Ezekiel

1. PROPHECIES OF DOOM AND JUDGMENT (1:1–24:27)

A. A vision of the glory of God (1:1–28). 1:1–3. The significance of the thirtieth year (1:1) still eludes us. All other dates in Ezekiel are based on the year of Jehoiachin’s captivity (e.g., 1:2). Is it the thirtieth birthday of the prophet? An ancient Jewish tradition maintains that the thirty years refer to the number of years from the time King Josiah began his religious reforms in his twelfth year (628 BC) to Jehoiachin’s captivity (598 BC).

Ezekiel’s encounter with God (Ezk 1:1–3:15) has numerous similarities to Isaiah’s encounter with God (Is 6:1–13).

Ezekiel was by the Chebar Canal when the word of the Lord came to him. Daniel also experienced God-given visions when standing by a body of water (Dn 8:2; 10:4).

Ezekiel is among the exiles in Babylon, having been taken there as a captive in 597. He is situated by the Chebar Canal (1:1, 3), which is near the ancient city of Nippur. It is here that he sees visions of God (1:1).

1:4–21. What these visions consist of is spelled out in verses 4–28. To begin with, Ezekiel sees a windstorm blowing from the north (1:4). In the midst of the storm he observes a chariot transported by four living creatures. Each has four faces and four wings (1:6). The four faces are those of a human, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, which represent four dominant creatures (1:10). The four lordly creatures are, however, merely the bearers of the Lord of lords.

These animal-like beings are cherubim (see chap. 10). In the OT, cherubim function as symbols of God’s presence. For example, in the tabernacle and later in the temple, the dwelling place of God is in the most holy place, above the mercy seat and between the cherubim. Hundreds of miles from his home, Ezekiel receives a vision that symbolizes the presence of the living Lord. God’s presence is with the prophet in Babylon as much as it could be anywhere else.

1:22–27. The second object Ezekiel sees, above the chariot, is an expanse (1:22–23; cf. Gn 1:6) and above that expanse a throne (1:26). The expanse is obviously the platform on which the throne sits. The throne itself is made of lapis lazuli. Seated on the throne is a man who is fiery from the waist up and fiery from the waist down (1:27). If cherubim stand for the presence of God, so does fire.

This second part of the vision suggests a God who is sovereign. Certainly the prophet needs this reminder. It may seem that Nebuchadnezzar is now in control, but beyond his earthly throne there is the heavenly throne of God himself.

1:28. The third object Ezekiel sees is a rainbow in the midst of this fire (1:28a). The rainbow reminds us of Gn 9, where it is a sign of the covenant that God will never again destroy the earth by a flood. The God who is near and who reigns is also a covenant-making and covenant-keeping God. Deportation to Babylon does not mean that God has dispossessed his people or that the covenant has been abrogated.

All that Ezekiel can do is fall facedown when he beholds the glory of the Lord (1:28b). He does not say a word. He simply observes. Now we shift from something Ezekiel sees (1:4–28a) to something he is about to hear (1:28b).

B. Ezekiel’s call (2:1–10). 2:1–4. That Ezekiel is told to stand up on his feet (2:1) suggests that he has control of himself and is not unconscious. Ezekiel 2:2 supplies the first of many references to the Spirit of God in Ezekiel. The Spirit addresses Ezekiel as “son of man” (2:3). This title is used for the prophet about ninety times in the book and is used of no other prophet in the OT. Ezekiel describes visions of the divine not found in any other prophecy; yet Ezekiel is still only a man, a mortal, nothing more.

The congregation to which Ezekiel is sent is described with two verbs: “rebelled” and “transgressed” (2:3). The second verb is a political term and means “to violate covenant duties.” The congregation is further described with two adjectives: “obstinate” and “hardhearted” (2:4). The first describes the people on the outside—literally “hard of face” (see the CSB footnote). The second describes the people on the inside. These descriptions delineate the enormity of the task before the prophet. His congregation is not a promising one.

2:5–10. What God is concerned about is not the congregation’s attitude but the prophet’s attitude. Ezekiel is not to base or evaluate his ministry on their reaction (2:5–6). Driven by obedience rather than results, he is to speak God’s words to them (2:7). There is no record that Ezekiel ever faced opposition, as Jeremiah did. Chapter 2 anticipates trouble, but it never emerges.

One thing Ezekiel must not do is lower himself to the people’s spiritual level (2:8). His obedience must become a model for them rather than their disobedience becoming a stimulus for him. Next Ezekiel is shown a scroll that has writing on both sides (2:9–10a), indicating that the prophet’s message is all from God. God does not write on one side, and Ezekiel on the other.

Written on the scroll are “lamentation, mourning, and woe” (2:10b). These are three fairly synonymous terms, and putting three of them side by side suggests comprehensiveness. Unlike Jeremiah, who mingles prophecies of hope and doom, Ezekiel is all doom until chapter 33.

C. Exhorter, sentry, and arbiter (3:1–27). 3:1–6. Because God twice tells Ezekiel to eat the scroll (3:1, 3; cf. 2:8), it may be that there was some reluctance on Ezekiel’s part. It is not enough for Ezekiel to take the scroll into his mouth; he must ingest it as well. To his surprise the scroll tastes as sweet as honey (cf. Pss 19:10; 119:103; Jr 15:16). To find the word of the Lord sweet means that it is inherently desirable and attractive and has satisfactory effects.

Ezekiel is reminded that his message is not to foreigners (3:5). Since chapters 25–32 are Ezekiel’s oracles to the nations, verse 5 refers only to the first part of the prophecy (chaps. 1–24). But if God had sent Ezekiel to them, their acceptance of his message would have been speedier than his own people’s acceptance of his message (3:6; cf. Lk 10:13–15).

3:7–15. If his congregation is tough (3:7), God will make Ezekiel tougher (3:8–9). A thick skin and a tender heart is a healthy combination in any of God’s ministering servants.

Ezekiel is now told to join his community of exiles at Tel-abib (“Mound of the Flood,” 3:11, 15). This place was formed over years by silt thrown up by storm floods. Ezekiel’s bitterness and anger (3:14) are either reflections of God’s attitude toward his people or, more likely, a reflection of the prophet’s realization that he has to pronounce doom on those he loves.

3:16–21. God further instructs Ezekiel to be a sentry to warn his people of approaching danger (3:17). Silence on the prophet’s part not only dooms the congregation but also makes the prophet himself culpable (3:18–21). The prophet’s responsibility extends both to the wicked and to the backslidden righteous. In either case the prophet forfeits his life by neglecting his responsibility.

Ezekiel has some input in the eternal destiny of the souls of humanity. There is no other way for sidetracked believers to be restored to God’s good graces apart from the involvement of the prophet. The sentry analogy will resurface in chapter 33.

3:22–27. In light of verses 16–21 the divine command of 3:24 is almost inexplicable: “Go, shut yourself inside your house.” First Ezekiel is commanded to be a sentry. Then he is ordered to confine himself to his house! And to complicate matters, God will make his tongue stick to the roof of his mouth (3:26). Ezekiel will lose his capacity for speech. How does a dumb, tongue-tied prophet under house confinement warn his people of impending danger?

To square verses 22–27 with verses 16–21, some have suggested that the dumbness began not after the prophet’s call but only later, and even then it was intermittent. Others suggest that by dumbness is meant that Ezekiel will be immobile. He is to keep to his house, and the people are to come to him (8:1; 14:1; 20:1; 33:30–31).

Because he will be mute, Ezekiel will be “unable to be a mediator for” the people (3:26). He will only speak God’s words to them (3:27).

D. The siege of Jerusalem symbolized (4:1–5:17). It is appropriate for Ezekiel to act out his message, as he does in chapters 4 and 5. For in the last paragraph of chapter 3 we are informed that Ezekiel was not able to talk (3:26). Conversation gives way to pantomiming.

4:1–3. In the first act the prophet is told to take a clay brick, draw the city of Jerusalem on it, and depict a siege against it (4:1–2). Then he is to place an iron plate between himself and the besieged city (4:3). This plate acts as a wall of separation between the prophet and the brick and symbolizes the impenetrable barrier between God and Jerusalem. The brick is a symbol of what is about to happen to Jerusalem. When Jeremiah raised this subject, it got him into hot water (see Jr 7:1–15; 26:1–24). Ezekiel does not provoke such sentiment, perhaps because he is hundreds of miles away. [Siege Works]

4:4–8. Ezekiel’s second act is to lie on his left side for 390 days, in which he bears the sin of the house of Israel (4:4–5). One day matches one year of sin by Israel. To what do the 390 days refer? If one adds this number to the date of Ezekiel’s call, the number goes back to approximately 1000 BC (598 + 390), which is roughly the time of David and Solomon. But this is the period from the days of the united kingdom to Ezekiel. It appears that Ezekiel (or God) indicts not merely the northern kingdom after Solomon but the entire monarchy period of Israel.

Also, Ezekiel is to lie on his right side for forty days, in which he bears the sin of the house of Judah (the southern kingdom, 4:6–8). The number forty is often used in the Old Testament as well as in the Christian tradition; in many instances it occurs in situations involving the removal of sin, such as Noah’s flood, punishment on Egypt for forty years, forty days to the overthrow of Nineveh, forty days of Lent. The forty days represent the exile of Judah, which lasted about forty years (587–539 BC). For both actions Ezekiel is said “to bear the iniquity” of his people (4:4, 6). It is unlikely that this means that the prophet makes atonement for their sins. Here the prophet is burdened by the weight of the people’s sin on him. The glory of the Lord makes him fall. The weight of sin flattens him.

4:9–17. Ezekiel’s third act is to prepare various foods and make them into bread for himself (4:9). It is something that Ezekiel does while the siege is being enacted. His daily intake of food is to be eight ounces (4:10). His only beverage is water, and of this he is to drink only one-sixth of a gallon (4:11). This frugal diet symbolizes the minimal amount of food the people will have access to when Jerusalem is under siege.

Barley bread (4:12) was a staple of lower-income people, while the upper classes consumed wheat products. In this siege only food normally eaten by the poor will be available. Food, already in short supply, will also have to be rationed (4:16). That it is to be baked on human excrement means the food is not only meager but repulsive and unclean (4:13), leading Ezekiel to protest (4:14; cf. Ac 10:10–14).

It is crucial that the people before whom Ezekiel pantomimes, and who are already in exile, know the disaster about to visit the holy city, and more important, why it is visiting the city. It is impossible to sin and go against the divine order without serious consequences (4:17). Jerusalem is God’s chosen city, but if he leaves it, it becomes as vulnerable as any other city.

5:1–7. Ezekiel’s final gesture is cutting off his hair and shaving his head (5:1–17). The common denominator in all these symbolic gestures is the affliction of Ezekiel: prolonged immobility and minimal food, which is defiled at that. The shaving of hair has the same impact since priests were forbidden from shaving their hair (Lv 21:5; Ezk 44:20). Interestingly, Ezekiel protested when he was told to eat unclean food, but he does not protest when he is told to shave his beard and head, even though he is a priest (5:1). Shaving hair may symbolize mourning, and even disgrace and humiliation (2 Sm 10:4).

One-third of the hair he burns with fire inside the city he just drew on the brick; one-third he strikes with the sword; and one-third he scatters to the wind (5:2). Death by catastrophe, war, and dispersion await the rebellious house of Israel (5:12). A few in this third group will be spared, but even some of the exiled will perish.

Being set in the center of the nations makes Jerusalem more visible (5:5). Hence, her conduct ought to be more commendable. Yet just the opposite has taken place. She who has God’s laws is acting at a lower moral level than those who do not have God’s laws (5:6–7). What an indictment! The unbelievers have become a moral conscience for what is supposed to be the community of believers.

5:8–13. Because the people have committed unprecedented evil, God is going to unleash unprecedented judgment. Since Israel has not executed his judgments, God will execute his judgment (5:8). The famine will be so extensive and intense that society will be driven to cannibalism (5:10; cf. Lv 26:29).

How God’s people have defiled his sanctuary (5:11) will be explained in chapters 8–11. Here only the accusation is made. Ezekiel 5:12 spells out the destiny of the “thirds” mentioned in verse 2. There is no indication that repentance will mitigate the divine judgment. Ezekiel, therefore, makes no room for exhortation. He gives only description. Only when punishment is complete will God’s anger subside (5:13).

5:14–17. The remainder of the chapter essentially repeats verses 8–12. Jerusalem will be destroyed. She will become a reproach, a taunt, and a warning to the nations (5:14–15). How far we have come from Genesis, where God’s will was that his people be a blessing to the nations. God the Creator of Israel has now become her annihilator. The iniquity of the Israelites is full, and the period of grace is ended.

E. A further description of judgment (6:1–14). 6:1–10. Ezekiel addresses the mountains (6:2–3a). Perhaps the reason Ezekiel is told to speak to the mountains is that the majority of the people lived in the highlands rather than in the valleys. When Ezekiel later prophesies to the mountains for a second time (36:1), the emphasis is completely different (restoration).

The high places God will destroy (6:3b) are not the mountains (though juxtaposition of the two is deliberate). They are sacrificial platforms on a natural height. Altars for sacrifice and altars for incense will also be destroyed, along with idols (6:4–6). The Hebrew for “idols” may be connected with another word meaning “dung pellet.” In other words, although the objects are considered holy icons by the people, they are actually nothing but excrement. “Desolated” may mean “to make nonfunctional.” Note that the reasons for the people’s destruction are not moral (e.g., for sexual sins). The people are condemned for illicit worship styles. They have introduced into their liturgical ceremonies customs unacceptable to their Lord.

Some, however, will escape the sword (6:8). This is the remnant (cf. 5:3). God judges his people, but he does not obliterate them. In captivity this remnant will remember the Lord they have grieved (6:9–10). God is quite certain that exile will bring the exiled to their senses. Thus we see that deportation is not a means by which God vents his rage. It has both a condemnatory aspect (sin has its consequences) and a salvific aspect (now they will return to me).

6:11–14. Clapping the hands and stamping the feet (6:11a) indicate an expression of malicious glee (cf. 25:3, 6). To see all this happening gives to somebody (the mountains? God? Ezekiel?) a sense of deep satisfaction.

Three scourges will visit the people: sword, famine, plague (6:11b). These scourges will overrun people whether they are living in Jerusalem, near Jerusalem, or some distance from Jerusalem (6:12). Geography will neither condemn nor save a person. The situation of one’s heart, rather than one’s house, is the critical issue.

God’s judgment will stretch from the desert to Diblah (6:14a). The wilderness is the southern wilderness. Diblah (or Riblah?; see the CSB footnote) is a town situated in Hamath, a country on the northern boundary of Israel (Ezk 47:17; see 2 Kg 23:33).

What will be accomplished by all this? “They will know that I am the LORD” (6:14b). This is not necessarily conversion, but it is admittance of God’s power, his control of history, and his lordship over events.

F. The end of Jerusalem (7:1–27). 7:1–11. In this chapter the prophet focuses on the termination of Jerusalem. He uses three crisp phrases to express this: “the end has come” (7:2, 6; cf. 7:3); “here is the day” (7:10); “the time has come” (7:12). The Hebrew word for “end” is related to the word for ripe summer fruit that is ready to be harvested (see Am 8:1–3). Harvesting involves cutting down and clearing the fields. That is what the Lord is about to do, but it will not be a thanksgiving harvest.

Ezekiel 7:8–9 repeats 7:3–4. Each time, three themes are prominent: what God is going to do; why he is going to do it; the result. The botanical metaphors of 7:10–11 are appropriate. What is growing, however, is not wheat but arrogance and violence.

7:12–17. This time will be so bad that the purchaser will not be able to enjoy his acquisition for long, for it soon will be captured and ransacked by the enemy (7:12). The individual who has sold something should not be sullen at its loss or departure, for he would not have been able to keep it for long anyway, in light of the approaching enemy. If an individual sells his property, he will never recover that land as long as he lives (7:13). “Return to what was sold” sounds like Jubilee language (Lv 25). But there will be no more jubilee or jubilation. It is a time for war, indicated by the blowing of the trumpet, a sign of the critical nature of the times (7:14).

Ezekiel 7:15 refers to those inside and outside Jerusalem. Three different types of scourges will afflict the people: a sword for outsiders, plague and famine for insiders. The few who will escape will do so to the mountains, but they will moan like doves (7:16; for refugees compared to birds in the highlands, see Ps 11:1; Is 16:2; Jr 48:28). So frightened are the people that they cannot control their bodily functions (7:17). They are like the very young or the very elderly.

7:18–27. Putting on sackcloth and shaving the head (7:18) are ostensibly mourning customs—mourning because of loss and humiliation. Even those things that normally give stability to life—silver and gold—will be abandoned (7:19). In fact, it was this silver and gold that partially got the people in trouble to start with. Long before Paul said it (1 Tm 6:10), Ezekiel shows that the love of money is the root of all evil. Silver and gold led to jewelry and jewelry led to idols (7:20).

In a time of deep crisis people will grab for anything, even a shoestring. Prophets who have visions, priests who give teachings, and elders who transmit counsel will be of no avail (7:26). Normally these are precisely the people to whom one would turn in a time of difficulty. The three groups of would-be helpers are matched by three categories of would-be victims: king, prince, and people of the land (7:27). The latter three are those who carry influence in society, or who ought to carry influence. God honors the right kind of conduct among his people; he is appalled by the wrong kind of behavior among them.

Shamash, the Syrian sun god (seated at right). God shows Ezekiel Israelites who are worshiping the sun (Ezk 8:16), which likely includes worshiping the god Shamash.

© Baker Publishing Group and Dr. James C. Martin. Courtesy of the Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago.

G. Idolatry in the temple (8:1–18). Mention was made earlier of defiling God’s sanctuary with vile images (5:11). Chapters 8–11 will now spell this out in detail. The timing of this vision is specific: sixth year, sixth month, fifth day—that is, September 592.

8:1–13. The first abomination Ezekiel sees is “the offensive statue that provokes jealousy” (8:3). While idolatry abounded throughout Israel’s history, only one person (Manasseh) had the audacity to place an idol in the temple (see 2 Kg 21:7). Second Kings 23:6, however, tells us that Josiah (who is pre-Ezekiel) destroyed this idol. This indicates that the abominations Ezekiel sees are not necessarily current ones. So serious is this that it drives God from his sanctuary.

The second abomination Ezekiel observes is pictures of animals scratched on the walls (8:10), recalling the zoomorphic religion of the pagans, especially the Egyptians. In front of these pictures stand seventy elders (8:11). In Ezekiel’s day even the national council is corrupt. The text names one of these elders: Jaazaniah son of Shaphan. He is from a distinguished family. Shaphan was secretary to Josiah (2 Kg 22:3). One of his sons (Ahikam) was a staunch supporter of Jeremiah (Jr 26:24). Another son (Gedaliah) was appointed governor of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kg 25:22). Jaazaniah is apparently the black sheep of the family. It is not clear why the people perform their acts of homage in the darkness if they believe the Lord has forsaken the land (8:12). It makes the most sense to take darkness as part of the ritual rather than camouflage.

8:14–18. The third abomination Ezekiel observes is women mourning for Tammuz (8:14). Tammuz is the Hebrew equivalent of the Sumerian god Dumu-zi, whose name means “The Faithful Son.” He was originally a human being who was deified and later banished to the underworld. That women are weeping for Tammuz reflects the pagan ceremony observing Tammuz’s annual death and descent into the netherworld. Normally this ceremony took place in the fourth month (June–July), but Ezekiel sees it in the sixth month (8:1).

The fourth abomination is twenty-five men facing the east and engaging in sun worship (8:16). This takes place between the portico and the altar, a sacred space.

The statement in 8:17 about putting the branch to their nose means something like “sneer at me” or “turn their noses up at me.” Such brazen idolatries do not go ignored. On the contrary, they cause a major change in how God relates to the people (8:18). The God who lavishes pity now withholds it. The God who listens attentively now turns a deaf ear.

H. The execution of the idolaters (9:1–11). 9:1–7. Ezekiel sees six guards of the city who are executioners (9:1–2). Together with the man clothed in linen (a heavenly scribe), the group numbers seven, the perfect number.

What makes their advancement necessary is the first stage of the departure of God’s presence from the temple. He moves from the most holy place to the threshold (9:3). The only thing that makes the temple a holy place is the presence of a holy God. When he leaves, the temple becomes like any other building.

There were seven thousand in Elijah’s day who did not bow the knee to Baal (1 Kg 19:18). And there are those in Ezekiel’s day who grieve and lament over all the detestable things (9:4). The heavenly scribe is to put a mark on the foreheads of these faithful believers who have not compromised religious convictions. The Hebrew says: “Put a taw on their foreheads.” Taw is the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, and in the original Hebrew script it was shaped like an x.

Nobody except the godly remnant is exempted from divine judgment. Sex makes no difference and neither does age (9:6). The only thing that spares one is character and commitment.

9:8–11. Ezekiel is not exactly beside himself with joy as he observes these things. He intercedes for the people. Ezekiel 9:8 and 11:13 are the only instances in which Ezekiel intercedes on behalf of his people, a ministry God requested Jeremiah to avoid (Jr 7:16; 11:14; 14:11; 15:1). The work of the prophet is to be both exhorter and intercessor. The Hebrew phrase for this second ministry is “to stand before the Lord.” The prophet must be as good on his knees and his face as he is with his voice. Ezekiel has many models here. He follows Abraham, who prayed that God would not destroy all Sodom and Gomorrah if he found fifty to ten righteous people in it (Gn 18). Moses pleaded before God on behalf of the idol-making Israelites and even put his own life on the line in their behalf (Ex 32). [Intercession]

The mark on the foreheads in Ezk 9:4 is reminiscent of the mark on Cain (Gn 4) that saved him from the wrath of his fellow man. This concept is reflected in the seal placed on the foreheads of the faithful in Rv 7:3.

God seems to ignore the prophet’s question as to why God would kill both the righteous and the wicked. In God’s response the phrase “the house of Israel and Judah” (9:9) is all-inclusive. This is why God’s judgment is so far-reaching—because sin is so far-reaching. It touches not just Judah or Israel but both of them.

I. God’s glory leaves the temple (10:1–22). Chapter 10 describes the cherubim and the wheels, but these are not the main focus. The chapter is primarily about the departure of God from the temple; secondarily, it is concerned with the destruction of the city (10:2). Anything holy in the OT is holy because of its relationship to God. Without God’s presence they become ordinary. Without the divine presence, the temple will be no more than an empty symbol, a shell.

10:1–8. God speaks again to the man in linen (10:2). In the OT it is the priest who is clothed in linen (Ex 28:39, 42). And only a priest had the prerogative to handle the holy fire of God. The linen-dressed man in chapter 9 is a scribe. Here he takes coals from among the cherubim and strews them over the city. Here again, as in chapter 1, we encounter fire, which symbolizes either purification and cleansing or judgment. In chapter 10 it is clearly the latter, and reference may be made to the fire that falls on the wicked at Sodom and Gomorrah.

Again, as in 9:3, the initial stage of the Lord’s departure from his house is mentioned. Understandably the cherubim are standing on the south side of the temple (10:3), for idolatrous acts take place on the north side (8:3, 5). God removes himself as far as possible from the iniquity. The cherubim are preparing to leave, pulling the heavenly chariot, which is why they are flapping their wings (10:5).

10:9–22. Ezekiel 10:9–14 focuses on the cherubim and the wheels of the chariot. Aside from minor differences, many of the details are similar to those in chapter 1. For instance, a cherub’s face replaces a bull’s face as one of the four faces. The bull was a popular feature of Canaanite religion, which might explain the substitution.

Reflection on what he sees makes Ezekiel realize that what is in front of him are cherubim (10:15, 20). Ezekiel is the only person in the OT to see the heavenly cherubim. It is hard to describe something one has never seen before, let alone even ascertain what it is. Ezekiel 10:15 describes the original ascent of the cherubim, which he identifies as living creatures. He refers to their ascent again in 10:19. They fly to the east gate of the temple.

J. Lost and saved (11:1–25). 11:1–15. Again Ezekiel is transported in a vision to the temple. This time he sees twenty-five men, two of whom are named: Jaazaniah and Pelatiah (11:1). It is not known whether this is the same group as that mentioned in 8:16. Certainly the Jaazaniah of chapter 11 is different than the Jaazaniah of chapter 8, for they have different fathers. This group of men is not only lost but leading others astray with ill-conceived counsel (11:2).

The misleading counsel the group is giving is that the ones who remained in Jerusalem after the deportation of 597 BC are the favored ones. Jerusalem is the cooking pot and they are the choice morsels (11:3). In 11:15 these people make a similarly false claim: “This land has been given to us as a possession.” Both of these sentiments are the diametric opposite of the truth. What they think is permanent is in fact transitory. Those who are not exiled are chaff. The exiled are redeemable. God directly repudiates the egocentrism of those in Jerusalem.

While this prophecy is being given, Pelatiah suddenly dies (11:13a), provoking a question from the prophet (really, a request for mercy) to God (11:13b; see 9:8).

11:16–21. How wrong the Jerusalemites are! In fact, God is not far away from the deportees. On the contrary, he has been a sanctuary for them even in their banishment (11:16). Even years of incarceration in Babylon can be full of the glory of the Lord if he is there.

When the exiles are brought back to their homeland, they will eradicate idolatry (11:18). Following what they will do is what God will do for them: he will give them integrity of heart (literally “one heart,” or an undivided heart; see the CSB footnote) and a new spirit (11:19). In other words, not only will there be a geographical change; there will be a spiritual change as well, resulting in new obedience (11:20). God will transform both their outer and inner circumstances.

11:22–25. In chapter 10 the divine glory leaves the temple. In chapter 11 the divine glory leaves the city. The temple has been abandoned, and now the city has been abandoned. Without the presence of God both have lost the real reason for their existence. It is not without significance that the vision of the divine exit follows the promise of return. Does this suggest that God is leaving to join those in exile? Interestingly, the divine glory stops above the mountain east of Jerusalem (11:23)—the Mount of Olives. God does not depart the city in a huff or in a rage but with tears in his eyes.

The Spirit now brings Ezekiel back to Babylonia (11:24). This is the return portion of his visionary trip to Jerusalem. The screen has gone blank. Now it is time for Ezekiel to share the vision with his fellow exiles (11:25). He must not keep the good news to himself.

K. The exile symbolized (12:1–28). 12:1–7. Once again the prophet acts out his message as in chapters 4 and 5. The people living in Jerusalem are using neither their eyes nor their ears (12:2). Accordingly, Ezekiel is told to pack his belongings, to dig through the wall of his house, to place his belongings on his shoulder, and to leave with his face covered (12:3–6). Why not leave through the door, as one normally does? Does this show a desperate attempt to escape or an attempt to escape clandestinely? Covering the face may refer to shame, disgrace, or grief that the would-be escapees will feel.

12:8–16. Ezekiel carries out this pantomime, but apparently it has little effect on the people (12:9). So to the acted word there is added the preached word. The leader in the flight will be none other than the prince himself, who leaves under cover of darkness with his face veiled (12:10, 12). To have the prince be the first to run is like the captain of a sinking ship hitting the lifeboats first. But in his running he runs smack into God, snared by the net of the Divine (12:13). The prince and Jonah and Jacob are not the only ones who in their running encountered God right in the middle of their paths. This may be a specific reference to what happened to King Zedekiah (2 Kg 25:7; Jr 39:7; 52:11). In these days of exile only a few will be spared (12:16). For the majority, however, their destiny is sealed. Doom for the people is inevitable for Ezekiel. At best a nucleus will be salvaged. This is not an easy or delightful message to preach, but it falls on Ezekiel’s heart and shoulders as a divine mandate.

12:17–20. A second act Ezekiel carries out is trembling and shuddering as he eats (12:18). This is the second act of the prophet involving something he does with food (cf. 4:9–17). The first one stressed scarcity of food. This one stresses the terror that will accompany food consumption (12:19–20). Mealtime, normally a relaxing, refreshing, reinvigorating time, will be shot through with panic. The people will not be able to “eat your bread with pleasure, and drink your wine with a cheerful heart,” as Ec 9:7 urges.

12:21–28. A major part of the people’s problem is their spiritual insensitivity. They are addicted to a snatch-and-grab mentality, an itch for the instantaneous. Since nothing has apparently happened, they deny the validity of the word of the Lord. The first proverb (12:22) emphasizes skepticism: “You prophets speak and nothing happens.” This is an attitude that both Isaiah (Is 5:19) and Jeremiah (Jr 17:15) had to face.

The second proverb (12:27) emphasizes irrelevance and postponement: “Ezekiel is talking not to us but to someone down the road. Therefore we do not need to take anything he says personally” (cf. Am 6:3). The first saying makes Ezekiel a crackpot; the second makes him a futurist. But God will have the last say.

L. False prophets (13:1–23). 13:1–9. Ezekiel’s greatest opposition is not from overt sinners but is from false prophets both in exile with Ezekiel and back in Jerusalem (13:2). Jeremiah too had an especially difficult time with them (see Jr 23; 27–28).

The source of their prophesying is their own imagination and spirit (13:3). Their resources are all self-oriented. They are compared to jackals, which have a reputation for foraging among ruins (13:4). They show up after the damage has been done to feast on leftovers. Further, the false prophets shrink from the responsibility of being repairmen (13:5). By their philosophy nothing is seriously wrong; so why is there any need for one to “stand in battle”?

Compounding their guilt is their (false) claim that they are speaking the word of the Lord (13:6–7). Theirs is a false hope: they expect their words to be fulfilled. The false prophets are absolutely sincere. Sincerity, however, is not synonymous with legitimacy.

13:10–16. Their message is peace when there is no peace (13:10a). What makes false prophets false is that their analysis of society is false. This may be due to several reasons. First, they may be paid by the establishment and therefore must say nothing to anger them. Accordingly, false prophets will be content to be the voice of the people rather than the voice of God. Second, false prophets may have a false view of God. God, they believe, keeps his promises to his people unconditionally and is favorably disposed to Israel. In either case, false prophets engender a feeling of false security among the people: “We have God on our side—always!”

The people build a flimsy wall (13:10b) to keep out the rain. What kind of insulation do the false prophets add? Whitewash! But can such a wall and such a covering withstand the storm of God’s wrath (13:11–16)? The false prophets think so, for they have little room either in their theology or in their homiletics for the wrath of God.

13:17–23. The second group labeled here for condemnation is women who sew magic charms on their wrists and make veils for their heads (13:17–18). More than likely the reference here is to fortune-tellers. The law demanded the fastening of objects to the body (Dt 6:8). But here is a prostitution of the custom. There are no copies of the Decalogue beneath these charms or veils. What these women do is ensnare people. The reference to barley and scraps of bread (13:19) may be a reference to the remuneration the fortune-tellers receive, and a pittance at that. Such gross sin for such meager wages! Or these items may well have been used in the magical process. Divination by wheat (aleuromancy) and divination by barley (alphitomancy) are present in pagan literature.

God responds to these fortune-tellers as he does to the false prophets (13:20–23). Both groups present a false view of God. The pseudoprophets believe they have a monopoly on God’s goodness and grace. The fortune-tellers believe they have access to a power other than God. Both groups are guilty of a gross malfeasance: they have misled God’s people.

M. Idolatry (14:1–23). 14:1–11. We are not told why the elders come and sit down in front of Ezekiel (14:1). If they are anticipating a cozy fireside chat, they are about to be disappointed.

Three times God says that these elders have set up idols in their hearts and put sinful stumbling blocks in front of themselves (14:3–4, 7). This, however, refers to more than the practice of idolatry. Perhaps the elders have just heard Ezekiel’s narration of the temple idolatries that he saw in a vision. “How awful, how blasphemous,” they might have said among themselves. However, in seeing the sliver in the Jerusalemite’s eye they have missed the plank in the deportee’s eye.

If the exiled elders were practicing idolatry, the text would say so. By using the description it does, the text suggests that their sin is an inner idolatry, a mental idolatry, rather than an external one. It is a state of mind that is at cross-purposes with the will and being of God. God has a ways to go with these people if one day he is to give them “integrity of heart” (11:19).

God will go even so far as to mislead a prophet in giving counsel (14:9). The invitation to turn away from “idols” is here (14:6), as is the promise of positive results from repentance (14:11). Behind God’s punishment there are always God’s efforts to produce redemption and restoration.

14:12–23. In 14:12–20 God parades four hypothetical cases before the exiles (14:12–14, 15–16, 17–18, 19–20). In each, God sends some kind of a scourge into a country because of the citizens’ sins. Even if Noah, Daniel, and Job lived in that country, they would save only themselves and not even their children.

A righteous nucleus could be the means of salvation for the unrighteous majority (Gn 18–19). God would spare Sodom if he could find ten righteous people in it, but not here. No longer is vicarious salvation viable. So corrupt are these people that what was true for Sodom (the bastion of depravity) would not be true here.

N. A useless vine (15:1–8). The people still living in Jerusalem are compared to a wild vine that serves no function other than fuel for the fire (15:2–4). Ezekiel suggests that a vine by its very nature is useless (15:5). Hence, it is good only to be tossed onto the flames. The mention of an initial burning followed by a second toss into the fire has a historical referent (15:6–8). The first “fire” was that involved in Jehoiachin’s (and Ezekiel’s) exile. Some, however, came out of that first fire. Their escape will be short-lived. The second fire—Nebuchadnezzar’s invasion of 587/586 BC—will consume them.

Ezekiel 15 declares that Israel (the vine) is without fruit and thus useless and headed for judgment. Both Isaiah (5:1–7) and Jeremiah (2:21) speak of God as a vinedresser who is disappointed over his vine’s failure to bring forth good fruit. In Jn 15 Jesus picks up this analogy, telling his disciples that if they abide in him (the true vine) they will produce much fruit, but every unfruitful branch will be thrown in the fire.

O. A foundling turned harlot (16:1–63). 16:1–34. Few chapters in the Bible provide a more forceful illustration of the love of God than this one, which, incidentally, is the longest chapter in the book of Ezekiel. The Lord finds a female child abandoned by her parents, who are described in 16:3 as an Amorite and a Hethite. This may be understood as a reference to the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Jerusalem. This child the Lord rescues, raises, and eventually pledges his troth to in marriage (16:6–8). He lavishes great riches on her (16:9–14). [Salt]

Instead of appreciating and loving her Lord, she squanders her dowry on fornication, engages in ritual filicide of her offspring, seeks other lovers (foreign alliances), and in the process becomes worse than all other harlots (16:15–34). Some twenty times in chapter 16, Jerusalem is connected with the words “prostitute,” “prostitution,” and “engage in prostitution.”

16:35–43. For these sins the Lord sentences her (Jerusalem) to a bloody death. The punishment will be twofold. First, she will be stripped naked before her lovers (16:37), ironic in light of the fact that when she was much younger, the Lord found her naked and then covered her nakedness (16:6–7). Stripping designates public exposure and degradation. Second, God will deliver her to her paramours, who will stone her and finally burn her (16:39–41). Foreign nations will ravage Jerusalem. As in the book of Judges, God’s form of punishment on his own people is to remove his protective hedge from around them and hand them over to foreigners.

16:44–58. What makes Jerusalem’s promiscuity so abominable is that she is more depraved than her sisters Sodom (to the south) and Samaria (to the north) (16:46–47). Samaria is the “older” sister because Samaria is much larger than Jerusalem; Sodom is the “younger” sister because she is smaller than Jerusalem. Both of these analogies would touch a raw nerve, but the one referring to “sister Sodom” would be particularly upsetting. Not only is Jerusalem the worst of the three sisters, but she has done things that make Samaria and Sodom blush! How tragic and ironic it is when Sodomites, the epitome of iniquity, turn red when they gaze on the behavior of the citizens of the city of God!

To shame Jerusalem even further, the Lord promises the restoration of her two sinful sisters, and Jerusalem as well (16:53). God’s love is not restricted to one citizenry and to one city. Jerusalem, who once treated Sodom as an object of scorn (16:56), will now have to share the Lord’s love with Sodom. After all, if Jerusalem can spread her love around in the wrong way, why cannot the Lord spread his love around in the right way?

16:59–63. Finally comes the announcement of unexpected grace. The Lord will remember and reestablish the covenant he made with Jerusalem in her youth (16:60). Further, he will reestablish Jerusalem’s hegemony over her sisters (16:61). God will do so because of his grace and faithfulness. Jerusalem, now shamed and contrite before the Lord, will again know him (16:62–63).

The movement in this chapter is from sin to judgment to restoration; from marriage to adultery to punishment to remarriage. This is a chapter about grace, God’s grace, grace given abundantly, grace given gratuitously, grace that is greater than all our sin.

P. Two eagles and a vine (17:1–24). The Lord then instructs Ezekiel to tell the people an allegory and a parable. It is narrated in verses 1–10; verses 11–21 are the interpretation; and verses 22–24 are a prophecy of restoration.

17:1–10. In the story a great eagle comes to Lebanon, removes the top part of a cedar, and carries it away (17:3–4). He then plants the seed in fertile soil, where it turns into a vine (17:5–6). Then another great eagle comes, to which the vine is attracted (17:7–8). The second eagle does nothing. He is simply there. As a result of the vine’s attraction to the second eagle, the first eagle will uproot the vine, causing it to wither (17:9). An east wind will finish it off (17:10).

17:11–21. There is little problem in interpreting the particulars of the message. The first eagle is Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. Lebanon represents Jerusalem. The top of the cedar removed by the eagle and carried to another soil is King Jehoiachin and his fellow exiles (17:12–14). The vine that grows from the cedar crown is Jehoiachin’s successor, Zedekiah, and the other great eagle to which the seedling is attracted is the king of Egypt, Psammeticus II (595–589 BC). The branches that stretch out to the second eagle are various parties and emissaries Zedekiah sent to Egypt to gain assistance and support in overthrowing the Babylonian presence in Israel (17:15).

For such malfeasance God has condemned Zedekiah to execution in exile (17:16). Pharaoh (the second eagle) will be of little help to him then (17:17). Zedekiah’s sin is that he despised the oath and broke the covenant with Nebuchadnezzar (17:18). A commitment should be a commitment. Zedekiah has put a ceiling on the reliability of his word and in the process has condemned himself.

God now makes an oath (17:19). He will requite Zedekiah for his oath violation, either of Nebuchadnezzar’s covenant with Zedekiah or of the Lord’s covenant with Israel, whose maintenance Zedekiah, as king, was to oversee. Ezekiel 17:16–18 concentrates on the human agent of retribution; 17:19–21 concentrates on the divine agent. This does not mean that Zedekiah will get burned at two levels. Rather, it indicates that God uses human channels to implement his judgment.

17:22–24. The chapter climaxes with a prophecy of restoration, something King Nebuchadnezzar does not do with covenant breakers but something King Yahweh does do with covenant breakers. There’s the difference! Accordingly, Israel is doomed if she looks to either Eagle Egypt or Eagle Babylon for her well-being rather than to the one who said, “I carried you on eagles’ wings” (Ex 19:4).

Summary. Zedekiah is a gambler, one who attempts to play his cards as adroitly as possible. He knows how to shift gears in the game called political opportunism. Unfortunately such ambivalence extends into Zedekiah’s relationship with God. His word is unpredictable, and he vacillates on the truth, which is not acceptable to Nebuchadnezzar and certainly not acceptable to the King of kings.

Q. Individual responsibility (18:1–32). 18:1–4. Through his prophet the Lord rebuts a popular proverb that God holds the succeeding generation accountable for the sins of the previous generation (18:2). If the children’s teeth (those in exile?) are set on edge, it is because they have eaten sour grapes, and not their fathers.

18:5–20. After disposing of this misconception, Ezekiel constructs a theological/legal argument in support of the thesis of individual responsibility. To establish his case, he uses a three-generational model. The first generation is represented by the righteous father (18:5–9). He is characterized by no fewer than twelve virtues. He is free of cultic, sexual, and sociomoral sins.

Ezekiel 18:10–13 deals with the second generation, the son. Unlike his father, he is a renegade. He defiantly breaks the laws of the Lord. In such a case, the son will not be able to ride on the coattails of his exemplary father. Instead, he will be put to death for his transgressions.

A discussion of the third generation (18:14–17) is absolutely necessary. This section deals with the sinner’s son (in line with the proverb of 18:3). Just as the sinner rejected (for the wrong reasons) his father’s example, so the grandson rejects (for right reasons) his own father’s example. He is like his grandfather. He does not share in the guilt of his father; he is not condemned because of his father’s sins (18:19–20). He is saved because of his own righteousness.

Ezekiel is not creating a new doctrine. Actually, he is echoing Moses, who said: “Fathers are not to be put to death for their children, and children are not to be put to death for their fathers; each person will be put to death for his own sin” (Dt 24:16).

18:21–32. In verses 21–32 the argument turns to the principle of repentance. As in verses 5–20, a series of examples is provided. The first is that of the sinner who repents and is saved (18:21–23). The second is that of a righteous person who sins and is condemned (18:24–26). The first case affirms that repentance expunges past sins; the second case affirms that reversion expunges merits. Ezekiel 18:27–28 returns to the emphasis of the first example (18:21–23), showing preoccupation with repentance rather than with backsliding.

Ezekiel 18:30–32 is a clarion call to repentance, for God takes no joy in the death of anyone. Given Israel’s emphasis on the communal, they believed they could do nothing about their individual destiny. What Ezekiel is hoping to accomplish is that the people in exile will accept responsibility for their circumstances. Because their relationship to God is not an intractable or inherited fate, they can return to the Lord. And that is good news. Ezekiel’s teaching in chapter 14 (no vicarious salvation) needs to be set alongside his teaching here (no vicarious punishment).

R. A dirge for Israel’s kings (19:1–14). This chapter may well have been titled “How the Mighty Have Fallen!” Kings have become prisoners, for they are rulers who have become misrulers. Once-powerful individuals have now been reduced to paupers. This is consonant with Ezekiel’s earlier emphases. Jerusalem, once a city of sanctity, is now in ashes (or shortly to be so), abandoned by her God.

19:1–9. Almost all of this chapter is poetic; it is a lament in two parts over the fall and collapse of monarchs in Judah, here styled as “princes of Israel” (19:1). In the first part (19:2–9), reference is made to a lioness (Judah?) who sees two of her cubs captured and carried off. One of the cubs is taken to the land of Egypt, the other to the land of Babylon. It is more than likely that the two cubs represent Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin.

19:10–14. In the second part of the lament (19:10–14), the analogy is about a fruitful vine with strong branches, an image we have already encountered in chapters 15 and 17. The entire vine, though once lofty, is uprooted, tossed to the ground, and burned. The specific identification of the vine and its branches once again is not made. By resorting to metaphors and avoiding personal names, Ezekiel shows a desire that his audience focus on the lesson of the lament and not on “who’s who” in the lament.

S. Rebelliousness (20:1–44). 20:1–4. Like chapter 16, much of chapter 20 is a survey of Israel’s past. This particular review is dated to the seventh year, fifth month, tenth day (August 591; 20:1a). This date is all the more ominous, for it is exactly five years to the day before Nebuchadnezzar torches the Jerusalem temple (Jr 52:12–13). Again the elders come to Ezekiel for a spiritual message, only to be rebuffed (20:1b–3).

20:5–29. Verses 5–29 are about the detestable practices of the exiles’ fathers. This section is presented in four subunits. The first (20:5–9) covers the fathers in Egypt. Although chosen by God, the people still rebelled and held on to their images. Only for the sake of his reputation did the Lord restrain himself from destroying them.

The second subunit (20:10–17) covers the first wilderness generation. To these God gave his decrees and laws. But rebellion, started in Egypt, persisted in the wilderness. Again, for his name’s sake God did not destroy them, but he disallowed entry into the promised land. Their children would be spared.

The third subunit (20:18–26) covers the second wilderness generation. It was much like the preceding. Guidelines were given but rejected. God’s reputation restrained him a third time. What was novel here was the promise of exile, which is surprising given the fact that the people had not even entered the land. Also novel, and perhaps mysterious, is that God would mislead the people into sin by replacing genuine laws with statutes that were not good and laws they could not live by (20:25).

The fourth subunit is 20:27–29. The people had moved beyond Egypt (subunit 1) and the wilderness (subunits 2–3) and were now settled in the land of Canaan. Particularly they were charged with worshiping at high places (Bamah means “High Place”; see the CSB footnote for 20:29). They imitated the Canaanites and other Gentile nations in their worship.

20:30–44. From a survey of the past Ezekiel shifts to the present, but only for three brief verses (20:30–32). Here he addresses his immediate audience. That generation continues in the way of its fathers, and therefore they will not get a response from God any more than their forefathers did. To be informed that God is not available, that he disallows the seeking of his face, is reflective of the miserably unregenerate state of the people.

Fortunately the chapter does not conclude with a “closed” sign hung in the window of the heavenly office. What God has in mind is a new exodus, this time from Babylon (20:34). Part of this process of deliverance will consist of judgment in the desert, but only so that God may purge his people and sift out those who will accept the bond of the covenant (20:36–37).

The return of the people to the land will produce a sense of overwhelming shame as they recall their impious behavior and that God acted toward them not on the basis of their merit but for his name’s sake (20:43–44). Nothing is said here about repentance. Instead, God will do what he does, or not do what he could do, because of his own name (cf. 20:9, 14, 22), because of his reputation among the nations (20:41), and because of his promise to the fathers (20:42). God’s election of his people is irrevocable, their sins notwithstanding.

T. The sword of judgment (20:45–21:32). 20:45–21:5. Ezekiel is told to set his face against Jerusalem and to preach against the sanctuary (21:2). Not only does this sharpen the focus of chapter 21; it also indicates that the destruction of the city and temple have not yet occurred. Thus, the oracle must be prior to 587/586 BC.

The forest fire of 20:45–49 is replaced by a sword (the word appears fifteen times in chap. 21) as the symbol of destruction (21:3). We move from a natural-disaster analogy to a military analogy. In either case, the catastrophe will be far-reaching.

The phrase “I will cut off both the righteous and the wicked” (21:4) is difficult. Has not Ezekiel, just three chapters back, said the opposite? Does character count for nothing? Granted that one’s righteousness cannot save another person (chap. 14), now it seems that the righteous cannot even save themselves. Possibly, Ezekiel is intentionally employing hyperbole in speaking of undiscriminating calamity, all for the sake of persuading the whole community to return to God.

21:6–17. God once again calls on Ezekiel’s thespian skills. He is to groan before the people with broken heart and bitter grief (21:6). This acting in turn prompts the people to inquire, and Ezekiel is only too happy to enlighten (21:7).

In 21:9 the repetition of the word “sword” is for emphasis. The sword is sharpened and burnished and placed by God into somebody’s hand (the king of Babylon’s?) (21:10–11). All power is God’s power, and earthly power can terrify only as it is aroused by the wrath of God.

Ezekiel’s act of clapping his hands together (21:14), in which he is followed by God (21:17), is the triumphant gesture of the victor over the vanquished, thus making the sword oracle all the more frightening.

21:18–27. The last part of the chapter has an oracle against Israel (21:18–27) and an oracle against the Ammonites (21:28–32). It begins with another action by Ezekiel. This time he is told to mark out two roads, one of which heads for Rabbah in Ammonite country and one of which heads for Jerusalem (21:19–20). Both cities are capital cities.

It may seem strange that war strategies are determined through the use of magic, for Nebuchadnezzar consults arrows/lots, idols, and the liver in order to ascertain which of the two roads to follow (21:21). Jerusalem, the procedures indicate, is the direction to head (21:22). This idea is powerful and unorthodox. Through a magical, heathen operation, legitimate divine guidance is given. Nebuchadnezzar is on the correct road. [Omen]

The prince of Israel must be Zedekiah (21:25). He is on the verge of surrendering all the symbols of royalty. There will be no more kings after Zedekiah (21:27). The messianic thrust is difficult to miss.

21:28–32. The chapter concludes with an oracle against the Ammonites, who gloated over Jerusalem’s misfortunes, and perhaps notes judgment on the Babylonians as well. The Ammonites are not to rejoice in the fall of another, and the Babylonians must recognize that, although they are a superpower, there are limits to their aggression. God’s ultimate will is that the sword be sheathed (21:30).

U. A city of blood (22:1–31). There are no fewer than eight references in this chapter to Jerusalem as a city filled with those who shed blood (22:2–4, 6, 9, 12–13, 27). The term “shed blood” is as old as Gn 9:6. There are no new sins, just new sinners. Jerusalem is a city marked by violence and brutality, with a soaring crime rate. All this is noted to justify God’s intended annihilation of the city.

22:1–16. There are three sections in this oracle against Jerusalem. The first begins with a challenge from God to the prophet to accuse the city (22:2). The city is one in which reverence for life is gone and attachment to idols has become popular (22:3). Both the shedding of blood and idolatry incur guilt (22:4a). In the process, once mighty and glorious Jerusalem becomes an object of scorn and a laughingstock (22:4b–5).

The princes of Israel (22:6) are the various individuals who have reigned on the throne in Jerusalem. As a lot, they are characterized as savage barbarians. Power has become a fetish for them. It has become a license to act insanely, even against those deserving highest respect (22:7).

Nor is there any reverence for holy things, especially Sabbaths (22:8). Sexual decency and propriety is a thing of the past (22:9–11). Social exploitation is rampant (22:12). Note that Ezekiel does not neatly divide acts of wrongdoing into the ethical and the ritual. They are all lumped together as “detestable practices” (22:2), whether it is shedding blood or desecrating Sabbaths.

22:17–22. The second unit introduces a new metaphor: Israel has become dross to her God (22:18). Dross is the worthless material removed in the smelting process. Dross is like chaff—both are good for nothing.

As silver is put into the fire, so Israel will go into the fire (22:20–22). There is no indication from Ezekiel that Jerusalem will emerge from this smelting process as refined silver. Again we observe a “no-hope” perspective.

22:23–31. In the third unit the prophet rebukes successively the land (22:24), princes (22:25; see the CSB footnote), priests (22:26), officials (22:27), prophets (22:28), and the people of the land (22:29). These are the heavyweights of the community, people with political, religious, and financial muscle. Nowhere in this list does Ezekiel confront aliens, children, slaves, or widows. It is one thing to have the political hierarchy go askew (princes and officials), but when it is joined by the religious hierarchy (priests and prophets), then all hopes for the preservation of a conscience in society are dashed. Instead of being loyal to their calling, they place popularity ahead of obedience.

What makes this so exasperating is that God is unable to find among these leadership groups one individual who, taking his life in his hands, will shout at the top of his lungs: In God’s name and for God’s sake, stop! (22:30). The phrase “stand in the gap before me” refers to intercessory prayer (cf. Gn 18:22; Jr 15:1).

V. Oholah and Oholibah (23:1–49). 23:1–4. This lengthy chapter is about the sad history of Samaria and Jerusalem (cf. 16:44–46 for another reference to these “sisters”). The name Oholah refers to northern Samaria and means “Her Tent” (23:4). The name Oholibah refers to Jerusalem and the southern kingdom and underscores the legitimacy of the Davidic kingdom (= “My [i.e., God’s] Tent Is in Her”).

The discussion accorded Oholah, the older sister, is decidedly brief (23:5–10). Oholibah, the younger sister, is discussed rather extensively (23:11–35). The two sisters are presented simultaneously in verses 36–49, and thus the chapter ends as it began.

23:5–10. Using the metaphor of sexual infidelity, God pictures Samaria and Judah as harlots who have abandoned their true love (the Lord) and prostituted themselves to their paramours—really “clients” rather than lovers. In the case of Samaria this involves her attraction to the Assyrians (23:5) and to the Egyptians (23:8). The lovers are described as finely clad warriors (23:6). As in 16:37–39, the lovers turn out to be anything but lovers. Their lust now sated, they turn against and ravage the woman (23:10). What was supposed to be a tryst turns into a tragedy.

23:11–35. Oholibah tops her sister by one, for she has even a third lover—Chaldeans (23:14–17). What happened to her older sister fails to deter her from her own promiscuity. History as a great teacher is ignored. Oholibah is so obsessed with lust that she is unable to fetch enough lovers.

Oholibah’s lovers will turn against her as brutally as Oholah’s did (23:22–27). What Oholibah thinks will be her enjoyment and salvation turns out to be her destroyer. Oholibah/Judah/Jerusalem made one very grave mistake. She looked for salvation in the wrong places. Political alliances with border superpowers, she thought, would save her. How blind! Since when do God’s chosen people think they will find greater satisfaction and enjoyment in the nations of the earth than in the Lord of those nations?

23:36–49. God’s people have become the Lord’s unfaithful wife (23:37, 43–45). As her husband, the Lord demands of Israel exclusive fidelity. That is what he has given her, and she needs to reciprocate. If she insists on multiple suitors, then God’s only course of action will be to abandon her.

W. A steaming cauldron (24:1–27). 24:1–14. Again the date is very precise. It is the ninth year, tenth month, tenth day (January 588 BC; 24:1). It is the day on which Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem (24:2).

On this dark day the prophet is told to “speak a parable”: the Lord says to put a cooking pot on the fire and place water and choice pieces of meat in it (24:3–5). Already in 11:3 Jerusalemites have referred to their city as a cooking pot and to themselves as choice morsels. The pot provides protection and insulation, they think. Not only are they wrong on that count; they are also incorrect in equating themselves with choice pieces of meat. In fact, their victims are the choice morsels (11:7).

Ezekiel’s contemporaries were clearly not the first to be unfaithful to God. Earlier prophets (Is 7:1–8:22; 30:1–31:9; Jr 2:20–25; Hs 7:11–13; 8:9) condemned their generation for fornicating with Gentiles and for pursuing alliances with foreign nations.

Chapter 24 expands on chapter 11 by including the fire beneath the pot, something on which the metaphor makers of chapter 11 had not banked. The pot, far from being a shelter, will char and incinerate. In fact, the Lord himself will pile the wood under the cauldron (24:9–11). Once again, the message is sounded that those who survived the deportation of 597 BC are not thereby granted immunity from subsequent disaster. Their complacency is about to be shattered.

24:15–27. On the heels of this incident, Ezekiel is told that his wife will die (24:16). Ezekiel is not alone in weaving his familial experiences into his prophetic message (see Hs 1:1–3:5; Is 7:3–9; 8:1–4). While Jeremiah is denied the normal enjoyments of life (with Jr 16:2 supplying the only instance of a divine call to celibacy in the OT), Ezekiel is denied the normal grieving process for his spouse (24:17). [Mourning]

Understandably, Ezekiel’s stoicism throughout this ordeal provokes curiosity (24:19). Is Ezekiel incapable of remorse, is he superhuman, or is he subhuman?

The death of his wife gives the prophet an opportunity to apply her actual death to Jerusalem’s impending death. It would be cruel and inhumane of God to take away the prophet’s wife just to provide the residents of Jerusalem with an object lesson, and it is most unlikely that that is the case. Rather, the passing of Ezekiel’s wife is an opportunity for the prophet, no doubt under heavy duress already, to make his message even that much more pungent.

The Jerusalem that Israel loves will be taken away, and the sanctuary will be desecrated (24:21, 25). Only when the siege has taken place will Ezekiel have his mouth opened (24:27). This refers to what God said to Ezekiel in 3:26–27, and the prediction made here is fulfilled in 33:22. The closing of Jerusalem will parallel the opening of his mouth.

2. ORACLES AGAINST THE NATIONS (25:1–32:32)

A. Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia (25:1–17). Ezekiel’s message is not confined to Jerusalemites or to ex-Jerusalemites now living in captivity. He turns his attention in this chapter to four bordering nations. All this invective against nations who treated Judah with contempt, and in turn pay a price, finds its root in Gn 12:3. We have in Ezk 25 an illustration of what happened to four nations who chose to be hostile toward Abraham’s seed.

25:1–7. Ezekiel first addresses the Ammonites (cf. Jr 49:1–6), who were descendants of Lot. The main city of their territory was Rabbah (25:5). David annexed them during his reign (2 Sm 12:26–31). At some subsequent point (post-Solomonic) Ammon regained her independence. Nebuchadnezzar used Ammonites to put down insurrections in Judah (2 Kg 24:2).

Ezekiel chastises them for their open mockery of the devastation that hit Jerusalem in 587 BC (25:3). They clapped their hands, stamped their feet, and rejoiced (25:6)—all because of what happened to the sanctuary, to the land of Israel, to the people of Judah. As a result God will now turn them over to a foreign power (25:4, 7).

25:8–11. Second, Ezekiel addresses Moab (cf. Jr 48:1–47). Moab too has connections with Israel, going back to the patriarchs. Their taunt is that Judah has become like all the other nations (25:8). Moab fails to see how Judah’s God is potent and able to save. Judah has fallen under Babylonian hegemony just like every other small country.

25:12–14. The third nation addressed is Edom (cf. Jr 49:7–22), which traces its ancestry to Esau. Their sin is more venal than that of Ammon or Moab. They were not content simply with sneering remarks; they actually took revenge on the house of Judah (25:12). They will be judged, from Teman to Dedan (25:13). Teman was in the middle of Edomite territory, Dedan to the far south. Even Israel will participate in her judgment (25:14).

25:15–17. The fourth nation indicted is Philistia (cf. Jr 47:1–7). Like the Edomites, they actively participated in Judah’s and Jerusalem’s demise (25:15). The Cherethites (Cretans) were a Philistine group (25:16).

B. Tyre (26:1–28:26). Ezekiel squeezes four nations into the prophecy of chapter 25. By contrast, he devotes three whole chapters (chaps. 26–28) to Tyre and four (chaps. 29–32) to Egypt. One is a city, the other a nation. One is a powerful economic and trading community. The other is a regional power but was once a military superpower. Perhaps Ezekiel’s extended treatment of these two is because only these two were in revolt against Nebuchadnezzar at the time Judah was. They survived (for a while at least), while Judah/Jerusalem did not.

The most distinctive feature of Tyre was its physical location, a rocky island just off the Phoenician coast. The natural and artificial harbors provided Tyre with economic advantages and military security. Tyre means “Rock,” which is to be understood both literally and metaphorically (see 26:4). Those who lived in Tyre had security and protection.

26:1–6. This prophecy has four sections to it. The first (26:1–6) identifies the sin of Tyre and the judgment to come on her. The date for this sermon, the eleventh year, first day, is 587 (or 586 if “eleventh month” is inserted; 26:1). Tyre rejoices in Jerusalem’s demise, as did Ammon and Moab (26:2). Her unusual name for Judah is “the gateway to the peoples,” indicating that Tyre views Judah as a trading rival. Now she would have the market to herself. God has something to say about this. He will bring nations against her (26:3). Here is the utter relentlessness of the ocean. No single wave will bring destruction, but the incessant pounding of the waves will destroy even the strongest rock. The phrase “I will scrape the soil from her” (26:4) suggests erosion. Tyre, the protecting rock, will become Tyre the bare rock.

26:7–21. The second section (26:7–14) describes the invasion of the king from the north (Nebuchadnezzar) against Tyre. This paragraph is a particularization of verse 3. The onslaught will be against both Tyre’s mainland towns and Tyre herself. Destruction, plundering, and death will be the order of the day.

So devastating is this attack that even the neighboring princes will lament Tyre’s overthrow. This is the third section of the chapter (26:15–18). The lament contrasts Tyre as she once was with what she now is and speaks of the tremors her fall has occasioned. If Tyre can be subjugated, what hope is there for anybody else?

The last section (26:19–21) describes Tyre’s eclipse; she descends to the realm of the dead. The impossible has happened. Impregnable Tyre is not so impregnable after all. The protection she thought she had turns out to be illusory.

27:1–25. In chapter 26 Ezekiel uses the metaphor of an offshore rocky island to talk to and about Tyre. In chapter 27 he shifts the metaphor and compares Tyre to a ship. The appropriateness of these two back-to-back metaphors should be obvious. What an island and a ship have in common is that both are surrounded by water.

Tyre likes what she sees when she looks at herself (27:3). She will shortly learn that one consumed with self-congratulation and self-adulation will eventually come to naught.

Ezekiel 27:4–7 elaborates on the precious materials brought from afar for the construction of the ship. It is not just the luxuriousness of these materials. Rather, they are products that Tyre receives in trade, as the places of origin indicate. Ships are for trade, for transporting cargo from place to place. Since Tyre’s wealth and status derived from trade, how right it is to refer to Tyre as a ship.

The cities surrounding Tyre provide not only materials for the ship’s construction but also personnel for her maintenance, locomotion, and defense (27:8–11). In the process Tyre becomes a trading center, with representatives and merchants of all nations bringing their wares to Tyre for sale and exchange (27:12–25). The city rivals any modern commercial city for frenzied activity and busyness.

27:26–36. In 27:26, however, the ship Tyre leaves port and heads out into the open seas on her maiden voyage. The ship Tyre is about to become the first Titanic—the “unsinkable” ship that proves the experts wrong. [Beth-togarmah]

The source of Tyre’s strength, the sea, becomes the source of her ruin. What once brought her fame now brings her infamy. The sea, once her source of power and pride, is now an instrument of the judgment of God. It is the blatant flaunting of prosperity, the look-what-I-have-done attitude that materialism often encourages. A gift of God, if misused and abused, can become an albatross around one’s neck. That is what happened to Tyre and to many like her. And what is left after the ship sinks?

28:1–10. The concern of most of chapter 28 is an individual identified in verse 12 as the king of Tyre. There are two parts to this unit: an oracle of judgment (28:1–10) and a lament (28:11–19).

Verses 1–10 perpetuate the maritime connections of Tyre that chapters 26 and 27 emphasize. The city is ruled by a monarch who fancies himself a god (28:2). Again the point is made, as in chapters 26 and 27, that Tyre’s location confers on it an almost superhuman exemption from the vicissitudes most cities face and draws legendary wealth to it.

This feeling of “nobody can interfere with us” has infected the king with a noxious egocentrism (28:2, 5). Possessions have become the yardstick by which the Tyrian king measures divinity. Ezekiel announces that this “god” will be toppled—in fact, executed (28:6–10). The king of Tyre will become a has-been.

There has never been a shortage of pretentious gods. It started with Adam and Eve. They thought they could become like God. So did the prince of Tyre, caught up in his own little empire.

28:11–19. Verses 11–19 continue the message against the king of Tyre but in the form of a lament. What is provocative here is Ezekiel’s use of Gn 2–3 in reference to the king of Tyre: “you were in Eden, the garden of God” (28:13); “the day you were created” (28:13, 15); “I expelled you . . . banished you” (28:16); “guardian cherub” (28:16).

Some commentators have suggested these verses (along with Is 14:12–15) are about Satan (Lucifer), who once walked among the angels of God but fell from paradise because of rebellion and insubordination. More probably Ezekiel presents the king of Tyre as an Adamic figure. This may be Ezekiel’s way of saying that Tyre, like Adam, owes all of its privileges, wealth, security, and power to God. Or Ezekiel may be pointing out that those whom God once favored and blessed (Adam and this king) he may later have to punish.

In addition to Genesis analogies, the various stones the king wears (28:13) seem suspiciously close to the high priest’s ephod, with its rows of precious stones (Ex 28). The king of Tyre, in this analogy, was both Adamic and priestly, and both privileges he desecrated. As a result, the king lost what he had. His attempt to become deity cost him his existence.

28:20–26. At the end of the section on Tyre (chaps. 26–28) is a brief oracle against Sidon, a city to the north of Tyre (28:20–24; cf. 32:30). Tyre and Sidon are often treated together as a pair in the Bible (e.g., Ezr 3:7; Jr 47:4; Zch 9:2; Mt 11:21–22).

The chapter concludes with a word of restoration for Israel (28:25). Once God has judged the neighboring nations, such as Tyre and Sidon, who have treated God’s people with contempt, then Israel will live securely in the land, and they will know that the Lord is responsible for their security (28:26).

C. Egypt (29:1–32:32). Egypt presented the greatest threat and challenge to Babylonian expansion in the Mediterranean world. For Ezekiel, however, the Babylonians were God’s instrument of judgment, and accordingly he advanced a policy of nonresistance. The Egyptian attempt to throttle the Babylonian advance is the antithesis of all Ezekiel preached.

Why such an extended address to Egypt by Ezekiel (four chapters, 29–32)? First, it brings some consolation to the exiles. These Egyptians, who so harassed the exiles’ forefathers and foremothers, now get their comeuppance. Second, it is a red flag in the face of the exiles: do not put your trust in those judged by God.

29:1–5. Verses 1–16 are dated to the tenth year, tenth month, twelfth day (January 587; 29:1). The Pharaoh (Hophra?) is compared to the crocodile of the Nile (29:3). The king of Tyre deduced his divinity on the basis of the geography and topos of Tyre. The king of Egypt deduces his divinity on the basis of his exclusive ownership of the life-giving waters of the Nile.

God goes on a crocodile hunt. The fish that stick to his scales, as the monster is dragged from the waters, represent the citizens of Egypt (29:4). They will suffer along with their leader.

29:6–9a. In the second unit, there is a shift in addressee and metaphor. All who live in Egypt are now spoken to, and not just the Pharaoh. The Egyptians are compared to a staff of reed for the house of Israel (29:6; cf. Is 36:6).

The point here is not that Egypt failed to provide sufficient support and aid to Judah in its fight against the Babylonians. Quite the opposite. Egypt’s fault is that it even encouraged Israel to look on it as a source of confidence (29:16). It gave every impression of collaborating with Israel in its fight for independence from Babylon, and as such falsely pictured itself as a hope and a comfort. What good is it, Ezekiel protests, to offer drowning people straws?

29:9b–16. In the third section there is an amazing word. God will punish Egypt for her hubris for forty years. But when the forty years are over, God will bring the Egyptians back from captivity. He will return them to Pathros (29:14). To be sure, they will not be restored to a position of international eminence, but they will be restored.

Ezekiel has no such hopeful word for any of the other nations (chaps. 25–28). Egypt is unique, then, in receiving some clemency, some ray of hope for the future. Might not such a word boost the hopes of the prophet’s fellow exiles who hear this prophecy? If God will do it for Egypt, surely he will do it for us.

29:17–21. Verses 17–21 are dated to the twenty-seventh year, first month, first day (571 BC), and represent the latest prophetic oracle in Ezekiel (29:17). Here Ezekiel is told that Nebuchadnezzar is to gain control over Egypt as compensation for his less-than-all-out victory over Tyre (29:18–20). If Egypt is a consolation prize for not obtaining Tyre, then it is a mighty big catch.

Judgment on Egypt means deliverance for Israel, and that is what is meant by “I will cause a horn to sprout for the house of Israel” (29:21)—the horn is a symbol of strength. The misfortunes of one nation bespeak fortune for another.

30:1–19. Ezekiel predicts that a sword will come against Egypt (30:4). Egypt will take six of her supporters with her to her doom: Cush, Put, Lud, Arabia, Libya, and the people of the covenant land (30:5). This last expression refers to foreign mercenaries serving in the Egyptian armies.

The general declaration of Egypt’s demise (30:1–9) is followed by a specific announcement of how this demise will occur (30:10–12). Nebuchadnezzar will be the instrument of God’s judgment. Verse 11 describes what the Babylonian king will do; verse 12 describes what the Lord will do, for he is the real author of judgment.

No explicit reason is given for the destruction of Egypt, except for the reference to idols (30:13) or proud strength (30:6). [Memphis]

An Egyptian temple at Karnak. Ezekiel 29–32 pronounces judgment on Egypt.

30:20–26. The second section of the chapter is dated to the eleventh year, first month, seventh day (April 587 BC; 30:20). God has broken the arm of Pharaoh, and there will be no healing to follow (30:21). This may refer to Neco’s defeat at Carchemish in 605 BC or to Pharaoh Hophra’s frustrated attempt to deliver Jerusalem from the Babylonians (588 BC). God has broken the arms of the Pharaoh (30:22), but he will strengthen the arms of the king of Babylon, enabling him to brandish the sword against Egypt (30:24–25).

Israel expects help from Egypt, but it will be help from a wounded, disabled ally. The prospects for real assistance from such a handicapped partner are bleak. If there are Jewish exiles in Babylon who still look to Egypt as a potential ally and not a threat (29:16), this word about Egypt’s inevitable demise should put such feelings to rest permanently.

31:1–9. God gives a message to Ezekiel about the Pharaoh. The king of Egypt and his people are told to think about Assyria, which once was like a mighty, impressive cedar of Lebanon (31:3). Handed over to a greater power, the Babylonians, it fell. Ezekiel says to his people and to Egypt, “Think of Assyria” and learn.

The tree is characterized by great height, lush verdure, and superb irrigation, which makes it fertile (31:4–5). It is so verdant that it offers shelter and nesting places for the birds (31:6a). It is such a refuge that even animals bring forth their young beneath its branches (31:6b). The tree represents a sanctuary. Any within its confines are unthreatened.

It is a tree with deep roots (31:7). In fact, the tree is incomparable. Not even the trees of paradise rival it (31:8). And all this beauty and majesty is due to God (31:9).

31:10–18. Unfortunately, the tree’s height goes to its head (31:10). Majestic stature breeds arrogance. As a result, God hands the tree over to a ruthless nation (31:11–12a). The Babylonians are ferocious woodcutters who quickly level the tree. As a result, the tree ceases to provide shelter for birds, animals, and people (31:12b–13). All other trees are addressed with an implicit warning in 31:14. If this magnificent tree vaunted itself and perished all the same, what will happen to lesser trees (other empires) if they become enchanted with their own greatness?

The tree falls as low as the grave. It is not just toppled; it is buried (31:15–17).

Ezekiel 31:18 returns to the second person of verse 2. Assyria, however superhuman, had no immunity against collapse, and neither does Egypt. Those who climb highest, when they fall, fall farthest.

32:1–16. The lament for Pharaoh is dated to the twelfth year, twelfth month, first day (March 585 BC), after the capture and destruction of Jerusalem (32:1).

Two figures of speech in 32:2 describe the Pharaoh. He is compared to a lion and to a sea monster. God himself throws his net over the beast, rendering him immobile (32:3). Then he hurls him on the land and leaves him as food for the birds and animals (32:4). The blood and the remains of the carcass are so great that they fill the land (32:5–6). This is not just hyperbole but a way of indicating the international stature and esteem of the fallen Pharaoh.

The demise of the Pharaoh is such that it sends shock waves into creation and the surrounding nations (32:7–10). Even the cattle will experience the effects of the divine judgment (32:13).

32:17–32. The second part of the chapter is two weeks later than verses 1–16 (32:17). In 32:19, Ezekiel removes from anybody’s imagination the thought that Egypt has special prerogatives, that it has a special corner on grace or blessing.

As Egypt enters the underworld it is spoken to by individuals already there (32:21). Three great nations, each with a glorious past, have already been interred in the underworld: Assyria (32:22–23), Elam (32:24–25), and Meshech and Tubal (32:26–27—Asia Minor). The dishonorable burial these powers suffered will be Egypt’s experience too.

In addition to Edom (32:29), two last groups are mentioned (32:30): leaders of the north and the Sidonians. “Leaders of the north” is probably a catchall term designating other nations to the north not previously spoken about in the chapter. The “Sidonians” are the Phoenicians. The Pharaoh will be somewhat consoled when he discovers that he is not the lone occupant of Sheol (32:31).

3. RESTORATION AND RENEWAL (33:1–39:29)

A. Accepting responsibility (33:1–33). 33:1–9. With the emphasis on Ezekiel as a watchman, the importance of one’s present situation rather than the past, and individual responsibility, the first part of chapter 33 (vv. 1–20) has reverberations of 3:17–19 and 18:1–32.

In 33:2 God tells Ezekiel to speak to his countrymen, indicating that what follows is an object lesson about the usefulness of a sentry to the townspeople. Those who hear the sound of the trumpet but choose to ignore it do so at their own peril (33:4–5). A watchman who fails to perform his duties destroys both himself and his fellow citizens (33:6).

The watchman metaphor is applied to Ezekiel in 33:7–9, for while it is the priest who teaches, it is the prophet who warns the people in order to motivate them to repent. The townspeople appoint a lookout to take care of their own interests; God, on the other hand, has sent a prophet to them not for his interests but in their interests.

33:10–20. The people’s lament that they are wasting away (33:10) is countered by the claim that God takes no pleasure in the death of the wicked (33:11). What he takes pleasure in is their turning. Among the prophets, especially Ezekiel and Jeremiah, “turn” (or “return”) is a key word for repentance. Repentance of the backslidden is what brings God gratification.

What follows is an impassioned appeal by God (33:12–20). The past does not save a person; the past does not condemn a person. Where a person is today in his or her relationship with God is what counts.

33:21–29. The second part of the chapter (vv. 21–33) is dated to the twelfth year, tenth month, fifth day (January 585 BC; 33:21). About six months after the destruction of Jerusalem, a refugee informs Ezekiel of what has happened.

Once again Ezekiel addresses those who have survived the massacre of 587/586, those still living in the homeland (33:24). These survivors are impenitent and arrogant. Neither Abrahamic descent nor sheer numbers (“we are many”) guarantee them possession of the land. They need to subordinate these false crutches to what will really save them, and that is full obedience to God and to his laws (33:25–26). Otherwise, God will turn them over to the treaty curses of sword, wild animals, and plague (33:27–29).

Ezekiel teaches that the past doesn’t save or condemn a person. Jesus echoes this theme when he tells a parable of the two brothers, one who took pride in his past and one who wished to renounce his past and throw himself on his father’s mercy (Lk 15).

33:30–33. Whereas verses 23–29 focus on Ezekiel and the Jerusalemites, verses 30–33 focus on Ezekiel and the exiles. The sequel is probably deliberate. The deportees had best not say a precipitous “amen” to Ezekiel’s words of verses 23–29, as if they are righteous and the Jerusalemites are wicked.

Ezekiel is not a person to be listened to for an aesthetic experience. They love to listen to the prophet’s words, but they do not put them into practice (33:32). They are hearers of the word but not doers. There are many religious platitudes in their mouths, but their hearts are greedy (33:31). Ezekiel for his exilic congregation is only an entertainment piece. They want a performer but not a prophet. Ezekiel, thankfully, refuses to accept the role of a religious entertainer.

B. Shepherds and sheep (34:1–31). 34:1–16. By the phrase “shepherds of Israel” (34:2a) Ezekiel designates the leaders of the land. In the ancient Near East “shepherd” was a stock term for “king,” and even gods could be so styled. The parallels between this chapter and Jr 23:1–8 suggest that Jr 23 may have served as the stimulation for Ezk 34. The point made by the prophets is that a society can be no better or rise no higher than its leaders.

What are the characteristics of these pseudoshepherds? First, they are concerned only about themselves and not about their flocks (34:2b–3). Second, they allow the weak and sickly members of their flocks to fend for themselves (34:4a). Third, they brutalize their sheep (34:4b). As a result of such irresponsible lapses of duty, the flock has scattered and become prey for wild animals (34:5–6).

The Lord’s response to this is twofold. He will relieve the bad shepherds of their duties (34:7–9), and he himself will become the shepherd of the sheep (34:10–16). Note the “I will” statements in these seven verses.

34:17–24. Not all the problems lie with the shepherds, however. Blame is to be attached elsewhere. For that reason, in verses 17–24 Ezekiel speaks to the sheep. Among the flock are those sheep who are thoughtless, pushy, greedy, and belligerent (34:18–19). In such cases the Lord will render justice (34:17, 20–22).

Jesus identifies himself as the “good shepherd” (Jn 10:11) and thus fulfills the prophecy of the coming shepherd in Ezk 34.

This is followed by the announcement that God will raise up a future shepherd, and his name will be David (34:23–24). There are only two other references in the OT to a post-David David (Jr 30:9; Hs 3:5). It may be that we should understand references to David to mean “one from the house of David” will expedite these ministries, rather than as reflecting a belief that David will return from the dead (cf. 1 Sm 28; Mt 17). Christians, of course, read the passage messianically.

34:25–31. Verses 25–31 shift from the metaphor of sheep and shepherds to the imagery of prosperity and peace, which the restored people of Israel will enjoy once they are resettled in their own land. The “I will” statements of this section may be profitably compared with the “I will” statements of verses 10–16. The blessings with which God will visit his people read much like the rewards promised for obedience in the covenant (see Lv 26:1–13; Dt 28:1–14). They are physical, immediate, and this-worldly. A David figure will shepherd God’s flock (34:23–24), but the Lord himself will also care for his flock in the manner of a shepherd (34:25–31; cf. Lk 15:1–7; Jn 10:1–21).

C. Edom (35:1–15). It may strike the reader as odd that Ezekiel would include an oracle against Edom at this point, because (1) Ezekiel has already addressed Edom (25:12–14) in the section of oracles to the nations (chaps. 25–32) and (2) the section now under discussion (chaps. 33–39) is one given over to hope and promise for Israel’s future.

There is a good reason, however, for the inclusion of chapter 35 at this particular point. As we read through the chapter we discover that Edom has visions and intentions of taking over the land of Israel. The “two nations and two lands” (35:10) are, of course, Israel and Judah. Once Israel has been destroyed, a vacuum will be created, a no-man’s-land, and Edom will be more than delighted to incorporate that acreage into its own holdings.

The concern of chapters 33–39 is the restoration of Israel to its own land. But Israel cannot return to its land if the land has been possessed by another. The function of chapter 35 is to demonstrate that no would-be usurpers of Israel’s land will succeed in that enterprise. God will see to that. Here is an explicit illustration of the good shepherd of 34:25–31 looking out for his own. What he does with the wild beasts in chapter 34 he does with Edom in chapter 35.

Far from extending its borders by the annexation of Israel, Edom will in fact fall under divine doom. Mount Seir (35:2–3, 7, 15) is the chief mountain range of the kingdom of Edom, situated to the southeast of Judah, between the southern tip of the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The mount stands for the kingdom. Because it delivered Israel to the sword, it will be delivered itself to the sword (35:15).

D. Restoration and regeneration (36:1–38). Exile is not God’s last word for his people. Babylon will never become a permanent home away from home. Israel is not about to fade into the history books. It is God’s intention to bring about for his elect both geographical salvation (36:1–15) and spiritual salvation (36:16–38)—in that order.

36:1–15. Ezekiel is told to prophesy to the mountains of Israel and to share the good news with them (36:1–4). This contrasts vividly with chapter 6, where Ezekiel is told to prophesy to the mountains of Israel and share with them the bad news—Israel will be scattered.

The enemies who have taunted Israel and attempted to move into her turf, especially Edom, will find themselves rebuffed (36:5). So committed is God to this that he swears with uplifted hand to see that it is so (36:6–7).

Ezekiel 36:1–7 describes what God will do with Israel’s enemies; 36:8–15 describes what God is going to do with Israel. What is involved is the restoration of lushness and fertility to the land of Israel. Prosperity and fructification will return, as will people.

36:16–23. God was fully justified in doing what he did to Israel in exiling them (36:16–21). Israel’s defilement is likened to the impurity incurred by a menstruating woman (36:17). This analogy may reflect Ezekiel’s priestly background, for ritual impurity induced by menstrual blood and other bodily emissions was a special concern of the priests.

In exiling his people and in restoring them, God does what he does for the sake of his holy name (36:21–22). It is not primarily the people’s behavior, good or bad, that determines God’s action, be it in judgment or in compassion. God’s own character and sovereign purposes will be the determining factor. Whatever future Israel has comes from God. God must impress on his people that he is holy (36:23b) and that his name is holiness (36:23a).

36:24–38. God has a more profound interest than the geographical relocation of the exiles to Judah and Jerusalem. He desires for them an interior change once they are there (36:25–27). First, change their circumstances; then, change them. The God who “takes” his people from the nations (36:24) also takes out everything in his people that is unlike him by sprinkling and cleansing them (36:25).

The presence of God is a central theme in Ezekiel. The prophetic promise of God’s indwelling Spirit is proclaimed in Ezk 36:24–27 and fulfilled in Ac 2:1–47.

It may be no accident that the last “I will” in 36:25–27 is the one about the divine Spirit. Unless there is an infusion of the Spirit into one’s life that provides the resources for effective implementation of God’s work of grace, then growth in that grace will be most unlikely.

Note that the nations confess the power of God (36:36) not only when old towns are repopulated but when they see those former ghost towns repopulated by people with new hearts, with new spirits, with the Spirit (36:33–35). [New Birth]

E. Resurrection and reunification (37:1–28). Chapter 37 divides clearly into two sections. The first (37:1–14) describes Ezekiel’s vision of a valley full of dry bones that come to life. In the second unit (37:15–28) Ezekiel takes two pieces of wood, inscribed respectively with the names of the tribes of Judah and Ephraim, and brings them together, indicating the reunification of the two nations divided for hundreds of years.

37:1–14. One day the Spirit of the Lord transports Ezekiel to a valley full of bones, somewhere in Babylon (37:1). He is led on an inspection tour of the site by the Spirit and is given a close-up view of the horrendous extent of death (37:2).

The question put to Ezekiel is followed by Ezekiel’s response (37:3). Some have interpreted this as an evasive reply. Ezekiel was fairly certain that the answer to the question was no but was reluctant to be that blunt about it. Others have suggested that his answer means: “Lord, you know perfectly well, so why ask me?” A third suggestion is that Ezekiel’s response is a sign of wonder and trust: “Lord, I may not have the answer to this question, but I trust you, and I know that you know.”

In these fourteen verses the Hebrew word ruah (“spirit, breath, wind”) occurs no fewer than ten times. In 37:1 the word refers to the Spirit of the Lord, which transports and inspires Ezekiel. In 37:5–6 and 37:8–10 ruah is rendered as “breath,” that is, the life-giving breath from the Lord. In 37:9 the plural of ruah occurs, designating the four “winds” of heaven. Finally, in 37:14 ruah refers to God’s Spirit as the life-giving Spirit. Although the metaphor is used for the first time, this is not the first place Ezekiel has spoken of the restoration of God’s people to their land.

37:15–28. But what will God do with his people, once restored by the divine ruah? Ezekiel 37:15–20 mandates Ezekiel’s act of symbolism with the two sticks. Ezekiel 37:21–28 then interprets that act to the people. God is going to join Joseph’s stick (Israel, the northern kingdom) with Judah’s stick (the southern kingdom). David will be king over a united people (37:24).

The important point here is that (northern) Israel is also involved in this redemption process. In so speaking, Ezekiel is announcing the cancellation of the stigma on the schismatic northern kingdom. There is no doubt that the biblical perspective from the days of Rehoboam and Jeroboam on is pro-Judean (e.g., Ps 78:67–72).

The single kingdom that God will establish is Davidic but not Judean, for now membership will be extended even to the rebellious house of Israel (37:22). All exclusivistic and chauvinistic attitudes will have to go in this marvelous work of God’s redemption of his own. To be sure, nothing approximating this sweet unification of God’s people happened in postexilic days. On the contrary, feelings of acrimony were only exacerbated. Ezekiel envisions an age beyond the postexilic era to a messianic kingdom.

F. Gog (38:1–39:29). Ezekiel has already devoted one section of his prophecy to oracles to the nations (chaps. 25–32). It is somewhat strange, then, that Ezekiel has two chapters (chaps. 38–39) against another outsider (Gog/Magog) in the section comprising prophecies of hope and restoration. There are many instances in the prophetic books, and elsewhere, of nations invading Israel, but few of those instances are after Israel is resettled in its land (Ezk 38–39; Zch 14). Although the setting for Israel is ideal at the end of chapter 37, it is not to live happily ever after. A rude awakening at some undisclosed point in the future awaits.

38:1–9. This particular oracle is directed to Gog of the land of Magog (38:2a). This is unique in that in none of the oracles of chapters 25–32 is any specific individual named. Where Ezekiel uses names they are normally metaphorical, as in Oholah and Oholibah (chap. 23). It may be that Gog and Magog are “dummy” words. Commentators have frequently connected Gog with Gyges, king of Lydia, or with Gagaia, referred to in the cuneiform tablets from Tell el-Amarna in Egypt as a king of the barbarians. Magog is mentioned in the OT only in Gn 10:2 (= 1 Ch 1:5), where he is listed as the second son of Japheth and grandson of Noah. In Rv 20:8 Magog is a person. Gog is further identified as the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal (38:2b–3).

While 38:3–9 describes Gog’s preparations for invasion of Israel, the point is made that God is the stimulus behind the attack. It is he who incites the “Magogites” to invade. This is made clear by the phrases “I will turn you around, put hooks in your jaws, and bring you out” (38:4); “you will be summoned” (38:8). Phrases like “I will put hooks in your jaws” suggest that Gog needs to be dragged into the struggle. Nothing is said about any sin in Israel that prompts the attack. This is unlike any earlier occasion in the Bible when a foreign nation invades Israel.

38:10–23. In 38:10–13 Gog shifts from being a passive instrument to a belligerent, plundering aggressor. The subject of “I will” in verses 1–9 is God. The subject of “I will” in verses 10–13 is Gog. In 38:14–16 God is the subject again. There is no inconsistency or contradiction in this, any more than there is in the statements that God/Satan told David to number the people (compare 2 Sm 24:1 with 1 Ch 21:1). The Bible, in explaining phenomena, often distinguishes between a primary cause and a secondary cause. Here it is not a case of God or Gog, but God and Gog.

Nothing in chapter 38 indicates the attack takes place or has taken place. It is all future. When Gog does attack Israel, he will have God to deal with (38:18). The judgment he will receive will be akin to that on Sodom and Gomorrah or on Egypt in Moses’s day. With the exception of the reference to a sword (38:21), all of the judgments are in nature (earthquake, plague, rain, hailstones, burning sulfur; 38:19–20, 22). How all these disturbances will miss Israel is not clear. Will God shield his people, as he protected Israel from hail (Ex 9:26) and darkness (Ex 10:23) in the time of Moses? [Who Is Gog, and Where Is Magog?]

39:1–16. In many ways chapter 39 is like 38. For example, in both chapters Ezekiel is told to prophesy against Gog (38:2; 39:1). As in 38:3, in 39:1 Gog is told that God is against him. Third, the emphasis is made that God will forcibly bring Gog against Jerusalem (39:2; cf. 38:4, 8). Fourth, after Gog attacks Jerusalem, God will bring destruction on Gog (39:3–8; cf. 38:18–22).

What is novel in chapter 39 is the description of the immediate post-Gog days in Israel. The weapons left behind by Gog and his troops will serve as fuel for the Israelites for seven years (39:9). This will save cutting the forest trees for firewood (39:10). The number of slain Magogites will be staggering. It will take Israel seven months to bury the dead of the enemy; the name of the burial site is the Hordes of Gog Valley (39:11–12). The valley is located east of the Sea, probably a reference to an area east of the Dead Sea and thus outside Israelite boundaries. To make sure that not even a bone of a slain Magogite is missed, a commission is appointed to go through the land after the first seven months’ work (39:14–15). It is important that the enemy be not only defeated but removed and interred as well. Weapons must be not only captured but burned.

39:17–20. A further novel point here is the reference to the enormous feast that follows. Even the carrion birds and wild animals are invited (39:17). The menu, admittedly gruesome, lists flesh to eat and blood to drink. Such a cannibalistic metaphor is obviously just that—a metaphor. To interpret it literally would force a primitive crudity on the text. Further, we have to reconcile the burial of the enemy (39:11–16) with the subsequent feasting on the dead enemy (39:17–20). How does one eat what one has just buried? Strict chronological concerns have been subordinated to other concerns. What Ezekiel is portraying is the total annihilation of the enemy and Israel’s radical elimination of them.

Note that Israel is not allowed to taunt the one who has fallen in its midst. Ridicule, sarcasm, and taunting are illicit in anybody’s mouth.

39:21–29. What is to be accomplished by this destruction of Gog? For one thing, God will display his glory among the nations (39:21). It is not his power or his wrath but his glory he displays. If word of what has happened goes no farther than Israel and Gog, then the ultimate purpose of it will have been missed. Now, Israel will know who the Lord is, and the nations will know why God exiled his people (39:22–24). In other words, God does not overlook in his own the sins he would condemn in an outsider. The election of Israel brings not only privileges but also, and primarily, heightened responsibilities, the subverting of which entails horrific judgment.

The climactic phrase is “I will pour out my Spirit on the house of Israel” (39:29). Wherever the Spirit is “poured out” (Ac 2:18; 10:45), the possibilities for spiritual growth, stability, and influence become almost incalculable.

4. THE NEW TEMPLE (40:1–48:35)

A. The temple area (40:1–49). 40:1–4. The vision of the new temple comes to Ezekiel in the twenty-fifth year of his exile, at the beginning of the year, on the tenth of the month; this is fourteen years after the fall of Jerusalem (573 BC; 40:1). This is the latest date in the book except for 29:17–21. The month designated as “the beginning of the year” could be either Nisan (spring) or Tishri (fall). The “tenth” day of each month is significant. The tenth of Nisan begins Passover observance (Ex 12:3). The tenth of Tishri is the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:29), and it inaugurates the year of Jubilee (Lv 25:9). Liberation, renewal, and reconciliation are the themes of these days. Is there any possible connection with Ezk 40:1?

For a second time Ezekiel is transported in a vision to Jerusalem (40:2). The first excursion for the prophet was to witness Jerusalem’s abominations and destruction (chaps. 8–11). This trip is for the purpose of viewing Jerusalem’s and the temple’s restoration.

Ezekiel is set down on the temple mount. There he sees a structure “resembling a city” (40:2), which is more than likely a reference to the walled complex of the temple (40:5). He then meets a man (some kind of celestial being) who will be the prophet’s guide (40:3–4). This bronze-like man holds a measuring rod in his hand, and it measures 10.5 feet (40:5).

40:5–27. The first item shown to Ezekiel is a massive perimeter wall around the entire complex, giving the impression that the temple area is not unlike a fortress (40:5). This is followed by detailed information about the measurements of the east gate into the outer court (40:6–16).

Approximately the same information is given about the north gate (40:20–23) and the south gate (40:24–27). These three gates all open into the outer court (40:17–19), in which there are thirty chambers.

40:28–49. Next, the prophet is shown the three gates that open into the inner court (40:28–37). These gates are much like those of verses 5–27, except they are eight steps (not seven), higher than the outer court.

In three of the chambers off the inner court and near the gateways there are installations for the slaughtering of the burnt offerings, sin offerings, and guilt offerings (40:38–43).

Finally, Ezekiel is shown two chambers off the inner court that serve as priestly chambers (40:44–47). One group of priests has charge of the temple, and one group has charge of the altar. These are described as the sons of Zadok, Levites. Ezekiel 40:48–49 continues the movement in this chapter from outside in, with a brief reference to the temple proper. It is reached by a stairway of ten steps.

B. The temple proper (41:1–26). 41:1–4. Ezekiel 40:5–47 describes the temple area (outer court/inner court). Ezekiel 40:48–41:26 turns to a description of the temple building. Like Solomon’s temple, it has three parts on an east–west axis: (1) the portico (40:48–49); (2) the outer sanctuary or the holy place (41:1–2); and (3) the inner sanctuary or the most holy place (41:3–4).

Note here the increase in numbers. So far we have seen seven steps into the outer court, eight steps into the inner court, and ten steps into the temple proper. We have also witnessed a decrease in numbers. The entrance into the portico is 24.5 feet (40:48); the entrance into the holy place is 17.5 feet (41:2); the entrance into the most holy place is 10.5 feet (41:3). Each stage gets higher and higher. Each opening gets narrower and narrower.

41:5–15a. Off three sides of the sanctuary (north, south, west) are a number of side rooms (41:5–11). Nothing is said about the functions of these rooms, but they probably served as storerooms for equipment and furnishings, perhaps for tithes and offerings as well. Also there is an unidentified building at the back (west) of the temple (41:12).

The temple is 175 feet (100 cubits) long (41:13a), and the inner courtyard is 175 feet (100 cubits) square (41:13b–14). Also the yard/building behind the temple is 175 feet (100 cubits) in length (41:15a). The symmetry of these measurements is not coincidental. Everything in the temple fits perfectly and balances the whole.

41:15b–26. Ezekiel 41:15b–26 describes the decorations and the woodwork of the temple. Impressive here are two-faced carved cherubim and palm trees (41:18). The wooden altar (41:22) may represent either the table for the Bread of the Presence or the small inner altar of incense.

C. Holy chambers (42:1–20). 42:1–14. From 40:5 through 41:26 the movement, in the description of the temple, has been from outside to inside. Now the prophet is led back out to the outer court (42:1), where he is shown two sets of holy chambers (rooms for the priests), one on the north side of the outer court (42:2–9) and one on the south side of the outer court (42:10–12).

Ezekiel 42:13–14 inform us of the functions of these rooms. They are, first of all, a place where the priests eat the most holy offerings. Second, they are changing rooms, in which the priests remove their sacred vestments before going into the outer court, where the laity are. It may appear to be a contradiction that these rooms are already in the outer court (42:1), and yet the priests must disrobe in these rooms before going into the outer court (42:14). The contradiction resolves itself if one understands these chambers to border on the inner court and to extend into the outer court, thus serving as a transition zone between the two.

42:15–20. Ezekiel is shown and told the external measurements of the entire temple complex. The complex is a square of 875 feet by 875 feet.

The purpose of the temple complex is to separate the holy from the common (42:20). Inside is holy; outside is profane. The opposite of “holy” in the OT is not “sinful” but “common.”

Summary. These three chapters (chaps. 40–42) lay out the floor plan of this temple, and everything that follows (chaps. 43–48) builds on them. While some interpreters look for a literal fulfillment of this vision, many believe that God was not giving his people the blueprint for a building project, which at some undisclosed time in the future they would implement. God is more likely speaking imaginatively than literally. The emphasis is not so much on bricks and mortar as on the return and permanent dwelling of the divine presence among his people. Interestingly, Jerusalem is never mentioned anywhere in chapters 40–48. Nor is there mention of anybody who will be the construction supervisors and builders, as with Moses and the tabernacle and Solomon and the temple. When, however, the returning exiles come back to Jerusalem and turn their attention to rebuilding and restoring the ravaged temple, surely access to Ezekiel’s vision will serve as a stimulus to them.

D. God’s glory returns (43:1–27). 43:1–12. Now outside the temple, Ezekiel is brought to the gate facing east to witness the return of the presence of God (43:1–5). It was through this gate that Ezekiel saw the divine glory leave the temple in 10:19. God returns through the gate by which he left. When he returns to his abode, God does not tiptoe back. He returns as a king (43:7a, which refers to the only throne in this newly restored Jerusalem). With God’s presence restored to the place of worship, religious apostasy becomes unlikely (43:7b). Idolatry will be a thing of the past.

That Ezekiel is to make known to the people all the data about this new temple suggests that he is another Moses (43:10–11). God is the designer; Moses and Ezekiel are the transmitters of data.

43:13–27. The return of God’s presence and God’s directive to Ezekiel are followed by information about the altar in the temple. Note the parallel here. The temple, although now finished, is not ready for service until the divine glory returns. Similarly, the altar, although completed, is not ready for use until it has been purified (43:20). Two things are necessary for the reopening of the temple: the presence of the glory of God and a purified altar.

There are many notable omissions in Ezekiel’s temple when it is compared either with the tabernacle in the desert or with Solomon’s temple. But the altar is there, indicating that there will never be the possibility of legitimate worship without the presence of sacrifice.

E. Enterings and exitings (44:1–31). 44:1–5. Once again Ezekiel is taken to the outer east gate, which, he is told, is to be permanently locked, for that is the gate through which the Lord passed when he returned to the temple (44:1–2). The one exception is that the prince may use its vestibule when eating (44:3).

Next, Ezekiel is brought to the front of the temple by way of the north gate. Again Ezekiel sees the divine glory, and he falls on his face (44:4). Ezekiel is told to look carefully, listen closely, and give attention to everything God is about to tell him (44:5). These imperatives sound much like 40:4, except that there they refer to what God is going to “show” Ezekiel.

44:6–14. God begins with a rebuke aimed particularly at the laity (the rebellious house of Israel) for allowing foreigners to guard the holy things (44:6–8). We cannot be sure of what Ezekiel/God speaks here. In the future, these laity will be replaced by Levites (44:10–11a). They will slaughter the people’s sacrifices, something that the laity themselves are supposed to do (44:11b; cf. Lv 1–4). It may be that, in transferring the responsibility for ritual sacrifice to the Levites, God is in effect punishing the people by barring them from the inner gates, where the sacrifice takes place.

Although the Levites are to fulfill certain functions, they are not to serve as priests (44:13). The priesthood is reserved exclusively for the descendants of Zadok (the hereditary priesthood of the Solomonic temple; 44:15). They alone may enter the sanctuary.

44:15–31. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to the dos and don’ts of these Levite priests / descendants of Zadok who serve at the altar. This includes their clerical clothing and street clothing (44:17–19), their hairstyle (44:20), their beverages (44:21), prospective spouses (44:22), their teaching ministry (44:23), their judicial obligations (44:24a), their responsibilities as guardians of holy days (44:24b), and their limitations on incurring corpse impurity (44:25–27).

The chapter concludes with data about the oblations to be given them by the Israelites (44:28–31). God is to be the only inheritance the priests have (44:28). In serving him they find their highest fulfillment and reward. Not possessions but obedience in ministry crowns the life of the altar-serving priest.

Summary. Just as in chapters 40–43 Ezekiel’s temple lacks such standard items as the ark, cherubim, lampstand, and table for the Bread of the Presence, in chapter 44 there is no mention of a high priest. The two omissions go together, for the inner area of the temple was the particular domain of the high priest.

F. Division of the land (45:1–25). The emphasis on priests and Levites in the previous chapter continues in chapter 45. Chapter 44 focused on the priests’ responsibilities. At the end of the chapter notice was made about the food supply of the priests. Chapter 45 moves from food supply to land supply.

45:1–8. First of all, a portion of land is to be given to the priests. In the midst of this is the sanctuary. There is an “open space” around this section (45:1–4). Second, there is a portion for the Levites. Distinction is made here between the priests, who minister in the sanctuary (45:4), and the Levites, who serve in the temple (45:5). Third is an area designated as city land (45:6). Fourth is a reserve for the prince (future king) on the east and west sides of the holy donation of land and the city (45:7–8).

45:9–17. While Ezekiel is talking about the contribution and apportionment of land for the prince, he addresses a sermonette to the kings (45:9–12). They are to keep their hands off their subjects’ holdings and are to be honest in the collection of taxes for the upkeep of the temple. Thus, the king is to be one who has “learned to be content in whatever circumstances” (Php 4:11) and who is impeccable in his business affairs. With these collected portions the king can provide what is needed for the additional offerings on the feasts, the New Moon days, and the Sabbaths (45:13–17).

45:18–25. Verses 18–25 speak of the annual sacrifices. Of special import here is the sacrifice of the first day and the seventh day of the first month. The purpose of these sacrifices is clearly the purification of the sanctuary (45:18), making atonement for the temple (45:20). It is God’s own house that is to be purged. The two annual pilgrim feasts highlighted are Passover (45:21–24) and the Festival of Shelters (45:25).

G. Worship protocol (46:1–24). 46:1–15. Ezekiel 45:18–25 lists the occasions of the annual sacrifices; 46:1–15 notes the occasions of the repeated sacrifices (i.e., the Sabbath day and the New Moon or first day of each month). Special emphasis is placed on how the prince and the laity are to enter and exit the place of worship.

In the prince’s case, he approaches (but may not enter) the inner sanctuary by way of the eastern gate, on whose threshold he worships (46:2). He is to make certain that he enters and exits by the same gate on both Sabbaths and New Moons (46:8, 12). The laity and the prince are both to exit by the gate opposite the one they entered on the annual festivals. Thus they must traverse the entire outer court.

That the gate is left open until evening (46:2) probably indicates that the laity may look into the holy precinct while they worship by the exterior entrance.

46:16–24. After speaking of the prince’s voluntary and daily offerings, Ezekiel takes up the matter of how the prince should give gifts of land to his sons or servants and what limitations apply when those endowments of crown land are given to servants (46:16–18). Gifts the prince gives to his courtiers are to revert to the crown in the year of Jubilee.

The chapter concludes with Ezekiel being shown the temple kitchens, the place where the sacrifices are cooked or baked (46:19–24). There are two sets of kitchens. One is for the priests and the other is for the laity. This second set is located in the outer court. The more minor sacrifices are prepared here. Once again, the gradation of holiness is prominent even where kitchens are concerned.

H. The river of life (47:1–23). 47:1–5. In the first twelve verses is shown water coming out of the temple’s south side. From there it flows through a desert and eventually empties into the Dead Sea (47:8). For this to happen, God must perform a geophysical miracle by making the temple site in Jerusalem a source of freshwater.

A celestial man leads the prophet on a tour of this river (47:3–5). At a third of a mile it is ankle-deep. At another third it is knee-deep. At another third it is waist-deep. At another third it is an unfordable river, deep enough to swim in. It is not explained how the river gets deeper as it flows farther. There is no mention of any tributaries.

47:6–12. What also makes this river so interesting is the positive effects of its waters. The river desalts the Dead Sea, so the sea becomes a fisherman’s paradise (47:8–10). Wherever the river flows and whatever it touches, the result is life. Not only is the Dead Sea desalinized; the desert is fructified. Fruit trees of all kinds grow on both sides of this river (47:7, 12). The fruit from these trees provides food and healing.

Jesus may have had Ezk 47 in mind when he said: “The one who believes in me, as Scripture has said, will have streams of living water flow from deep within him” (Jn 7:38). The next verse connects these streams of living water with the Spirit.

The vision of this river singles out for transformation the most barren tract of land (the Arabah) and the body of water most inhospitable to life (the Dead Sea). Moreover, the water flows from a temple built on solid rock!

47:13–23. The vision of the temple river is followed by an outline of the boundaries of the land. Note that these boundaries do not include land east of the Jordan. This must mean that the three Transjordanian tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh) are to be given different territories (see chap. 48). The boundaries also leave out Aramean territory to the north, once conquered by David, and Edomite territory to the south, once part of the Judahite kingdom.

Of particular import is the fact that 47:21–23 integrates the alien into the tribal structure and allows him to share in the patrimony of Israel. Earlier biblical injunctions had insisted on the humane and moral treatment of the alien (e.g., Ex 22:21; Lv 19:10; Dt 14:29), but they still kept the alien outside of the tribal structure. Ezekiel’s word is more radical than even that of the Torah. All of God’s children, alien and native born, will be part of this new community.

I. Division of the land (48:1–35). 48:1–29. With the external boundaries now in hand, Ezekiel can turn to the matter of interior boundaries: how the land is to be divided among the tribes. The order of tribal allotments is unlike anything in any previous period of Israelite history. The sequence from north to south is Dan, Asher, Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben, Judah (48:1–7); priests/Levites (48:8–22); Benjamin, Simeon, Issachar, Zebulun, and Gad (48:23–29).

Tribal areas named after Jacob’s sons by concubines are placed at the extremes (in the north, Dan and Naphtali by Bilhah, Asher by Zilpah; in the south, Gad by Zilpah). Tribal areas named after Jacob’s sons by Leah and Rachel are placed closer to the center. Tribal areas always a part of the north are now shifted to the south: Zebulun and Issachar. Such repositioning allows the placement of the temple more perfectly in the center of the land. In fact, this city (never called “Jerusalem”) is really an adjunct to the temple (rather than the other way around), what one might properly call a “temple city.”

The Dead Sea

Ezekiel 47 describes a river of water flowing out of the temple and emptying into the Dead Sea. This river becomes deeper as it flows and gives abundant life to the Dead Sea, as “the sea of foul water” becomes fresh (Ezk 47:8).

Most startling is that Judah and Benjamin are reversed. It is now Judah that is north of Benjamin and not vice versa. Is this Ezekiel’s way, and God’s way, of dampening sectionalism in the new order? No one tribe will be more sacrosanct than the other or have pride of position.

Each tribal area is to be equal in size. To be sure, this is not stated explicitly, for chapter 48 provides only east–west determinants and not north–south boundaries. It is a legitimate inference, however. If the last few verses of chapter 47 deal with inequities between native born and aliens, chapter 48 deals with inequities between tribal giants and tribal dwarfs. For Ezekiel, all such differences will be eradicated. Strong/weak, big/small will no longer be categories of distinction.

Between the seven tribes to the north and the five to the south is a special portion. This strip of land is divided into three east–west strips. The northernmost strip is for the priests (48:9–12); the middle strip is for the Levites (48:13–14). Both strips are designated holy. The lowest strip contains a centrally located city surrounded by land for grazing and flanked by farmland (48:15–20). Land outside of this square is crown land (48:21–22).

48:30–35. The last topic covered in the chapter is the reference to the four sides of the city, each of which has three gates bearing the names of three of the tribes (48:30–34). In this system the Ephraim and Manasseh of verses 4–5 have merged into Joseph, and Levi is counted as one of the twelve tribes. Leah’s six sons (or the tribes bearing their names) are positioned at the northern and southern gates.

Finally, Ezekiel concludes his prophecy by identifying the name of this twelve-gate city. It is “The LORD Is There” (48:35). The name Jerusalem is conspicuous by its absence. What gives the city any kind of sanctity is not tradition but the presence of the Lord. His glory is not confined to the temple. It spills into the whole land. [New Jerusalem]

In Ezekiel’s city and John’s city (Rv 21:12–27) the climax is the same: God’s dwelling is with people.