see 2 Co 5:17). Only through Christ can the full light of God’s glory become known (4:6).

C. The cost of Paul’s ministry (4:7–5:10). 4:7–9. A change of metaphor signals the beginning of a new thought, though it is closely related to all that Paul has just said. For the light of the gospel may also be described as that which has been placed within the minds and hearts of its human bearers as a treasure placed within clay jars (4:7; cf. Mt 13:44). The power that transforms belongs to the treasure, not to its receptacle. But the receptacle, though remaining frail, is itself measurably changed by its contents.

Abandoning metaphorical language, Paul proceeds now to describe the change that has come about since the placement of the treasure within him (4:8–9). It is not a change in the conditions or circumstances of his life (for pressure and perplexity continue to be a part of his experience—together with persecution and physical beatings that have come more recently—since the beginning of his ministry). Instead it is a change in the attitude and fortitude of the apostle, which has enabled him to bear suffering and even to triumph in the midst of it.

4:10–18. For the power of the treasure is clearly displayed through the weakness and frailty of its mortal receptacle (4:10–11). So even while “death is at work” in Paul, life is at work through him for the benefit of those to whom he ministers, and this provides Paul with compensation for the cost of his ministry (4:12, 15). Moreover, a sure confidence provides Paul with further compensation. It is the confidence that even should death prevail, we will be raised (4:14). Such compensatory thoughts, kept ever more securely in view because of the inexorable renewal of his inner self, prevent Paul from despair and provide him with a new perspective on his present afflictions (4:16–18).

5:1–5. Paul, of course, has spoken to the Corinthians before about the hope of resurrection, but now he sees an opportunity to develop his thoughts further. Paul proceeds to reveal what he expects for himself beyond death. He employs a metaphorical description of the body as an earthly tent (5:1), in terms of his own experience (Ac 18:3) and the cultural background of his audience (the physical body having been described as a “tent” in Greek literature).

“We have this treasure in clay jars, so that this extraordinary power may be from God and not from us” (2 Co 4:7).

© Hintau Aliaksei.

Paul begins by restating his confidence (built on the experience of Christ) in the reality of the resurrection (cf. 4:14; 1 Co 15:4, 12–20). Then, taking his teaching one step beyond its formulation in 1 Co 15:35–53, Paul attempts to explain more fully how our earthly tent will be transformed like that of our Lord into “an eternal dwelling in the heavens” (5:1; cf. Jn 2:19–22) to become “our heavenly dwelling” (5:2). The transformation will take place when our bodies receive a new clothing (5:4; see also 1 Co 15:53). But rather than suggest that such a “clothing” implies the death of the mortal body and the “unclothing” of the immortal soul (a view that appears to have been favored by some at Corinth [5:3; cf. 1 Co 15:12, 35]), Paul asserts that the “clothing” process of resurrection takes place when our current “clothing” is “overclothed” “so that mortality may be swallowed up by life” (5:4). “For this very purpose” God created both the body and the soul: not for the destruction of either but for the redemption of both. For this reason also the Spirit of the immortal God has already entered our bodies, as a down payment guaranteeing what is to come (5:5).

This stone structure found in Corinth was known as a bēma. It was where orators spoke and officials made their formal judicial rulings. Paul likely appeared before the proconsul Gallio here (see Ac 18:12) during his first trip to Corinth. This also may have been the image he held in mind when he refers to the “judgment seat” (Gk bēma) of Christ (2 Co 5:10).

5:6–10. Thus Paul is confident, as one who lives by faith and not by sight, that when at last he leaves his home in the body, he will be transformed in a way that will allow him to be at home with the Lord (5:6–8). But then as now the aim will be to give the pleasure of a returned love and service to the Lord who loves us and laid down his life for us (5:9). Against the standard of his love for us the adequacy of our response will be measured (5:10).

D. The perspective of Paul’s ministry (5:11–21). 5:11–15. Paul’s mission proceeds with these expectations, and as they are known to God, so now they have been made known to God’s people at Corinth (5:11). In making his hopes and fears known, however, Paul is not commending himself but only sharing with the Corinthians in a way that will allow them to take the measure of his apostleship in truth apart from appearances (5:12). For all that Paul has done has been in response to the compulsion of Christ’s love, demonstrated in Christ’s willingness to die for all and include all in his death (5:14; cf. Rm 6:5–11; 1 Co 15:22; Gl 2:20; Col 3:3). No longer, then, can those who belong to Christ live for themselves; they must live instead at the direction of “the one who died for them and was raised” (5:15).

5:16–21. Furthermore, if Christ has died for all, then a purely human perspective can no longer form the basis for judgments about the worth of his actions or the value in his plan for any man or woman (5:16). Anyone who is in Christ (i.e., who belongs to him through incorporation into his body) has already become a part of a new creation (i.e., a part of the transformation of human existence that has begun in Christ and will culminate in the re-creation of heaven and earth [Rm 8:19–23; 1 Co 15:22; 2 Pt 3:10, 13; Rv 21:1]) (5:17). They have passed beyond the point of living solely as a part of the old creation (though a part of that which is “old” has been left both within and without, in our bodies and our world) and have begun to live as a part of the new created order.

Moreover, the source of such new creation is God, whose work, as in the creation accounts of the OT, forms the decisive beginning for it (5:18). For “in Christ, God was reconciling the world to himself” (5:19a). The achievement of the work, however, depended on Christ. For the new creation was allowed to proceed without counting the sins of the old only because God “made the one who did not know sin to be sin for us” (5:21). And now the extension of the work rests on those to whom have been entrusted the ministry and the message of reconciliation (5:19b). For God has chosen to extend his work in Christ through “ambassadors for Christ,” through them making his appeal to be reconciled to God to those who do not yet participate in the new creation (5:20).

4. PAUL’S APPEAL TO THE CORINTHIANS (6:1–13:10)

A. An appeal for complete reconciliation (6:1–7:4). 6:1–3. As one of “God’s coworkers,” chosen to bear the message of reconciliation, Paul now presents the Corinthians with the first in a series of appeals, urging them not to “receive the grace of God in vain” (6:1). In context these words seem meant to spur the Corinthians to respond to Paul’s attempt at reconciliation with the church. The citation in 6:2 (from Is 49:8) and its interpretation may then be seen as reinforcement to the appeal, entreating the church to respond without delay. Paul reminds them of what he has already written in an attempt to remove any “occasion for offense” that might impede the progress of reconciliation (6:3) and then seeks to persuade the church to look again at what he has done for them as one of the servants of God.

Paul describes his ministry as including the “word of truth” and the “power of God” (2 Co 6:7). Likewise, Jesus’s own ministry was characterized by the conjoining of proclamation and power (e.g., Lk 7:22–23).

6:4–7. A statement summarizing the sufferings that the apostle has endured on behalf of the church now ensues. The list may consist of general (6:4), humanly inflicted (6:5a), and self-imposed trials (6:5b) that Paul associated with his apostleship. Next comes a corresponding list of Christian virtues that have marked Paul’s apostolic ministry (6:6–7). These include “purity” (moral uprightness, 1 Th 2:10–12), “knowledge” (which balanced the commitment to holiness with a godly compassion and forgiveness [Eph 4:32; 1 Th 2:7]), and the “patience” and “kindness” associated with a “sincere love” inspired by the Holy Spirit (1 Co 13:4). Also mentioned are truthful speech (2 Co 4:2; 11:31; 13:8), the power of God (Rm 15:19; 1 Co 2:4; 4:20; Eph 3:20), and the weapons of righteousness (2 Co 10:4; Eph 6:14).

6:8–13.Then, in a series of contrasts (6:8–10), Paul brings the paradoxical experience of the apostle fully and realistically into view. In external appearance Paul’s apostolic ministry may indeed at times have seemed to some, not the least of whom were Paul’s opponents, to be characterized by marks of ineffectiveness and failure. But Paul makes his appeal with the eye of faith, with a perspective that looks through appearances and perceives the realities of God’s power at work in his ministry.

Having “spoken openly” in an attempt to lay open his ministry before them and make himself fully vulnerable in love and “affection,” Paul brings his appeal for reconciliation to its legitimate close by entreating the Corinthians in “proper response” to open their hearts to his ministry (6:11–13).

6:14–16a. A part of such openness, however, entailed the church giving heed to Paul’s apostolic authority. Accordingly, in order to effect a full reconciliation, Paul urges the Corinthians not to “become partners with those who do not believe” (6:14a). Clearly all association is not forbidden, and so it is probably best to understand Paul’s injunction here to prohibit only those relationships in which the degree of association entails an inevitable compromise with Christian standards of conduct. The injunction is accordingly followed by a series of five rhetorical questions, all of which point to crucial differences between the believer and unbeliever (6:14b–16a). The fifth question epitomizes the contrast between the temple of God and idols, which is reminiscent of 1 Corinthians and probably represents the best clue to the apostle’s intent in this passage (see 1 Co 8:10–11; 10:14, 19–21). [Belial]

6:16b–7:1. The fifth question also affords Paul the opportunity to reiterate that, together, Christians form the temple of the living God, a truth that has brought to fulfillment the divine vow that was made at various points throughout the history of Israel (6:16b; cf. Ex 25:8; 29:45; Lv 26:11–12; 1 Kg 6:13; Jr 32:38; Ezk 37:26–27). In light of this, Paul, adapting the words of Is 52:11 and Ezk 20:34, 41, urges the Corinthians to separate themselves from unbelievers and from practices that involve the use of unclean things (6:17; his words do not refer to the separations inaugurated by Christians because of doctrinal differences). As a conclusion to this series of scriptural citations, Paul returns to the thought with which he began and underlines his principal point in personal terms. As sons and daughters (the reference to women here is noteworthy and probably reflects a deliberate attempt to speak to a congregation in which women played an active, vital, and respected part [1 Co 7:3–4; 11:5]), Christians belong in association with the Lord almighty, who has promised to be a Father to each of them (6:18). Simultaneously, it is necessary for all who possess such promises to keep both body and spirit free from those associations that undermine their central commitment to the holiness that shows their “fear of God” (7:1).

7:2–4. Having urged upon the church actions appropriate to reconciliation, Paul concludes his appeal with a reiteration of his own readiness for reconciliation. What he has said has been to show, contrary apparently to the claims of his detractors, that no one has been wronged, corrupted, or “taken advantage of” by Paul’s ministry (7:2). Furthermore, in making an attempt at reconciliation that urges a change in the associations of some within the church, it has not been Paul’s intent to condemn (7:3). Instead, as one devoted to their service, Paul has sought to convey his confidence and pride in their ability to conform themselves to his apostolic counsel (7:4).

B. A new basis for appeal (7:5–16). 7:5–10. In this section Paul resumes the autobiographical narrative that was broken off in 2:13 to allow for the inclusion of the reflective apologetic of 2:14–5:19 and the appeals for reconciliation found in 5:20–7:4. The break in the narrative may reflect Paul’s desire, once he heard the comforting news Titus brought back from Corinth, to convey to the church both his immediate and his considered reaction to their new attitude toward him. In any case, he resumes the story as he left off, with himself in Macedonia struggling against external adversities and inner fears (7:5).

Within the context of such need and the humility imposed by it, God habitually acts to comfort the downcast (Is 40:1; Mt 5:4; Jms 4:6–10; 1 Pt 5:5–6). In his own case, therefore, Paul interpreted the coming of Titus, and the news he brought of the Corinthians’ renewed concern for their apostle, as a real and divinely wrought comfort (7:6–7). But it was not only Paul who had suffered through the events of the recent past. The church had also experienced remorse upon their receipt of his last letter (7:8). Thus, while it had not been Paul’s intention to inflict sorrow on those who had caused him to be sorrowful, in this instance, through God’s working, an unintended effect led to an unexpectedly quick and thorough repentance, leaving neither Paul nor the church with any sense of regret (7:9–10).

7:11–16. Quite to the contrary, the sorrow that was divinely inspired had produced an eagerness within the majority at Corinth to clear themselves and an eagerness within Paul to recognize the innocence that belonged to the majority of those within the church (7:11–13). Moreover, Titus himself had been uplifted and had become enthusiastic in his affection for the congregation (7:14–15). Such an unexpectedly rich outcome from a letter sent with such hesitation was indeed an occasion for gladness and for an expression of renewed confidence in the church’s ability to pay heed to future apostolic appeals (7:16).

C. An appeal for full response to the collection (8:1–9:15). 8:1–5. Paul now proceeds to a further appeal concerning “ministry to the saints” (8:4). The service the apostle has in mind involves the collection of an offering intended to supply the “needs of the saints” and to manifest “expressions of thanks to God” (9:12). There seems no doubt that this is the same gift for Jerusalem that was first mentioned in 1 Co 16:3 (see also Rm 15:26–27). In the period between the writing of our two canonical letters, the subject had been put aside because of the strained relationship between Paul and the church. But now it recurs, for the receipt of the collection is a project in which Paul is presently engaged among the churches of Macedonia (8:1).

Indeed, it is the “wealth of generosity” (8:2) of the Macedonian Christians that Paul holds up as he urges the Corinthians to renew their involvement in this endeavor. The Macedonians’ generous giving (8:1–5), however, has not sprung from human nature. It is a tangible expression of the grace of God at work in the lives of those who have given themselves to the Lord. It has originated without effort by Paul, continued despite the “severe trial” and extreme poverty (8:2), and produced joy among all those who have contributed “according to their ability and even beyond” (8:3; cf. Mk 12:41–44).

When Paul met James, Peter, and John in Jerusalem, they affirmed his ministry to the Gentiles (Gl 2:9–10). They did ask him to “remember the poor,” and Paul is doing that very thing in 2 Co 8–9.

8:6–9. It is such giving, inspired by grace, that Paul seeks from the church at Corinth (8:6–15), and with good reason. Titus has already been able to report that a new beginning was made during his visit. However, in order that the church might be given full opportunity to excel in “this act of grace” (8:7), Paul has urged Titus to return to Corinth and complete it (8:6). In accordance with the nature of the collection, giving is not commanded, but Paul does confess to an attempt to put the genuineness of the church’s love for others to the test of a comparison (8:8). To do this is only to recognize that the Corinthian church includes persons much more able to give than their Macedonian sisters and brothers. Accordingly, Paul urges the Corinthians to imitate Christ, who, though he was rich, yet agreed willingly to become poor “so that by his poverty you might become rich” (8:9; cf. Php 2:5–11).

8:10–15. Paul is unwilling, however, to conclude his appeal apart from the provision of some specific advice with respect to response. As this is now the third time an appeal is being made to the church (1 Co 16:1–4; 2 Co 8:6), Paul’s primary counsel to the church is to “finish the task” (8:10–11). The principle behind Paul’s advice thus becomes clear. It is the free decision to give that renders the gift acceptable. Accordingly, one should give joyfully, “according to what a person has,” and not attempt out of a sense of zeal or pious duty to give what one “does not have” (8:12).

Paul drives home the principle. His desire is not to pressure the Corinthians but instead to urge on them a uniquely biblical notion of equality that regards the surplus of one as that which exists to supply the need of another (8:13–14). The idea is then illustrated, in a fashion characteristic of the Corinthian letters, by an appeal to Scripture (8:15; see Ex 16:18).

8:16–24. Prior, however, to the use of gifts in an effort to further the “glory of the Lord” and demonstrate an “eagerness to help” (8:19), there remained the problem of the actual collection at Corinth. Apparently, as Paul was pondering precisely how to handle this task, Titus was “very diligent” (8:16–17). Paul, in turn, seeks in this section to commend Titus to the church. But Titus is not to be commended and sent alone (8:16–24). So that no one may suspect Paul’s motives, and in order to avoid criticism, Titus is to be accompanied by an unnamed brother whose reputation is beyond reproach, and who has been “appointed” by the common consent of the churches (presumably all the churches associated with the collection) to “accompany us with this gracious gift” (8:18–21).

Moreover, Paul is sending a third brother (who is either a Corinthian or a man whose confidence in them derives from some other background [8:22]) in order, Paul implies, to inspire the church with his own zeal. Nonetheless, it is Titus whom Paul commends most warmly as his personal partner and coworker in the ministry. The other brothers come as “messengers of the churches” and as “the glory of Christ” (8:23). It is therefore both to Paul and to the churches that the Corinthians are asked to demonstrate the proof of their love (8:24). [The Jerusalem Collection]

9:1–5. Though the appeal might naturally have been concluded at the end of the previous chapter, Paul again brings up the eagerness of the Corinthians to help (9:2), suggesting that the preceding section is somewhat parenthetical. The resumption of discussion about the Corinthians’ contribution to the collection, however, allows the apostle to stress that there is a need for their actual readiness to contribute as well as their willingness to do so, and affords him an opportunity to carry further his advice to the church about the way in which contributions should be decided on.

Once more Paul seeks to motivate the church by referring to the initial response to his appeal. Indeed, the apostle has been using the example of their readiness as a model in urging the Macedonians to give to the collection (9:2). Consequently, it is in the interest of both Paul’s integrity (9:3) and the Corinthians’ honor that all who have promised to give be urged to bring the collection of their contributions to completion (9:4). A purpose for the parenthetical section in the previous chapter thus becomes clear. In order that the work might be finished and the contributions ready and waiting as an authentic gift, all the brothers, including Titus, are being sent (9:5).

9:6–11. Paul closes his appeal (9:6–15) by way of reminder, either seeking to recall his own previous teaching or perhaps referring to some portion of the Gospel tradition (Lk 6:38; 19:11–27). In either case, however, the saying about sowing and reaping (9:6) serves to decisively correlate giving with a Christian’s financial welfare. Accordingly, each person should feel free to decide in faith on the amount of a gift (9:7a). The emotion that accompanies a Christian’s gift should be one of joy rather than any sense of compulsion or reluctance (9:7b).

This will be facilitated if the Corinthians will also remember that God has promised to care abundantly for their needs (Mt 6:25–34). Thus at all times they may confidently step forward and contribute to every good work (9:8). For, in accordance with Scripture (Ps 112:9), the person who does so will acquire an enduring sense of having done what is right (9:9). Such a person may also rest assured that God will continually and generously resupply the resources that have been expended, enabling both righteousness and thanksgiving to increase (9:10–11).

9:12–15. Thus the service of giving may be seen not only as an offering to meet human needs but also as a way to make possible the increased worship of God. “Expressions of thanks” and praise will undoubtedly result (9:12), witness to the transforming power of the gospel of Christ will be eloquently and effectively rendered (9:13), and prayers will be offered in sincerity for the continued growth of the church in the grace that is part of God’s indescribable gift (9:14–15).

D. An appeal for full allegiance to apostolic authority (10:1–18). There is a perceptible change in the tone of Paul’s letter beginning at this point and continuing until its end. But the degree of difference, and the reasons for it, are much less clear. In any event, some continuity with the previous context is afforded by the repetition of a formal appeal; in this case, the appeal concerns apostolic authority.

10:1–6. The appeal is sounded in the midst of apparent doubt among some at Corinth about Paul’s ability to exercise apostolic authority in a clear and compelling way, especially when face to face with his audience, as over against his ability and willingness to write in a bold way from a distance (10:1). For his own part, Paul refuses, in imitation of the meekness and gentleness of Christ (see also 1 Co 4:12; 1 Pt 2:23), to be moved to a demonstration of his authority simply by the challenge to do so (cf. Mt 4:3, 6). Instead, before the necessity for authoritative action imposes itself, he chooses to beg that the challenge be withdrawn (10:2).

If it is not, then a demonstration will indeed take place. But it will not be a demonstration of Paul’s deficiencies, as his opponents anticipate. It will be instead a show of the divine power that operates through the Lord’s chosen apostles without regard to the criteria of authority that are recognized and accorded weight in this world (see Ac 4:13; 1 Co 2:1–5). For God has empowered those whom he has commissioned with weapons that “demolish arguments” about authority and “every proud thing” of those who set their own perceptions about the ability to exercise power against the knowledge that comes from God (10:4–5). Accordingly, should it be necessary, Paul will not hesitate to take action nor neglect needed punishment (10:6).

10:7–11. Paul’s appeal has been made necessary because of the appearance of some at Corinth who have tried to dissuade the church from continuing allegiance to Paul as a primary apostolic authority (10:7–18). Their attempt to undermine Paul’s rightful claim to authority has had two thrusts.

On the one hand, they seek to belittle Paul by drawing a distinction between the frightening authority with which he gave instructions to the church when absent and his inability to manifest a similar authority through speech and the power of his person when actually present (10:10). In reply, Paul reminds his readers that as long as they look simply at “what is obvious” in such an allegation it may seem to have the appearance of the truth (10:7). But the claim of allegiance to Christ is not an exclusive possession, and if it legitimately belongs to anyone, it certainly belongs to Paul as much as his detractors. Consequently, though the apostle will admit to a more open use of the authority that the Lord has given to him when writing, he will permit no one to think that he is embarrassed to assert such authority when seeking to build up the body of Christ with either letters or actions (10:8–11).

10:12–18. On the other hand, those who oppose Paul attempt to elevate their own authority by making a boast that their credentials and associations commend them as persons who enjoy a higher status than Paul in the eyes of many other churches (10:12). Paul, however, refuses to respond to the challenge of comparison directly. Instead, he draws attention more subtly to the fact that the terms of measurement and comparison employed by his opponents are largely self-serving. Similarly, they refuse to recognize that the limits of Paul’s work and reputation are not due to any lack of eminence but rather to the fact that he has devoted himself exclusively to the field that God has assigned him, including the church at Corinth (10:13–14).

Accordingly, because he has received his own divine commission (Ac 9:6, 15; 26:16–18; Gl 2:11–17), Paul does not attempt to bolster his authority by “boasting” of associations between his work and “other people’s labors” (10:15), as do his opponents. Instead, he simply expresses the hope that his labor in trying to build up the church at Corinth will eventually lead to the preaching of the gospel in regions beyond Corinth (10:16). For it is only through mission beyond the churches that are already established, and not through repeated incursions into territory that has already been evangelized, that the Lord’s commission will be accomplished (Mt 28:19–20; Ac 1:8). Commendation, therefore, belongs not to the “one commending himself” but to the one who answers the call of the Lord (10:17–18).

E. Support for the appeal (11:1–12:13). 11:1–6. Paul proceeds to support his appeal by pointing to several subsidiary issues (such as faithfulness to the gospel) at stake in this contest for authority. To do this, however, he must engage in the foolishness of an apology in defense of himself and his preaching (11:1). But because of his jealous love for the Corinthians, and his desire as their “father” to present the church to Christ as a pure virgin bride, untainted by the errors of others, Paul is willing to make his appeal on any terms (11:2).

Paul’s chief concern, however, is not his own status but the minds of his converts (men or women), which may be seduced by arguments about authority and deceived about truth in this matter as effectively as was Eve (11:3; cf. Gn 3:1–7). The crux of his concern is the immaturity of the Corinthians’ faith and their consequent childlike acceptance of those who claim authority in the name of the Lord but whose views about Jesus, the nature of the gospel, and the experience of the Spirit are significantly different from those that were originally proclaimed at Corinth (11:4). Consequently, since the comprehension of the gospel is at issue, Paul will not permit the church to entertain even for a moment the idea that his credentials as an apostle are at all inferior to those of anyone his detractors put above him (11:5). And no one, Paul trusts, will be blinded to this by the fallacious argument that his knowledge about the faith is somehow inadequate because his self-expression is ineloquent (11:6).

In 2 Co 10:17, Paul repeats a quotation from Jr 9:23–24 that he has cited to the Corinthians once before (1 Co 1:31): “Let the one who boasts, boast in the Lord.”

11:7–15. Another issue in the contest for authority concerned proper apostolic practice with respect to the receipt of financial support. The Corinthians were apparently poised to accept a twisting of the truth that Paul had already taught them about the freedom of an apostle to make use, or not to make use, of financial support from his converts (see 1 Co 9:3–18). Paul, however, adamantly refuses to accept either that he has sinned against the Lord’s will by preaching the gospel “free of charge” (11:7) or that his rejection of Corinthian support demonstrates any lack of love (11:11). He reminds them that he acted as he did not because of any lack of knowledge about the propriety of the principle of support but out of a pastoral desire not to burden his converts immediately with the necessity of his financial welfare (11:8–9). Thus he vows to continue his practice of not accepting support from his converts during an initial mission and to make such a practice a part of his distinctive apostolic boast (11:10).

As for those who have come to Corinth to contest his authority to act as he has, Paul charges that they themselves cannot make any truthful claim to be apostles (11:12). Insofar then as they have claimed apostolic authority for their mistaken teaching, they are deceitful workers and servants of Satan, who characteristically promotes falsehood by disguising himself as a bearer of the light of true knowledge (11:13–15a). If these people do not desist, “their end will be according to their works” (11:15b).

11:16–21. A third issue raised in the struggle for authority at Corinth involved the respective credentials of Paul and his opponents (11:16–32). Contrary to his adversaries’ expectations, Paul takes up the challenge to compare his background and service with his rivals’, refusing to be written off by anyone as a foolish inferior (11:16). The real foolishness, he charges, belongs to those at Corinth who consider themselves wise enough to make decisions about the possessors of apostolic authority. In putting up with the boasting of Paul’s opponents and evaluating their claim according to the way of the world, they have ignored the truth that persons who resort to boasting to establish their authority are not speaking “as the Lord would” (11:17–19).

To such Corinthians also belongs (as Paul seeks to emphasize through ridicule) an illogical tolerance of teaching that aims to “enslave” or “exploit,” and a ludicrous willingness to accept as an authority anyone who attempts to dominate them (11:20). Accordingly, in words full of irony, Paul observes that with such criteria sensitivity may justly be construed as weakness, and he laments his lack of strength (11:21). Nevertheless, in an attempt to redeem his own, Paul is ready to descend to whatever type of comparison they might find persuasive and to match any kind of boast. [Honor and Shame]

Paul has learned that heritage and accomplishments and possessions are worth nothing compared to the value of knowing Christ (Php 3:3–11). In his weakness he has learned to rely on God’s strength and power.

11:22–23. If some Corinthians are awed by the fact that Paul’s rivals are Hebrews, Israelites, or descendants of Abraham (whether there is a distinction between these terms is of little consequence), then Paul is equally entitled to such respect (11:22). If, on the other hand, the claim that has captured the Corinthians’ admiration is the boast that Paul’s opponents have been greater servants of Christ, then clearly the evidence should tip any scale of comparison in Paul’s favor—though it is truly senseless to think of making such comparative evaluations of the Lord’s servants (11:23; cf. 1 Co 3:5–7; 4:1–5).

11:24–29. To substantiate his case, Paul now presents a summary (which goes beyond the record of Acts in completeness while demonstrating at the same time its essential trustworthiness) of his apostolic service. However, in laying claim to the title “servant of Christ” (11:23), he submits for consideration incidents that display his weakness and vulnerability rather than those that demonstrate his personal strengths.

In an effort to bear the gospel to the world, Paul has repeatedly suffered the lashes of the Jews, beatings inflicted by the “rods” of Gentiles (Ac 16:22), and the stones cast at him by both (Ac 14:19) (11:24–25a). He has been willing to expose himself to the physical dangers associated with travel on land and sea, and to the emotional stress of recurrent conflicts with “false brothers” (11:25b–26). He has uncomplainingly endured countless personal deprivations, including sleepless nights, hunger and thirst, exposure to the cold without clothing, and the kind of hard labor and toil that might more naturally have been done by persons below his station in life (11:27). Finally, he has daily faced the inner pressure of concern for those in the churches he has left behind who have found their faith weak in moments of crisis or who have fallen away from faith and back into sin (11:28–29).

11:30–33. To verify his testimony, Paul takes an oath, solemnly swearing its truth in the name of the God and Father of the Lord Jesus (11:31). Then, as a last example typifying much of what he has said about facing danger, opposition, and hardship, Paul relates how he was forced to flee the city of Damascus in secret (11:32–33; cf. Ac 9:23–25). It is in demonstrations of divine power at work to support him in such moments of human vulnerability that Paul urges his audience to seek confirmation of his right to be called an apostle. [God’s Power in Weakness]

12:1–5. A final issue, closely related to the third, apparently pertained to the ability to recount previous personal experiences of revelatory visions (12:1–13). Once again, though there is really nothing to be gained by an attempt to supplement the record of divine support that he has already presented, Paul consents to go on “boasting” in an effort to win the wayward Corinthians back to his side (12:1). But once more he does so in a way that shows his reticence to cooperate fully in any contest of credentials proposed by his opponents, speaking modestly of his own experience as only that of a “man in Christ” (12:2).

Paul relates an experience that happened to him some fourteen years earlier (placing it in the period between his first visit to Jerusalem following his conversion and his arrival in Antioch; see Ac 9:23–30; 11:19–26). During this experience, while completely unaware of the whereabouts of his body, Paul was nonetheless brought to a form of consciousness in paradise and enabled to see and hear things that “a human being is not allowed to speak” (12:3–4). From the point of view of Paul’s opponents, it is entirely proper for “this person” to boast about the privilege of receiving such a vision (12:5a). But Paul is unwilling to take this view, or to allow the Corinthians to think that this experience constitutes the real basis for his claim to be an apostle. And so he continues to present a claim that offers a clearer indication of apostolic vocation, a boast in the weakness of what he has done and said in Christ’s service (12:5b).

12:6–10. Furthermore, the Corinthians should know that following the experience of exaltation there came still further moments of weakness (12:7). Paul’s picturesque description has led to a wide range of interpretations concerning the nature of his “thorn in the flesh,” but in the end, little more can be said with certainty than what Paul in fact tells us—namely, that the thorn began to affect him only after his revelatory experience, that it was painful for him, and that it had enabled Satan and the thought of sin to gain entrance to his mind. Paul had “pleaded with the Lord three times” to remove it (12:8). But in response, he received instead divine power that finds its perfect completion when it enables the overcoming of such weakness (12:9).

Paul’s experience itself then illustrates his message to the church. The true boast of an apostle, of one sent out by the Lord on a mission (for that is what the title truly means), is that in the course of such a mission, the Lord has faithfully provided power in moments of necessity so that the apostle may claim, “When I am weak, then I am strong” (12:10).

12:11–13. Accordingly, though he regrets having “been a fool” with a different boast, Paul has shown through it that he deserves to be commended rather than written off as the inferior of his opponents or those whose apostolic authority they might claim as superior to Paul’s (12:11). All the manifestations of divine power have been demonstrated at necessary points in the mission to Corinth, along with a kind of endurance that convinced the Corinthians these were more than the tricks of a charlatan seeking some temporary converts (12:12). Indeed, they have received from Paul all that the other churches have except for the request that they share in the burden of his support (12:13).

F. The conclusion of the appeal (12:14–13:10). 12:14–18. Paul concludes his appeal for Corinthian allegiance to his apostolic authority by informing the church that he is preparing to come to them a third time and urging them in advance to think over what he has said (12:14a). If they do, they will surely see that his reluctance to accept their support is no more difficult to explain than the reluctance of parents to accept their children’s support or to give up the privilege of spending their resources on behalf of those whom they love (12:14b–15). It is just this kind of parental love that Paul has lavished on the church. They can scarcely love him less for it, or for refusing for any reason to burden them with his support.

Nor can anyone seriously imagine (as Paul’s sarcasm is meant to show) that he has sought to “take advantage of” them belatedly by sending Titus and others (including a brother known to both the Corinthians and the apostle) to visit the church on his behalf (12:16–17). If they admit that Titus didn’t “take advantage of” them in any way after his arrival, then neither can the apostle who sent him be justly accused of motives or actions contrary to those of his emissary (12:18).

12:19–21. Paul reiterates, however, that his primary purpose is not his own defense (12:19). Instead, he has written in an attempt to bring the truth—which alone can be spoken in the sight of God—plainly into view, and to strengthen its hold on the minds of the Corinthians. The apostle’s fear is that upon his return, both he and his converts may find that the lies of his detractors have worked so well that neither of them will be happy to learn the truth (12:20a).

Indeed, for his part, Paul suspects that as a result of the work of his rivals, there may already be sufficient “quarreling, jealousy, angry outbursts, selfish ambitions, slander, gossip, arrogance, and disorder” at Corinth to humble the apostolic pride that he previously took in the origins and growth of the church (12:20b). As a result, he is afraid that he will grieve over many who have indulged in the kinds of sin about which he previously warned them and who have, as a sign of disbelief in Paul’s authority, made no attempt at repentance (12:21).

13:1–4. However, such people have already received a warning in person and now by letter (13:2). Paul’s third visit will be for them a time of confirmation of their sins (13:1; see Dt 19:15) and fulfillment of Paul’s solemn promise not to spare any of those who have sinned from the authoritative apostolic judgment and discipline that will prove that Christ is speaking (13:2–3a). For Christ, even though he once was crucified in weakness, now lives in and through “the power of God.” Consequently, as the Corinthians have had occasion to learn before, he is neither weak nor powerless to deal with those who stubbornly persist in sin (13:3b–4). Indeed, he has given power to those who live with him so that, though they often find themselves weak in him, they may nonetheless have strength for discipline as a part of their faithful service to others in his name.

Both Jesus and Paul teach that religious authority should be used for building up others rather than tearing them down or abusing them in any way (see Mk 10:42–45; 2 Co 13:10).

13:5–10. In light of this, Paul urges the Corinthians to sincerely examine themselves, to evaluate the degree to which their recent words and deeds witness to the presence of Christ as Lord within (13:5). The discovery of a relative or partial lack of correspondence between faith and action, of something that is wrong, would indicate the need for repentance and a return to what is right. Paul confidently encourages his audience to apply the test to him as well, so that they may not only reflect on the measure of their own recent faithfulness but also rediscover the measure of his (13:6–7). Yet his chief hope is that the Corinthians will come face to face with their need for repentance. For Paul is persuaded that neither he nor his converts will ultimately be able to continue doing anything against the truth if it is known within (13:8).

Furthermore, because his primary concern is for the Corinthians, Paul is glad to admit both his own weaknesses and their strengths. Indeed, his prayer is not primarily for himself but for the increasing perfection of his converts in actions that accord with the truth (13:9). And the same motive explains why he writes. For Paul would rather make timely use in a letter of the authority that the Lord has given him to help, not hurt (13:10).

5. EPISTOLARY CONCLUSION (13:11–14)

The conclusion of the letter begins with an affectionate personal farewell, indicating that despite all that Paul has written, including some biting and pointed sarcasm, he nonetheless continues to regard his audience at Corinth with a genuine love as fellow members of the family of faith (13:11a). Accordingly, as the father of their faith, he continues to urge them to improve (13:11b). He also encourages the Corinthians to imitate his love for them by openly manifesting a familial affection for one another (13:12a).

Paul conveys the “greetings” of the remainder of the family (13:12b) and adds a closing prayer (as was usual) for the welfare of those who will be receiving the letter (13:13). As might be expected, Paul’s closing prayer is distinctly Christian in content, petitioning for the continual outpouring of the divine blessings of grace, love, and fellowship in the lives of its readers. In its form, the prayer also comes intriguingly close to providing an affirmation of trinitarian theology as it draws the name of the Lord Jesus Christ together with that of God and the Holy Spirit in a threefold petition.