INTRODUCTION
2. Total visitors calculated by multiplying the average visitors per acre (1,129,272) times the number of acres for the park (7). The Trust for Public Land. “2017 City park facts,” April 2017, 33.
4. Neil Hood and Stephen Young, eds. The Globalization of Multinational Enterprise Activity and Economic Development. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
5. For a detailed analysis of this point, see Andreas Bergh and Therese Nilsson, “Is Globalization Reducing Absolute Poverty?.” World Development 62 (2014): 42–61.
6. Eric Helleiner, “Understanding the 2007–2008 Global Financial Crisis: Lessons for Scholars of International Political Economy.” Annual Review of Political Science 14 (2011): 67–87.
7. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age (New York: Norton, 2014).
9. Steven Radelet, The Great Surge: the Ascent of the Developing World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015), 5.
10. The WHO defines clean water as access to improved water sources, both piped and nonpiped. Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines (Geneva: World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund, 2017), 12, fig. 16. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
14. Sustainable investing is defined by the Morgan Stanley Institute for Sustainable Investing as “the practice of making investments in companies or funds which aim to achieve market-rate financial returns while pursuing positive social and/or environmental impact,” 3. Morgan Stanley Institute for Sustainable Investing, “Sustainable Signals: New Data from the Individual Investor,” August 7, 2017, www.eenews.net/assets/2017/08/11/document_cw_01.pdf.
17. Forum for Sustainable and Responsible Investment, “Report on US Sustainable, Responsible and Impact Investing Trends,” 2014, www.ussif.org/trends.
20. Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality (New York: Norton, 2013), xxi.
21. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality, xxix.
22. Robert J. Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).
23. Peter F. Drucker, Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices (New York: HarperCollins, 1974), 807.
25. Peter F. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity (Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2008), 234–241.
27. Speech by Howard W. Buffett, United Nations Social Innovation Summit, May 31, 2012. New York.
28. See, for example, Elliot D. Sclar, You Don’t Always Get What You Pay For: The Economics of Privatization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000).
30. For example, people fifteen to twenty-nine years old exceed 30 percent of the working-age population in most Middle East and North Africa countries. For more information, see Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Youth in the MENA Region: How to Bring Them In” (Paris: OECD, 2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264265721-en.
1. THE EVOLUTION OF CROSS-SECTOR PARTNERSHIPS
1. Tony Bovaird, “Public-Private Partnerships: From Contested Concepts to Prevalent Practice,” International Review of Administrative Sciences 70, no. 2 (2004): 199–215.
2. Bovaird, “Public-Private Partnerships,” 199.
3. David Maurrasse, Strategic Public Private Partnerships—Innovation and Development (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2013), 10–41.
5. For more on socially valuable activities, see Luigi Guiso, Paola Sapienza, and Luigi Zingales, “Civic Capital as the Missing Link: Handbooks in Economics,” in Social Economics, Volume 1A: Handbooks in Economics, ed. Jess Benhabib, Mathew O. Jackson, and Alberta Bisin (San Diego, Calif.: North-Holland, 2011), 417–80.
6. For a discussion and analysis of overcoming collective action problems related to sustainable development objectives, see Yvonne Rydin and Nancy Holman, “Re-evaluating the Contribution of Social Capital in Achieving Sustainable Development,” Local Environment 9, no. 2 (April 2004): 117–133, particularly 127–131, https://doi.org/10.1080/1354983042000199561.
7. Ronald W. McQuaid, “Theory of Organisational Partnerships—Partnership Advantages, Disadvantages and Success Factors,” in The New Public Governance: Critical Perspectives and Future Directions, ed. Stephen P. Osborne (London: Routledge, 2010), 125–46.
8. For more on this, see Andrés Rodríguez-Pose and Michael Storper, “Better Rules or Stronger Communities? On the Social Foundations of Institutional Change and Its Economic Effects,” Economic Geography 82 (2006): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-8287.2006.tb00286.x.
9. For a discussion of challenges associated with establishing and managing cross-sector partnerships, see Kathy Babiak and Lucie Thibault, “Challenges in Multiple Cross-Sector Partnerships,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 38, no. 1 (December 2007): 117–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764008316054.
10. Thomas G. Pittz and Terry R. Adler, “An Exemplar of Open Strategy: Decision-Making Within Multi-Sector Collaborations,” Management Decision 54, no. 7 (2016):1595–1614.
11. David Maurrasse, Strategic Public Private Partnerships, 3.
12. United Nations, “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” United Nations A/Res/70/1, adopted September 27, 2015. For additional information, see https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/.
14. Maurrasse, Strategic Public Private Partnerships, 17.
16. Robert D. Launius, Historical Analogs for the Stimulation of Space Commerce, Monographs in Aerospace History, no. 54 (Washington, D.C.: NASA, 2014).
17. Robert Gordon, The Rise and Fall of American Growth (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2016).
18. Mario Cuomo speech at the Democratic National Convention, July 16, 1984, San Francisco, California.
19. Arthur M Schlesinger Jr., The Coming of the New Deal (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), 299–301.
20. While the U.S. economy has led to some 75 million owner-occupied homes, much homeownership has been financed through debt. This topic is discussed on pages 5–6 of the Berkshire Hathaway Inc., 2016 Annual Report, berkshirehathaway.com/2016ar/2016ar.pdf.
21. The authors converted costs to 2018 dollars using data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. For original figures, see the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, reprint of: Richard F. Weingroff, “Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956: Creating The Interstate System,” Highway History 60, no. 1, Summer 1996, https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/96summer/p96su10.cfm.
22. The authors converted costs to 2018 dollars using data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. For original figures, see U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway History, www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/faq.cfm#question6.
28. The exact cost of the program has been estimated at $21 billion to $30 billion, depending on what is included in the total. See, for example, Paul D. Lowman Jr., Our First Lunar Program: What Did We Get from Apollo? September 6, 2007, www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/series/moon/first_lunar_program.html; and Telegraph Media Group, Apollo 11 Moon Landing; Ten Facts About Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins’ Mission, July 18, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/space/5852237/Apollo-11-Moon-landing-ten-facts-about-Armstrong-Aldrin-and-Collins-mission.html.
31. NASA, “Europa: Overview: Ingredients for Life?,” solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/europa.
33. Peter Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity (Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2008).
34. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 101.
35. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 212–33.
36. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 234.
37. Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 241.
39. Lester Salamon, Beyond Privatization: The Tools of Government Action (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1989), 245.
42. David Osborne, Laboratories of Democracy (Brighton, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 1988).
43. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (Boston, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1992).
44. David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government, ix–x.
45. William Eimicke was selected to work with Osborne as a volunteer expert and focused on reinvention opportunities in the federal agencies related to housing.
46. Stephen Goldsmith, The Twenty-First Century City (Washington, D.C.: Regnery, 1997). Goldsmith is currently the Daniel Paul Professor of the Practice of Government and the Director of the Innovations in American Government Program at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government. He previously served as deputy mayor of New York City under Mayor Michael Bloomberg and was chair of the Corporation for National and Community Service under President George W. Bush.
47. Emanuel S. Savas, Privatization in the City (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005).
48. Faith-Based And Community Initiative, United States Government Accountability Office. Improvements in Monitoring Grantees and Measuring Performance Could Enhance Accountability. ( Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.A.O., 2006).
49. Daniel F. Runde, with Aaron Milner and Jena Santoro, The Millennium Challenge Corporation in the Trump Era (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2017), 1.
50. Runde, The Millennium Challenge Corporation, 7.
54. Deputy Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral James Winnefeld, “Public-Private Partnerships Supporting the DoD Mission,” DoD Memorandum, April 25, 2013.
57. National Intelligence Council. Global Trends, 28.
58. This was a key theme in a set of managment recommendations prepared for U.S. Strategic Command regarding the adaptation of social value investing principles to U.S. nuclear command and control operations. See more in “Innovating U.S. Strategic Command’s Deterrence and Assurance Operations,” Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs, ed. Howard W. Buffett, Spring 2017. Available at: stratcom.mil/Portals/8/Documents/Columbia University SIPA USSTRATCOM Final Report.pdf.
2. SOCIAL VALUE INVESTING
1. Joel L. Fleishman, The Foundation: A Great American Secret; How Private Wealth Is Changing the World (New York: PublicAffairs, 2007).
2. Joel L. Fleishman, Putting Wealth to Work: Philanthropy for Today or Investing for Tomorrow? (New York: PublicAffairs, 2017).
3. Timothy O’Brien and Stephanie Saul, “Buffett to Give Bulk of His Fortune to Gates Charity,” New York Times, June 26, 2006.
4. Karen Richardson, “Warren Buffett Gives $30 Billion to Gates Foundation,” Wall Street Journal, June 26, 2006.
6. Bruce Greenwald and Paul Johnson, “Value Investing,” in A Century of Ideas, ed. Brian Thomas (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), chapter 2.
7. Benjamin Graham and David Dodd co-authored Security Analysis; Benjamin Graham authored The Intelligent Investor.
8. Benjamin Graham, The Intelligent Investor, 4th rev. ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1973).
9. Dealbook, “Buffett Beats Gates to Become World’s Richest Person,” New York Times, March 6, 2008.
14. Data compiled from various Howard G. Buffett Foundation annual reports and confirmed by foundation staff on August 31, 2016.
15. Data compiled from various Howard G. Buffett Foundation annual reports and confirmed by foundation staff on August 31, 2016.
17. This initial gathering took place in Omaha, Nebraska, on September 25–26, 2006.
18. Although less common in the philanthropic sector, these types of collaboration occur in the private sector frequently. For instance, see the discussion of “Networks” and “Consortia” in Bruce R. Barringer and Jeffrey S. Harrison, “Walking a Tightrope: Creating Value Through Interorganizational Relationships,” Journal of Management 26, no. 3 (2000): 367–403, at 387–91, https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600302.
19. For a narrative of this process, including challenges faced, see Howard G. Buffett, with Howard W. Buffett, 40 Chances: Finding Hope in a Hungry World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013), chapter 26, “Less Than Sparkling”.
20. For an additional example of this approach, see Howard W. Buffett and Adam Stepan, “Aid or Investment? Post-Conflict Development in DRC and Rwanda,” Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs Case Consortium, SIPA-18-0016.0, 2018.
22. Section on “The Managing of Berkshire,” in Berkshire Hathaway’s Owner’s Manual.
24. Principle #1, Principle #12, and Principle #14, in Berkshire Hathaway’s Owner’s Manual.
25. For instance, the company’s leadership engages in open and honest communication with a propensity to point out mistakes, failures, and missed opportunities. My grandfather’s annual letter to shareholders is written as though shareholders were themselves family members. And the annual shareholder’s meeting in Omaha, Nebraska, instills its own sense of community and comradery. Many consider these attributes unique for an organization the size and complexity of Berkshire Hathaway, and we believe they are important aspects of its shareholder focus, and critical to its overall success.
26. Principle #7 (discussion of deferred taxes and “float”) and Principle #14, in Berkshire Hathaway’s Owner’s Manual.
27. Principle #3, Principle #6, and Section on “Intrinsic Value,” in Berkshire Hathaway’s Owner’s Manual.
28. For instance, in 2007 the Rockefeller Foundation convened a small group of philanthropists and investors to discuss the emerging practices of impact investing. This led to the creation of the Global Impact Investing Network (GIIN), discussed in chapter 12. More information is available at https://thegiin.org/giin/history.
29. Impact Rate of Return is a federally registered trademark of Global Impact LLC and all rights are reserved.
31. “Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Office for Partnerships,” A/64/91, United Nations General Assembly, August 12, 2009.
32. “Organization of the United Nations Office for Partnerships,” Secretary-General’s bulletin, ST/SGB/2009/14, United Nations Secretariat, December 18, 2009.
33. For a list of projects and funds balances across UNOP program areas, see “Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Office for Partnerships,” A/64/91, United Nations General Assembly, August 12, 2009.
36. For instance, the TIGR team organized significant outreach and engagement activities with diverse nongovernmental stakeholders to better inform its partnership strategies. These engagements spanned the areas of technology, philanthropy, social innovation, and mission-driven businesses, among others.
38. President Barack Obama signed into law the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act on April 22, 2009, creating the Social Innovation Fund.
39. Howard W. Buffett, Promoting Partnerships for Innovation in Energy, The White House, May 10, 2010, www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/05/10/promoting-partnerships-innovation-energy; and Howard W. Buffett, Partnerships for Regional Energy Innovation in Omaha, Nebraska, The White House, June 17, 2010, www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/06/17/partnerships-regional-energy-innovation-omaha-nebraska.
41. Robert M. Gates, Secretary of Defense, Continuation of Task Force for Business and Stability Operations (Memorandum), March 25, 2010 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense).
42. For instance, see the section titled “Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector” in Department of State, Office of the Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, “Afghanistan and Pakistan Regional Stabilization Strategy,” February 2010.
43. This was done in alignment with the U.S. Government Counterinsurgency Guide, issued January 2009 by the U.S. Agency for International Development, the U.S. Department of Defense, and the U.S. Department of State.
44. Nongovernmental program supporters included the Norman Borlaug Foundation, the Howard G. Buffett Foundation, the United Nations World Food Program, and others.
46. For example, see Buffett, 40 Chances, chapter 29, “Chains That Unlock Potential.”
48. World Bank Group, World Bank Group Agriculture Action Plan, 2013–2015, July 25, 2012, siteresources.worldbank.org/…/WBG_AgricultureActionPlan-FY13-15-7-25-2012[1]. For additional, frequently updated information on the subject, visit www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture/overview.
51. For more information on this partnership, see Howard W. Buffett and Adam Stepan, “Saved by the Soil? Africa’s Frontier for Conservation-Based Agriculture,” Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs Case Consortium, SIPA-17-0011.01, 2017.
1. For a wonderful history of this period, see Lawrence James, Raj, The Making and Unmaking of British India (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1997).
3. A great insight into the promise and contradictions of modern India is provided in Sunil Khilannai, The Idea of India (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999).
7. World Bank, Overview of India.
9. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, India’s Agricultural Exports Climb.
10. See also Columbia University’s SIPA short case study film, Digital India, Picker Center, 2015.
12. Government of India, About the Digital India Programme.
13. Indian tech billionaire Nardan Nilekani is credited with the original idea for a universal India ID, and he served as the chairman of UIDAI between 2009 and 2014. For more information, see Ted Smalley Bowen and Adam Stepan, “Digital India,” Picker Center for Executive Education at Columbia University’s School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA) Case Study, SIPA-15-0009.0, 2015.
15. UIDAI, About Aadhaar.
17. Bowen and Stepan, “Digital India,” 6.
18. “Aadhaar Now Most Widely Held ID with 92cr [920 Million] Holders,” Times of India, October 2, 2015.
19. “92 Percent of India’s Adult Population Has Aadhaar Card,” Times of India, January 21, 2016.
21. UIDAI, About UIDAI, February 3, 2017, UIDIA.gov.in.
28. Siddharth George and Arvind Subramamian, “Transforming the Fight Against Poverty in India,” New York Times, July 22, 2015.
30. Jhagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya, Why Growth Matters: How Economic Growth in India Reduced Poverty and the Lessons for Other Developing Countries (New York: PublicAffairs, 2013).
31. George and Subramamian, “Transforming the Fight Against Poverty in India.”
32. George and Subramamian, “Transforming the Fight Against Poverty in India.”
36. Mark Scott, “In the Battle for Digital India, Vodafone Teams Up with Idea Cellular,” New York Times, March 20, 2017.
37. “What Is the Impact of Mobile Telephone on Economic Growth?,” A report to the GSM Association by Deloitte and CISCO, November, 2012.
39. Narayan Lakshman, “Modi Boots Up ‘Digital India’ with High-Profile Silicon Valley Show,” The Hindu, September 27, 2015.
40. Communications Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad, quoted in live Mint, “Govt Launches 22 New Schemes Under Digital India Programme.”
41. Aman Shah and Nivedita Bhattarcharjee, “After WiFi at the Taj, Modi Revives Campaign for ‘Digital India’,” Reuters, July 1, 2015.
46. Anja Manuel, “Tackling Graft in India,” New York Times, April 19, 2016.
47. Manuel, “Tackling Graft in India.”
48. Manuel, “Tackling Graft in India.”
49. Bowen and Stepan, “Digital India,” 14.
50. Duncan Grahan Rowe, “Ageing Eyes Hinder Biometric Scans,” Nature, May 2012.
51. UIDAI’s Central Identities Data Repository is comprised of three automated biometric identity subsystems running in parallel, which increases accuracy and enabled UIDAI to limit the risk of relying on only one private partner/vendor.
52. Bowen and Stepan, “Digital India,” 14.
53. Neha Pandey Deonas, “Endgame Aadhaar? The SC’s Latest Order May Put Paid to the ‘One Identity Number for All Transactions’ Vision for the Card,” Business Standard, March 24, 2014.
54. Aknksha Jain, “Use Aadhaar to Identify Accident Victims,” The Hindu, May 10, 2015.
55. Bowen and Stepan, “Digital India,” 16.
56. Dheeraj Tiwar, “Government Asks Central Public Sector Enterprises to Enroll Employees Under Aadhaar,” Economic Times, May 5, 2015.
58. Geeta Anand, “Modi’s Party Wins Big in India’s Largest State,” New York Times, March 12, 2017.
59. Nida Najar, “Modi Retains Broad Support in India Despite Criticism, Poll Finds,” New York Times, September 19, 2016.
60. Najar, “Modi Retains Broad Support.”
61. Ted Smalley Bowen and Adam Stepan, “eDoctors: Primary Care Innovation in Brazil and India,” School of International and Public Affairs, Picker Center for Executive Education, SIPA-15-0008.0 (New York: Columbia University, 2015).
63. Ministry of Electronic and Information Technology, Common Service Centers, www.Meity.gov.in.
65. Interviews with Dr. Prathap Reddy, founding Chairman of Apollo Hospitals and Dr. Krishnan Ganapathy of Apollo Telemedicine Networking Foundation conducted in Chennai, India, and New York City during 2014 and 2015 by members of the SIPA’s Picker Center Case Study team and quoted in Bowen and Stepan, “eDoctors: Primary Care Innovation in Brazil and India,” 10–11.
66. Bowen and Stepan, “eDoctors,” 12. The government requires Apollo to treat patients who seek care but cannot afford even the minimal fees.
67. Bowen and Stepan, “eDoctors,” 12.
68. Bowen and Stepan, “eDoctors,”13.
70. PTI, “Government, Apollo Hospitals Partner to Launch Telemedicine Services,” Economic Times, August 23, 2015.
71. FP staff, “LS Passes Aadhaar Bill, Rejects RS Recommendations; All You Need to Know About the Law,” First Post, March 17, 2016.
4. THE PROCESS FRAMEWORK
1. Sandra A. Waddock, “Building Successful Social Partnerships,” Sloan Management Review 29, no. 4 (1988): 22.
3. Emanuela Todeva and David Knoke, “Strategic Alliances and Models of Collaboration,” Management Decision, 43, no. 1 (2005): 123–25.
4. Todeva and Knoke, “Strategic Alliances.”
5. A discussion of this question is brought forward from the perspective of private sector companies operating in low-income or “base of the pyramid” markets in Tassilo Schuster, “Benefits of Cross-Sector Partnerships in Markets at the Base of the Pyramid,” Business Strategy and the Environment 23 (2014): 188–203, https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1780.
6. PTI, “Government, Apollo Hospitals Partner to Launch Telemedicine Services,” Economic Times, August 23, 2015.
7. Armistead, Pettigrew, and Aves, “Exploring Leadership in Multi-Sectoral Partnerships.”
8. These differences are inherent to concerns raised by the increasing role of the private sector in multilateral governance. See Benedicte Bull et al., “Private Sector Influence in the Multilateral System: A Changing Structure of World Governance?” Global Governance 10, no. 4 (2004): 481–98.
10. Samuel Bendett, “Defense Partnerships: Documenting Trends and Emerging Topics for Action,” Defense Horizons 78 (2015): 1–12.
11. A multitude of definitions for the term “partnership” exist; for an extensive literature review concerning the topic, including definitions, see Valerie Wildridge, Sue Childs, Lynette Cawthra, and Bruce Madge, “How to Create Successful Partnerships—A Review of the Literature,” Health Information & Libraries Journal 21 (2004): 3–19, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-3324.2004.00497.x.
13. See section on “Joint Ventures” in Bruce R. Barringer and Jeffrey S. Harrison, “Walking a Tightrope: Creating Value Through Interorganizational Relationships,” Journal of Management 26, no. 3 (June 2000): 367–403, at 384, https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600302.
16. Many of the partnerships that informed our definition share characteristics with the concept of “collective impact”; however, we disagree with the delineation between “technical” and “adaptive” problems described by John Kania and Mark Kramer, “Collective Impact,” Stanford Social Innovation Review (Winter 2011), https://ssir.org/articles/entry/collective_impact.
19. For a series of relevant templates and example agreements, see “Policy Framework and Legal Guidelines for Partnerships,” U.S. Department of State, February 2011, 21–71.
21. Seitanidi, M. May, and Andrew Crane, eds. Social Partnerships and Responsible Business: A Research Handbook (New York: Routledge, 2013), 1–12, 36, 60–85.
22. Skills-based capital is categorically similar to, yet more broadly defined than, “skill-based capital” found in: Lester Taylor, Capital, Accumulation, and Money: An Integration of Capital, Growth, and Monetary Theory (Boston, Mass.: Springer Verlag, 2010), 12.
24. This is a central aspect of the definition of a cross-sector partnership: “a cross-sector, inter-organizational group, working together under some form of recognized governance, towards common goals which would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to achieve if tackled by any single organization”: Colin Armistead, Paul Pettigrew, and Sally Aves, “Exploring Leadership in Multi-Sectoral Partnerships,” Leadership 3, no. 2 (August 2016): 211–30, at 212, https://doi.org/10.1177/1742715007076214.
25. See the discussion of measurement methodologies relevant to the social sector in Nino Antadze and Frances R. Westley, “Impact Metrics for Social Innovation: Barriers or Bridges to Radical Change?,” Journal of Social Entrepreneurship 3, no. 2 (2012): 133–150.
26. For example, Sandra Waddock characterized social partnerships as “the voluntary collaborative efforts of actors from organizations in two or more economic sectors in a forum in which they cooperatively attempt to solve a problem or issue of mutual concern that is in some way identified with a public policy agenda item”: Sandra Waddock, “A Typology of Social Partnership Organizations,” Administration & Society 22, no. 4 (1991): 480–516, at 481–82.
27. Overlapping characteristics of cross-sector partnerships include “1) they have formal autonomous actors, each with…objectives and resources, decid[ing] whether…to provide certain services in exchange with other actors. 2) Interactions between the participants are framed by…contractual or informal organization—[whereby] complementary resources are combined to serve jointly defined functions. 3) Participating actors are tied into different institutional arrangements roughly described by the generic terms ‘government,’ ‘market,’ and ‘society’ ”: Maria Oppen, Detlef Sack, and Alexander Wegener, “German Public-Private Partnerships in Personal Social Services: New Directions in a Corporatist Environment,” in The Challenge of Public-Private Partnerships: Learning from International Experience, ed. Graeme Hodge and Carsten Greve (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005), 269–89, at 270.
29. This characteristic is similar to how organizations engage in “mutually reinforcing activities” as described by John Kania and Mark Kramer, “Collective Impact,” Stanford Social Innovation Review (Winter 2011), https://ssir.org/articles/entry/collective_impact.
30. See the concept of shared investment risk discussed in the “cooperation perspective” (6) as well as “mutual incremental reinforcement” (52), in Ranjay Gulati, Franz Wohlgezogen, and Pavel Zhelyazkov, The Two Facets of Collaboration: Cooperation and Coordination in Strategic Alliances, 2012, http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:10996795.
31. This characteristic is similar to the “integrative stage” of the cross-sector collaboration continuum as described in James Austin, “Connecting With Non-Profits,” Working Knowledge: Business Research for Business Leaders (October 2001), hbswk.hbs.edu/item/connecting-with-nonprofits.
33. James E. Austin and Maria May Seitanidi, “Collaborative Value Creation: A Review of Partnering Between Nonprofits and Businesses. Part 2: Partnership Processes and Outcomes,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 41, no. 6 (2012): 929–68, journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0899764012454685.
37. Pearce and Doh, “The High Impact of Collaborative Social Initiatives.”
38. Janine Nahapiet and Sumantra Ghoshal, “Social Capital, Intellectual Capital, and the Organizational Advantage,” Academy of Management Review 23, no. 2 (1998): 242–66, http://eli.johogo.com/Class/p18.pdf.
39. These functions are adapted from U.S. Department of State’s Policy Framework and Legal Guidelines for Partnerships, February 2011.
42. See discussion of the “Social Issues Platform,” in John W. Selsky and Barbara Parker, “Cross-Sector Partnerships to Address Social Issues: Challenges to Theory and Practice,” Journal of Management 31, no. 6 (December 2005): 849–73, at 852.
43. Nancy C. Roberts and Raymond Trevor Bradley, “Stakeholder Collaboration and Innovation: A Study of Public Policy Initiation at the State Level,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 27, no. 2 (June 1991): 209–27.
45. See the discussion of implementation roles in the section titled “The Developmental Process of Successful Partnership Working,” in Sue Childs and Sharon Dobbins, “The Research-Practice Spiral,” VINE 33, no. 2 (2003): 51–64, https://doi.org/10.1108/03055720310509073.
46. Ronald McQuaid, “The Theory of Partnerships—Why Have Partnerships?” in Managing Public-Private Partnerships for Public Services: An International Perspective, ed. S. P. Osborne (London: Routledge, 2000), 9–35.
47. One formal definition of stakeholder is given by Herman Brouwer and Jim Woodhill: “someone who can affect, or is affected by, decisions about an issue that concerns him or her.” In Brouwer and Woodhill, The MSP Guide: How to Design and Facilitate Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships (Rugby, UK: Wageningen University and Research, 2015), 18. Because this is an extremely broad classification, delineating a vested interest is important for defining the scope of active stakeholder engagement. For a further discussion on this subject and strategies for stakeholder identification and mapping, see Brouwer and Woodhill.
48. Gulati, Wohlgezogen, and Zhelyazkov, “The Two Facets of Collaboration.”
50. In Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, this model is titled a “Joint Program Office,” 4.
51. This model was one of the more common across the approximately 600 partnerships submitted to the Collaboration Prize. It is referred to as a “Joint Partnership with Affiliated Programming” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 5.
52. This may be a useful structure when organizations engage in lobbying activity. The model is referred to as a “Joint Partnership for Issue Advocacy” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 6.
53. Model 6 is otherwise called a “Joint Partnership with the Birth of a New Formal Organization” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 7.
54. This model is similar in nature to the Affiliated Programming model but centered on organizational administration. It is referred to as “Joint Administrative Office and Back Office Operations” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 8.
55. Described simply as a “Confederation” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 8. An example type organization is the Independent Sector, a national membership organization for philanthropic organizations. See more at http://independentsector.org/.
56. This is referred to as a “Partially-Integrated Merger” in Hager and Curry, Models of Collaboration, 3.
58. Carol Hirschon Weiss, “Nothing as Practical as Good Theory: Exploring Theory-Based Evaluation for Comprehensive Community Initiatives for Children and Families,” in New Approaches to Evaluating Community Initiatives: Concepts, Methods, and Contexts, ed. James Connell et al. (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1995).
60. For more details on conducting a theory of change analysis, see James P. Connell and Anne C. Kubisch, “Applying a Theory of Change Approach to the Evaluation of Comprehensive Community Initiatives: Progress, Prospects and Problems,” in New Approaches to Evaluating Community Initiatives, Vol. 2, Theory, Measurement and Analysis ed. K. Fullbright-Anderson, Anne C. Kubisch, and James P. Connell (Washington, D.C.: Aspen Institute, 1998).
65. Srik Gopal, “Evaluating Complex Social Initiatives,” Stanford Social Innovation Project Review 4 (March 2015), ssir.org/articles/entry/evaluating_complex_social_initiatives.
66. John Kania and Mark Kramer, “Collective Impact,” Stanford Social Innovation Review (2011), ssir.org/articles/entry/collective_impact.
67. Dwayne Spradlin, “Are You Solving the Right Problem?” Harvard Business Review (September 2012), hbr.org/2012/09/are-you-solving-the-right-problem.
68. For additional related discussion in the context of humanitarian response supply chains, see Jérôme Chandes and Gilles Paché, “Investigating Humanitarian Logistics Issues: From Operations Management to Strategic Action,” Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management 21, no. 3 (2010): 320–40, http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/10.1108/17410381011024313.
71. For a discussion and study of similar challenges in the context of NGO and government collaboration in response to health service delivery needs in Sudan, see: I A Yagub A, “Collaboration Between Government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Delivering Curative Health Services in North Darfur State, Sudan—a National Report,” Iranian Journal of Public Health 43, no. 5 (2014): 561–71.
73. Emmanuel Lazega and Lise Mounier, “Interdependent Entrepreneurs and the Social Discipline of Their Cooperation: A Research Programme for Structural Economic Sociology in a Society of Organizations,” in Conventions and Structures in Economic Organization: Markets, Networks, and Hierarchies (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2002).
5. THE PEOPLE CASE
2. Sara Ceder Miller, Seeing Central Park (New York: Abrams, 2009), 10.
3. Ted Smalley Bowen and Adam Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 2014, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University, Case Study, SIPA-14-0005.4.
4. Miller, Seeing Central Park, 26.
5. Tammany Hall was the common nickname for the Democratic Party corruption machine that ran the government in New York City in the post–Civil War period until well into the early decades of the twentieth century. Its rise coincided with the waves of Irish Catholic immigrants coming into the city during that period. For many, the cartoons of Thomas Nast depicting Tammany Boss William M. Tweed symbolizes the graft, corruption, and election fraud associated with the machine. The progressive era reform movement, led by the Bureau of Municipal Research and the Citizens Union, began the decline of Tammany Hall with the election of Columbia University President Seth Low as mayor in 1902, but Tammany took City Hall back two years later. Tammany’s power was basically usurped by the New Deal programs of Franklyn Roosevelt. Nevertheless, the machine limped along, primarily at the borough and community levels, into the 1960s.
For a brief history of Tammany Hall and the reform of the New York City Democratic Party, see Vincent J. Cannato, “Big Blue Machine,” The Weekly Standard, April 14, 2014.
7. New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, “Olmstead.”
8. Miller, Seeing Central Park, 27.
9. Robert Caro, The Power Broker (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), 331.
10. Caro, The Power Broker, 331.
11. Caro, The Power Broker, 335.
12. Caro, The Power Broker, 336.
13. Caro, The Power Broker, 356–63.
15. Caro, The Power Broker, 378–79. According to Caro, Moses was in the New York papers in 1934 even more than J. Edgar Hoover and his “Public Enemies” campaign.
16. Miller, Seeing Central Park, 28.
17. Miller, Seeing Central Park, 28.
18. Caro, The Power Broker, 1026–39.
19. The World’s Fair position gave Moses global recognition and power, and the salary and fourteen-year contract gave him the financial resources he needed to care for his very ill wife, equally sick daughter, and the college tuitions of his grandson and granddaughter. Caro, The Power Broker, 1040–66. For an excellent summary of the World’s Fair, see Lisa L. Colangelo, “1964 World’s Fair: When the World Came to Queens,” New York Daily News, accessed March 29, 2017, http://creative.nydailynews.com/worldsfair.
21. Kim Phillips-Fein, “The Legacy of the 1970s Fiscal Crisis,” The Nation, April 16, 2013.
22. Phillips-Fein, “The Legacy of the 1970s Fiscal Crisis.”
24. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 2.
25. Franklin E. Zimring, The City That Became Safe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 116, 232, 125–32; James Q. Wilson and George Keiling, “Broken Windows, the Police and Neighborhood Safety,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1982.
26. Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs Video Case Study, SIPA-14-0005.4, 2014.
29. George James, “New York Killings Set a Record, While Other Crimes Fell in 1990,” New York Times, April 23, 1991.
30. Haeyoun Park and Josh Katz, “Murder Rates Rose in a Quarter of the Nation’s 100 Largest Cities,” New York Times, September 8, 2016.
31. More than half a million people live within a ten-minute walk from the park and over 1.1 million can reach it in less than thirty minutes via public transportation. Central Park Conservancy, 2014 Press Kit, http://www.centralparknyc.org.
32. A comprehensive guide to what Central Park means to New York is Miller, Seeing Central Park.
33. E. S. Savas et al., A Study of Central Park (New York: Columbia University, 1976).
34. Savas et al., A Study of Central Park, 3–45.
35. Eimicke served in the Koch administration from 1978 to 1982 in the Office of Management and Budget and then as Deputy Commissioner for Property Management in the Department of Housing Preservation and Development. Similar to Gordon Davis, Eimicke realized the only way to do significantly more with fewer city funds was to find partners. In housing, the partners included community-based housing groups, banks, foundations, private developers, and federal Community Development Block Grant funds.
36. Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs.
37. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 3.
38. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 3–4.
39. Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs.
40. Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs.
41. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 4.
42. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 4.
43. Interview with Doug Blonsky, March 28, 2017.
44. Interview with Doug Blonsky, December 1, 2016.
45. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 5.
46. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC.”
47. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 6.
48. Andrew L. Yarrow, “In New York’s Parks, More Litter and Less Money,” New York Times, August 13, 1990.
49. Interview with Douglas Blonsky, December 1, 2016.
50. Douglas Martin, “Private Group Signs Central Park Deal to Be Its Manager,” New York Times, February 12, 1998.
51. Martin, “Private Group Signs Central Park Deal,” 7.
53. Interview with Doug Blonsky, December 1, 2016.
54. Central Park Conservancy, History.
55. Lisa W. Foderaro, “A $100 Million Thank-You for a Lifetime’s Central Park Memories,” New York Times, October 23, 2012.
56. Robin Pogrebin, “Central Park, Bucolic but Aging, Is in a Quest for $300 Million,” New York Times, July 13, 2016.
57. Interview with Doug Blonsky, March 29, 2017.
58. Central Park Conservancy, Institute for Urban Parks (booklet), 2015.
60. EMPA Capstone Class, “The Certified Urban Park Manager,” SIPA, Columbia University, April 2016.
62. Interview with Doug Blonsky, January 30, 2018.
63. Appleseed, The Central Park Effect, 10; and Interview with Doug Blonsky, April 5, 2017.
64. Appleseed, The Central Park Effect, 9.
65. Central Park Conservancy, History.
66. On December 12, 2017, the Central Park Conservancy announced that Elizabeth Smith, former Assistant NYC Parks Commissioner under Mike Bloomberg and Institute for Urban Parks board member would succeed the retiring Doug Blonsky as CEO of CPC. She indicated she would remain on the Institute board, signaling the importance of CPC’s expanding role in education and sharing best practices to improve urban parks throughout New York City and around the world. James Barron, “A New Leader for Central Park,” New York Times, December 12, 2017.
67. Joshua David and Robert Hammond, High Line: The Inside Story of New York City’s Park in the Sky (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011), vii.
68. Christopher Gray, “As High Line Park Rises, a Time Capsule Remains,” New York Times, May 28, 2008.
69. Initially known as just an elevated track when built in 1930s, David and Hammond say the High Line nickname came into use in the late 1980s. See David and Hammond, High Line, ix.
70. John Alschuler, former chair, Friends of the High Line, email comments received May 1, 2017.
71. In 1983, Congress passed the National Trails System Act, allowing rail lines to be “banked” for future rail use; in the interim they can be used for pedestrian or bike trails. The tracks are not “abandoned,” so they can be sold, leased, or donated. CSX assumed control of Conrail in 1999. See David and Hammond, High Line, x.
72. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 8.
73. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 70–71.
74. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 8.
75. David and Hammond, High Line, 46.
76. Alan Tate with Marcella Eaton, Great City Parks, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), 45.
77. David and Hammond, High Line, 8.
78. David and Hammond, High Line, 38–42.
79. David and Hammond, High Line, 54, 69, 71, 78.
80. Comment by Lisa Switkin, principal at James Corner urban designers, in the film Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs Video Case Study, SIPA-14-0005.4, 2014.
81. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 9.
82. Kaid Benfield, “The Original High Line: La Promenade Plantee in Paris,” The Atlantic, July 14, 2011.
83. Benfield, “The Original High Line.”
84. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 9.
85. Matt Chaban, “Good News and Bad News for the High Line as Chelsea Market Approved by City Planning,” New York Observer, September 5, 2012.
87. NYC Parks, City Acquires Third Section of the High Line, accessed May 2, 2017, www.nycgovparks.org/parks/the-high-line/dailyplant/22715; see also NYC, “Mayor Bloomberg, Speaker Quinn and Friends of the High Line Announce Opening of First Section of New York City’s Newest Park,” June 8, 2009, www1.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/257-09/mayor-bloomberg-speaker-quinn-friends-the-high-line-opening-first-section-of; and David and Hammond, High Line. 116–17.
88. David and Hammond, High Line. 71.
90. NYC Mayor’s Office, “Mayor Bloomberg, Speaker Quinn and Friends of the High Line Break Ground on the Third and Final Section of the High Line at the Rail Yards,” Press release, September 20, 2012.
91. Anne Raver, “Upstairs, a Walk on the Wild Side,” New York Times, September 3, 2014.
92. Michael Kimmelman, “The Climax in a Tale of Green and Gritty,” New York Times, September 19, 2014.
93. Kimmelman, “The Climax in a Tale of Green and Gritty.”
94. Lisa Foderaro, “Record $20 Million Gift to Help Finish the High Line Park,” New York Times, October 26, 2011. See also David and Hammond, High Line, 91, 93, 94.
95. David and Hammond, High Line, 115.
96. David and Hammond, High Line, 93–94.
97. David and Hammond, High Line, 114–15.
98. Kate Taylor, “After High Line’s Success, Other Cities Look Up,” New York Times, July 14, 2010.
99. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 11.
101. Foderaro, “Record $20 Million Gift to Help Finish the High Line Park.”
102. Josh Barbanel, “The High Line’s ‘Halo Effect’ on Property: Residential Values Along the Park Appreciate Faster Than Those Farther Away,” Wall Street Journal, August 7, 2016.
103. Barbanel, “The High Line’s ‘Halo Effect’ on Property.”
104. Barbanel, “The High Line’s ‘Halo Effect’ on Property.”
105. Julie Satow, “Home on the High Line,” New York Times, May 17, 2013.
106. Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 12.
108. Mireya Navarro, “In Chelsea, a Great Wealth Divide,” New York Times, October 23, 2015.
109. Navarro, “In Chelsea, a Great Wealth Divide.”
110. United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects, 2014 Revision (New York: United Nations, 2014).
111. Some people criticize conservancies as elitist and only interested in the high-profile parks in wealthy neighborhoods. In New York City, legislation has been proposed to tax conservancies and send some of their donor funds to parks with fewer resources. See Michael Powell, “Parks Department Takes a Seat Behind Nonprofit Conservancies,” New York Times, February 3, 2014. But as Friends of the High Line Chair Emeritus John Alshuler points out, discouraging or eliminating conservancies would only make the funding shortfalls for poorer parks worse. See Bowen and Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 13.
112. William Neuman, “5 Neglected New York City Parks to Get $150 Million for Upgrades,” New York Times, August 18, 2016.
113. Neuman, “5 Neglected New York City Parks to Get $150 Million for Upgrades.”
6. THE PEOPLE FRAMEWORK
2. Peter Drucker, Management Challenges for the 21st Century (New York: HarperBusiness, 1999), 9–17.
4. For a discussion on decentralization as well as how it relates to corporate social performance, see Elaine M. Wong et al., “The Effects of Top Management Team Integrative Complexity and Decentralized Decision Making on Corporate Social Performance,” Academy of Management Journal 54, no. 6 (2011): 1207–28.
5. See Principle 1. Focus Collaboration on Achieving Business Results, in Michael M. Beyerlein, Sue Freedman, Craig McGee, and Linda Moran, “The Ten Principles of Collaborative Organizations,” Journal of Organizational Excellence 22, no. 2 (2003): 51–63.
6. K. Anbuvelan, Principles of Management (Boston: Firewall Media, 2007), 108.
7. Wong et al., “The Effects of Top Management Team Integrative Complexity,” 1211.
8. The benefits listed here are also discussed in Thomas W. Malone, The Future of Work: How the New Order of Business Will Shape Your Organization, Your Management Style, and Your Life (Brighton, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2004).
9. Lisa Foderaro, “With 843 Acres Buffed, Central Park Leader Will Step Down,” New York Times, June 6, 2017.
10. Shelley A. Kirkpatrick and Edwin A. Locke, “Leadership: Do Traits Matter?” The Executive 5, no. 2 (May 1991): 48–60.
11. Lisa Gardner and Con Stough, “Examining the Relationship Between Leadership and Emotional Intelligence in Senior Level Managers,” Leadership & Organization Development Journal 23, no. 2 (2002): 68–78.
12. For example, many of these characteristics are found across the five themes of collaborative leadership analyzed in Jeffery A. Alexander, Maureen E. Comfort, Bryan J. Weiner, and Richard Bogue, “Leadership in Collaborative Community Health Partnerships,” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 12 (2001): 159–75, https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.12203.
13. These characteristics are similar in nature to a “shared leadership” style, which contrasts with forms of “traditional leadership.” For a study on this topic, see Michael Shane Wood, “Determinants of Shared Leadership in Management Teams,” International Journal of Leadership Studies 1, no. 1 (2005): 64–85.
15. For a discussion about challenges and recommendations related to decentralized team management, see Preston G. Smith and Emily L. Blanck, “From Experience: Leading Dispersed Teams,” Journal of Product Innovation Management 19 (2002): 294–304, https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5885.1940294.
17. In the case of the High Line, the city government instituted a zoning fee of $50 per square foot for new construction above zoning height limits to help finance the partnership.
18. For example, see Laura Albareda, Josep Maria Lozano, Antonio Tencati, Atle Midttun, and Francesco Perrini, “The Changing Role of Governments in Corporate Social Responsibility: Drivers and Responses,” Business Ethics: A European Review 17 (2008): 347–63, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8608.2008.00539.x.
19. See example in section 4.2.2 and discussion in 4.2.4 in Alyson Warhurst, “Future Roles of Business in Society: The Expanding Boundaries of Corporate Responsibility and a Compelling Case for Partnership,” Futures 37, no. 2 (2005): 151–68, at 161–62, 163–64.
20. For example, technology business leader Nandan Nilekani brought these skills to the Digital India programs (see chapter 3).
21. For a discussion on this topic, focused on research-related cross-sector partnerships, see Henry R. Hertzfeld, Albert N. Link, Nicholas S. Vonortas, “Intellectual Property Protection Mechanisms in Research Partnerships,” Research Policy 35, no. 6, 2006: 825–38, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.04.006.
22. We see this in the brief example of the Global Water Initiative led by the Howard G. Buffett Foundation (see chapter 2).
24. Joel L. Fleishman, The Foundation: A Great American Secret; How Private Wealth Is Changing the World (New York: PublicAffairs, 2007).
25. In the Juntos program in Brazil described in chapter 9, we see this in the work of the nonprofit organization Comunitas and their team’s ability to work effectively across cities and partners.
26. For information on the role of nonprofits in cross-sector partnerships, particularly in relation to the public sector, as well as four country-specific examples, see Dennis R. Young, “Alternative Models of Government-Nonprofit Sector Relations: Theoretical and International Perspectives,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 29, no. 1 (2000): 149–72.
27. For a discussion and case study on university partnerships, see Linda Silka et al., “Community-University Partnerships: Achieving the Promise in the Face of Changing Goals, Changing Funding Patterns, and Competing Priorities,” New Solutions: A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy 18, no. 2 (2008): 161–75.
28. In the Afghanistan case in chapter 7, Herat University’s Agriculture Faculty were critical partners in developing that area’s regional projects.
29. For an applicable discussion, see Joseph Friedman and Jonathan Silberman, “University Technology Transfer: Do Incentives, Management, and Location Matter?” Journal of Technology Transfer 28, no. 1 (2003): 17–30.
30. See Principle 2. Leadership System, in Beyerlein, Freedman, McGee, and Moran, “The Ten Principles of Collaborative Organizations.”
31. For a literature review and study on collaborative leadership qualities, including five leadership configuration types, see Helen Sullivan, Paul Williams, and Stephen Jeffares, “Leadership for Collaboration,” Public Management Review, 14, no. 1 (2012): 41–66, at 52–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2011.589617.
32. Skills-based capital is categorically similar to, yet more broadly defined than, “skill-based capital” found in: Lester Taylor, Capital, Accumulation, and Money: An Integration of Capital, Growth, and Monetary Theory (Boston: Springer Verlag 2010), 12.
33. We consider this distinct from the type of skills-based capital described in Gerard McElwee and Robert Smith, “Researching Rural Enterprise,” in Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship: What We Know and What We Need to Know, ed. Alain Fayolle (Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2014), 322.
34. The importance of intellectual, or knowledge-based capital (particularly for organizational innovation) is discussed in Mohan Subramaniam and Mark A. Youndt, “The Influence of Intellectual Capital on the Types of Innovative Capabilities,” Academy of Management Journal 48, no. 3 (2005): 450–63.
35. There are some similarities in concept to the type of leadership capital discussed in Mark Bennister, Paul ’t Hart, and Ben Worthy, “Assessing the Authority of Political Office-Holders: The Leadership Capital Index,” West European Politics 38, no. 3 (2015): 417–40, https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2014.954778.
36. For an alternative view on representative leadership, providing an interorganization analysis, see Martin Clarke, “A Study of the Role of ‘Representative’ Leadership in Stimulating Organization Democracy,” Leadership 2, no. 4 (2006): 427–50.
37. A traditional view of transactional leadership is discussed in contrast to transforming leadership James MacGregor Burns, Transforming Leadership (New York: Grove Press, 2003), 22–25, 43, 48, 136, 171, 176, 180.
39. This carries similarities to “transformative leadership” as described by Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus, Leaders: Strategies for Taking Charge (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 200–217.
40. For an in-depth discussion of social capital, see Edward L. Glaeser, David Laibson, and Bruce Sacerdote, “An Economic Approach to Social Capital,” The Economic Journal 112 (2002): F437–F458, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00078.
41. For additional information, see Boas Shamir et al., “The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory,” Organization Science 4, no. 4 (1993): 577–94.
42. For a discussion of related leadership attributes, also see Drucker, Management Challenges for the 21st Century, 33–40.
43. A good basic discussion of organizational leadership through team management, and how to use it effectively, can be found in Steven Cohen, William Eimicke, and Tanya Heikkula, The Effective Public Manager, 5th ed. (San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 2013), 130–39.
46. See exhibits 2 and 4, in McKinsey & Company, A Guide to Measuring Advocacy and Policy, 10–11.
47. Experience with knowledge development often aligns with intellectual leadership skills as well as intellectual or knowledge-based capital, each described earlier in the chapter.
49. E. S. Savas et al., A Study of Central Park (New York: Columbia University, 1976).
50. Adapted from Policy Development and Implementation, exhibits 2 and 4, McKinsey & Company, A Guide to Measuring Advocacy and Policy, 10–11.
52. Leaders with experience in policy development and implementation often carry representative leadership skills and have well-established political-based capital.
53. Adapted from the category Enabling Systems and Infrastructure Development, exhibits 2 and 4, McKinsey & Company, A Guide to Measuring Advocacy and Policy, 10–11.
54. As an example, see the work profiled in Howard W. Buffett and Adam Stepan, “Aid or Investment? Post-Conflict Development in DRC and Rwanda,” Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs Case Consortium, 2018, SIPA-18-0016.0.
55. Experience with enabling systems and infrastructure development may align with a combination of skills and capital previously described, including transactional leadership skills from a systems or infrastructure financing perspective.
56. Presentation, “Central Park Conservancy Institute for Urban Parks; Programming in Central Park,” section titled “A Look Into The Future,” 30, October 16, 2014.
57. Adapted from the combined categories of Capacity Enhancement and Skills Development and Behavior Change Programs, exhibits 2 and 4, McKinsey & Company, A Guide to Measuring Advocacy and Policy, 10–11.
58. As an example, see Nikki Shechtman, Louise Yarnall, Regie Stites, and Britte Haugan Cheng, Empowering Adults to Thrive at Work: Personal Success Skills for 21st Century Jobs. A Report on Promising Research and Practice (Chicago, Ill.: Joyce Foundation, 2016).
59. Programmatic experience in this category is often associated with the types of inspirational leadership skills and social capital described in the previous section.
60. Adapted from the category Service / Product Development and Delivery, exhibits 2 and 4, McKinsey & Company, A Guide to Measuring Advocacy and Policy, 10–11.
62. Experience with service and product development or delivery often aligns with organizational leadership skills, such as the effective sequencing and planning of activities in a partnership.
64. Public Private Partnerships for Parks, School of International and Public Affairs Video Case Study, SIPA-14-0005.4, 2014.
65. Daniel Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable; How to Resolve Your Most Emotionally Charged Conflicts (New York: Viking, 2016), 13.
66. Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable, 15.
67. Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable, 15.
68. In Negotiating the Nonnegotiable, Shapiro refers to this as “allegiances,” 15.
69. In Negotiating the Nonnegotiable, Shapiro refers to this as “emotionally meaningful experiences,” 15.
70. See the discussion of “emergent reciprocal influence” as it relates to distributed leadership in a collaborative context, Sheldon T. Watson and Jay Paredes Scribner, “Beyond Distributed Leadership: Collaboration, Interaction, and Emergent Reciprocal Influence,” Journal of School Leadership 17, no. 4 (2007): 443–68, at 461.
72. Ted Smalley Bowen and Adam Stepan, “Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC,” 3, 2014, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University, Case Study, SIPA-14-0005.4.
73. This was done under the federal Comprehensive Employment and Training Act. For more information, see “The Labor Department in The Carter Administration: A Summary Report—January 14, 1981,” U.S. Department of Labor, www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/carter-eta.htm.
74. The Urban Park Rangers also served as an important uniformed and visible presence to help monitor activities in the park. For more information, see “Urban Park Rangers,” New York City Department of Parks & Recreation, www.nycgovparks.org/programs/rangers.
75. Some of these strategies, including items one and two, overlap with or reinforce those identified by John P. Kotter, Leading Change (Brighton, Mass.: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012).
76. See principles of collaborative leadership and the discussion on the leader’s role in building broad-based involvement, David D. Chrislip and Carl E. Larson, Collaborative Leadership: How Citizens and Civic Leaders Make a Difference (San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, 1994), 138–46.
77. See Principle 6. Standards for Discussions, Dialogue, and Information Sharing, Beyerlein, Freedman, McGee, and Moran, “The Ten Principles of Collaborative Organizations,” 51–63.
78. See Principle 9. Treat Collaboration as a Disciplined Process, Beyerlein, Freedman, McGee, and Moran, “The Ten Principles of Collaborative Organizations,” 51–63.
79. An example of this took place in the High Line partnership when Joshua David and Robert Hammond organized and led their community in the fight to preserve the High Line and overcome challenges presented by City Hall.
80. See principles of collaborative leadership and discussion on the leader’s role in sustaining hope and participation among team members, Chrislip and Larson, Collaborative Leadership, 138–46.
81. Perhaps the most visible supporter of the High Line partnership was Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who dedicated time and energy to recognize significant progress (for example, by announcing major gifts to the partnership). He also publicly recognized the quality of work and the importance of the partnership (seen in 2010 when he presented the Freedman Award to Friends of the High Line). See “Mayor Bloomberg Presents 2010 Doris C. Freedman Award to Friends of the High Line,” City of New York, June 16, 2010, www1.nyc.gov/office-of-the-mayor/news/270-10/mayor-bloomberg-presents-2010-doris-c-freedman-award-friends-the-high-line#/6.
82. For further information, see David A. Buchanan et al., “No Going Back: A Review of the Literature on Sustaining Organizational Change,” International Journal of Management Reviews 7 (2005): 189–205, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2005.00111.x.
83. However, leaders should be aware of the risks of escalating commitment. For more information, see Joel Brockner, “The Escalation of Commitment to a Failing Course of Action: Toward Theoretical Progress,” Academy of Management Review 17, no. 1 (1992): 39–61.
84. This does not speak to a partnership’s brand story per se, but it is a useful perspective on the topic of brand narrative and longevity. Terry Smith, “Brand Salience Not Brand Science: A Brand Narrative Approach to Sustaining Brand Longevity,” The Marketing Review 11, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 25–40, https://doi.org/10.1362/146934711X565279.
85. This is a further adaptation from the discussion in Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable.
86. Bowen and Stepan, Public-Private Partnerships for Green Space in NYC.
87. James Barron, “A New Leader for Central Park,” New York Times, December 12, 2017.
88. Howard W. Buffett worked with Daniel Shapiro to adapt ideas from his book, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable, and from the work of the Harvard International Negotiation Program (see: http://inp.harvard.edu/). The concept of cross-sector team identity resulted from numerous discussions and interviews, including a day-long session in Cambridge, Mass., on November 30, 2017.
89. Anbuvelan, Principles of Management, 105.
91. Developed as the Certified Urban Park Manager (CUPM) education, training, examination, and certification program through the Institute for Urban Parks. CPC is now using the curricula it developed and its practitioner “faculty” for in-house training in horticulture, turf management, zone management, and waste management to train Parks Department personnel working in the smaller public parks throughout the city.
93. The Convene, Coordinate, and Catalyze construct is adapted from Robert Lalka, “Tilting the Balance Away from a Multi-Polar World and Toward a Multi-Partner World,” U.S. Department of State Global Partnership Initiative, UN-Business Focal Point 12 (August 2009): 57.
94. Siv Vangen and Chris Huxham, “Enacting Leadership for Collaborative Advantage: Dilemmas of Ideology and Pragmatism in the Activities of Partnership Managers,” British Journal of Management 14 (December 2003): S61–S76.
7. THE PLACE CASE
2. Robert M. Gates, Secretary of Defense, “Continuation of Task Force for Business and Stability Operations,” Memorandum (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, March 25, 2010).
3. David J. Berteau, Hardin Lang, Ashley Chandler, Matthew Zlatnik, Tara Callahan, and Thomas Patterson, Final Report on Lessons Learned: Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, Center for Strategic and International Studies, June 14, 2010, www.csis.org/analysis/final-report-lessons-learned.
4. Interagency Counterinsurgency Initiative, U.S. Government Counterinsurgency Guide.
5. Ashraf Ghani and Clare Lockhart, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2008), 48.
6. S. Rebecca Zimmerman, Daniel Egel, and Ilana Blum, Task Force for Business and Stability Operations: Lessons from Afghanistan (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, 2016).
7. Based on various discussions with General David Petraeus between February 24, 2010, and September 28, 2016. General Petraeus served as the Combatant Commander in charge of U.S. Central Command during the early development of the DoD team’s agricultural sector strategy.
8. Some adaptation of social value investing principles to conflict-related environments resulted from a White House convening regarding a proposed working group, “A Working Group for Coordinating Stability,” June 22, 2010, which was joined by attendees from more than twenty federal agencies or offices.
11. CIA World Factbook, Afghanistan Country Profile.
12. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, “2011 Afghan Agricultural Economy Update,” 4, July 9, 2011.
15. World Bank, Afghanistan–State Building, Sustaining Growth, and Reducing Poverty, A World Bank Country Study (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2005), 92. Also see Revitalizing Agriculture for Growth, Jobs, and Food Security in Afghanistan, 2015, www.worldbank.org/en/country/afghanistan/publication/revitalizing-agriculture-for-growth-jobs-and-food-security-in-afghanistan.
17. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate citing data from the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Government of Afghanistan, 2009.
18. Vinicius J. B. Martins et al., “Long-Lasting Effects of Undernutrition,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8, no 6 (2011): 1817–46, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8061817.
19. United Nations World Food Program, “Purchase for Progress,” Afghanistan Implementation Plan, August 31, 2009.
20. Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007).
24. Provincial employment estimated based on 2008 MRRD population and employment figures scaled up to 2010 using World Bank and CIA national growth projections, “A Strategy for Herat’s Economic Development,” Unpublished report, February 2011.
25. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
26. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
27. Income extrapolated from data provided in “Randomized Impact Evaluation of Afghanistan’s National Solidarity Programme,” World Bank’s Trust Fund for Environmental and Socially Sustainable Development, et al. July 1, 2013.
28. Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Government of Afghanistan.
29. For a discussion of instability in the Guzara district, see Jennifer Brick Murtazashvili, Informal Order and the State in Afghanistan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 237–39.
30. The scale defined risk ranging from green (safe) to amber (caution) to red (dangerous).
35. Dirk J. Bezemer and Derek Headey, “Agriculture, Development and Urban Bias,” MPRA Paper 7026, (Munich, Germany: University Library of Munich, 2007).
37. “Healthy Food for a Healthy World: Leveraging Agriculture and Food to Improve Global Nutrition,” Chicago Council on Global Affairs, April 16, 2015.
38. The Norman Borlaug Institute Team conducted in-country assessments throughout eight provinces in Afghanistan during 2010.
40. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
42. Detailed agricultural assessments spanned the provinces of Herat, Kabul, Nangarhar, and Balkh, with program analysis conducted in additional provinces, such as Bamyan.
43. The Borlaug Team referred to this as an “Integrated Commercial Produce Production Model.”
44. Hector Maletta and Raphy Favre, Agriculture and Food Production in Post-War Afghanistan: A Report on the Winter Agricultural Survey 2002–2003 (Kabul: FAO, 2003).
45. “A Strategy for Herat’s Economic Development,” Unpublished research report, February 2011.
46. See section titled “Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agriculture Sector” in Afghanistan and Pakistan Regional Stabilization Strategy, Department of State, Office of the Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, February 2010.
48. This included a pilot program to provide Defense Department Agribusiness Development Teams (ADT) with direct access to University of Nebraska-Lincoln cooperative extension knowledge, as well as an embedded cooperative extension agent assigned to an ADT on an exploratory basis.
56. Spelling for the village varies. This use is according to the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. Information provided by Scott A. Zillmer, Senior Research Editor, Maps and Graphics at National Geographic.
57. Glen C. Shinn, Richard K. Ford, Rahmat Attaie, and Gary E. Briers, “Understanding Afghan Opinion Leaders’ Viewpoints About Post-Conflict Foreign Agricultural Development: A Case Study in Herāt Province, Afghanistan,” Journal of International Agricultural & Extension Education 19, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 27–38, https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/1475/Shinn-1.pdf.
58. A Herat construction and drilling company provided an initial well drilling quote on May 9, 2011, for a maximum drilling depth of 394 feet.
59. Team member field interviews and research, 2011.
60. Post-project interviews with Ghulam Jalani, head of Rabāţ-e Pīrzādah shura, August 2013 (by Elaha Mahboob) and July 2017 (by Masoud Soheili), Herat, Afghanistan. Translations by Roya Mahboob.
62. Post-project interview with Habibullah Sabiri, head of Urdu Khan Research Farm, August 2013 (by Elaha Mahboob), Herat, Afghanistan. Translations by Roya Mahboob.
66. Team member field interviews and research, 2011.
67. Postproject interviews with Zainab Sufizada, head of the Ziaratja Food Processing Center, August 2013 (by Elaha Mahboob) and July 2017 (by Masoud Soheili), Herat, Afghanistan. Translations by Roya Mahboob.
68. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
69. Norman Borlaug Institute provincial assessments, Herat Province.
70. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
71. Team member field interviews and research, 2011.
72. Postproject interview with Glen Shinn, former member of Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture team, July 2017 (by Adam Stepan), College Station, Texas.
73. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010.
74. Norman Borlaug Institute research estimate, 2010–11.
75. Based on interviews with Herat University Agriculture staff, February 2010.
77. Postproject interview with Dr. Abdullah Faiz, Dean of Herat University Agriculture Faculty, July 2017 (by Masoud Soheili), Herat, Afghanistan. Translations by Roya Mahboob.
78. Postproject interview with M. Yousof Amini, faculty member of Herat University Agriculture program, August 2013 (by Elaha Mahboob), Herat, Afghanistan. Translations by Roya Mahboob.
79. According to a postproject field report by a member of the Norman Borlaug Institute.
80. Team member field interviews and research, 2011.
81. Data provided by Herat University, 2012, including a “Herat Basic Laboratory Training and Course Syllabus.”
82. Data provided by Herat University, “Basic Laboratory Training Report, DAIL & AG Faculty,” May 2012.
83. Based on research and knowledge of the DoD team’s efforts across program areas and throughout Afghanistan.
84. For instance, in 2011, the DoD team went through the practice of cataloging interagency meetings and collaboration. The agriculture development program alone had interacted with or briefed more than twenty distinct government and intergovernmental agencies in the course of five months between October 2010 and February 2011.
85. Zimmerman, Egel, and Blum, Task Force for Business and Stability Operations.
88. According to a 2010 interview with Din Mohammed, vice president of a Guzara tomato growers association.
89. Two contributing researchers and editors for a pre-publication draft of this case were Gerry Brown and Robert Lalka.
8. THE PLACE FRAMEWORK
1. Fabrizio Barca, Philip McCann, and Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, “The Case for Regional Development Intervention: Place-Based Versus Place-Neutral Approaches,” Journal of Regional Science 52 (2012): 134–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2011.00756.x.
8. For a more detailed discussion regarding geographic locality, see Andy Pike, Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, and John Tomaney, Local and Regional Development (London: Routledge, 2006), 35–39.
12. For further discussion regarding “sense of place” and its economic value, see Roger Bolton, “ ‘Place Prosperity vs People Prosperity’ Revisited: An Old Issue with a New Angle,” Urban Studies 29, no. 2 (1992): 185–203.
13. S. Rebecca Zimmerman, Daniel Egel, and Ilana Blum, Task Force for Business and Stability Operations: Lessons from Afghanistan (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, 2016).
14. For discussion of a partnership life cycle, see Vivien Lowndes and Chris Skelcher, “The Dynamics of Multi-Organizational Partnerships: An Analysis of Changing Modes of Governance,” Public Administration 76 (Summer 1998): 313–33, at 320–330.
15. John J. Forrer, Global Governance Enterprises: Creating Multisector Collaborations (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2016): 44.
17. For definitions, tools, and a discussion on stakeholder inclusion, see the section titled “Who Is Involved in an MSP?” in Herman Brouwer and Jim Woodhill, The MSP Guide: How to Design and Facilitate Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships, 2nd ed. (Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen University & Research, 2015), 18, http://www.mspguide.org.
18. Karin Bäckstrand, “Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships for Sustainable Development: Rethinking Legitimacy, Accountability and Effectiveness,” European Environment 16 (2006): 290–306. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.425.
19. For instance, consider the implications of the findings in William Easterly, “Can Foreign Aid Buy Growth?,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 17, no. 3 (2003): 23–48.
20. Elise R. Irwin and Kathryn D. Mickett Kennedy, “Engaging Stakeholders for Adaptive Management Using Structured Decision Analysis,” in Planning for an Uncertain Future-Monitoring, Integration, and Adaptation, ed. Richard M. T. Webb and Darius J. Semmens, Scientific Investigations Report No. 2009–5049 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey, 2009).
21. Eva Schiffer and Douglas Waale, “Tracing Power and Influence in Networks,” the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Discussion Paper 00772, June 2008, 3.
22. See the discussion of “Resources Count” and “Partner Alignment & Power” in Simon Zadek and Sasha Radovich, “Governing Collaborative Governance: Enhancing Development Outcomes by Improving Partnership Governance and Accountability,” AccountAbility and the Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative, Working Paper No. 23 (Cambridge, Mass.: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2006), 11–16.
23. Andy Pike, Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, and John Tomaney, “What Kind of Local and Regional Development and for Whom?” Regional Studies 41, no. 9 (2007): 1253–69, at 1260.
24. Barca, McCann, and Rodríguez-Pose, “The Case for Regional Development Intervention.”
25. For detailed, firsthand discussions on the topic, see Howard G. Buffett with Howard W. Buffett, 40 Chances: Finding Hope in a Hungry World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013).
26. Fabrizio Barca, “An Agenda for a Reformed Cohesion Policy: A Place-Based Approach to Meeting European Union Challenges and Expectations,” Independent Report, Prepared at the Request of the European Commissioner for Regional Policy (Brussels: European Commission, 2009).
28. Thomas G. Pittz and Terry Adler, “An Exemplar of Open Strategy: Decision-Making Within Multi-Sector Collaborations,” Management Decision 54, no. 7 (2016): 1595–1614.
29. Andrés Rodríguez-Pose and Michael Storper, “Better Rules or Stronger Communities? On the Social Foundations of Institutional Change and Its Economic Effects,” Economic Geography 82, no. 1 (2006): 1–25.
30. Team core identities are adapted from Daniel Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable; How to Resolve Your Most Emotionally Charged Conflicts (New York: Viking, 2016).
32. Brouwer and Woodhill, The MSP Guide, 14.
35. John Kotter, Leading Change (Brighton Watertown, Mass.: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012).
36. Carmen Malena, “Strategic Partnership: Challenges and Best Practices in the Management and Governance of Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships Involving UN and Civil Society Actors,” Background paper for the Multi-Stakeholder Workshop on Partnerships and UN-Civil Society Relations, Pocantico, New York, February 2004, 9.
38. Ricardo Ramirez, “Stakeholder Analysis and Conflict Management,” in Cultivating Peace: Conflict and Collaboration in Natural Resource Management, ed. Daniel Buckles (Ottawa, Ontario: International Development Research Center, 1999), chapter 5.
39. See the section on “Setting Ground Rules for Partnerships: Accountability, Capacity Building, and Evaluation,” in Jan Martin Witte, Charlotte Streck, and Thorsten Benner, “The Road from Johannesburg: What Future for Partnerships in Global Environmental Governance?” in Progress or Peril? Networks and Partnerships in Global Environmental Governance. The Post-Johannesburg Agenda, ed. Thorsten Benner, Charlotte Streck, and Jan Martin Witte (Berlin: Global Public Policy Institute, 2003).
40. Pittz and Adler, “An Exemplar of Open Strategy.”
41. See section on “Building GGEs,” in John J. Forrer, Global Governance Enterprises: Creating Multisector Collaborations (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2016), 244.
42. Brouwer and Woodhill, The MSP Guide, 84.
43. See the type of external accountability discussed in Karin Bäckstrand, “Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships for Sustainable Development: Rethinking Legitimacy, Accountability and Effectiveness,” European Environment, 16 (2006): 295, https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.425.
44. See the discussion of organizations collaborating through a “strategic alliance” (195–96) and reaching points of mutual accountability along the Collaboration Continuum (197) in Fred Mayhew, “Aligning for Impact: The Influence of the Funder–Fundee Relationship on Evaluation Utilization,” Nonprofit Management and Leadership 23, no. 2 (2012): 193–217, https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.21045.
45. Witte, Streck, and Benner, “The Road from Johannesburg.”
46. See section on “Allow Self-Determination,” in Carol Reade, Anne Marie Todd, Asbjorn Osland, and Joyce Osland, “Poverty and the Multiple Stakeholder Challenge for Global Leaders,” Journal of Management Education (2008): 820–40, https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562908317445.
47. In some cases, cross-sector partnerships use an independent entity dedicated to organizing and managing partnership activities (sometimes referred to as a backbone organization or secretariat). For example, see “The Aspen Institute Partners for a New Beginning Secretariat,” a collaborative effort established by the Aspen Institute in support of the U.S. State Department, https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/partnerships/newbeginning/.
48. See section on “Resources Count” in Zadek and Radovich, “Governing Collaborative Governance,” 11.
49. This is similar in concept to “Strategic Guidance,” discussed in Brouwer and Woodhill, The MSP Guide, 129.
51. Bäckstrand, “Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships for Sustainable Development.”
52. For a discussion of the advantages of gaining access to particular resources in a cross-sector partnership, see Bruce R. Barringer and Jeffrey S. Harrison, “Walking a Tightrope: Creating Value Through Interorganizational Relationships,” Journal of Management 26, no. 3 (June 2000): 367–403, at table 3.
53. Barca, McCann, and Rodríguez-Pose, “The Case for Regional Development Intervention.”
54. This aspect of participatory planning and decision making is discussed in Pittz and Adler, “An Exemplar of Open Strategy,” 1604.
56. Shapiro, Negotiating the Nonnegotiable.
57. Pike, Rodríguez-Pose, and Tomaney, Local and Regional Development.
58. In this instance, Zainab Sufizada provided guidance on project redesign.
59. Geoffrey Hamilton, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe’s Guidebook on Promoting Good Governance in Public-Private Partnerships (Geneva, 2008).
60. For a brief summary of various participatory decision-making tools, see Timothy Lynam, Wil de Jong, Douglas Sheil, Trikurnianti Kusumanto, and Kirsen Evans, “A Review of Tools for Incorporating Community Knowledge, Preferences, and Values Into Decision Making in Natural Resources Management,” Ecology and Society 12, no. 1 (2007): article 5, www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art5/.
61. Multiattribute utility theory helps decision makers specify variable conditions or weighting of a set of preferences and facilitates measurement of those preferences or other values. See Rakesh K. Sarin, “Multi-Attribute Utility Theory,” in Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, ed. Saul I. Gass and Michael C. Fu (Boston, Mass.: Springer, 2013): 1004–6.
62. For an applied example of a traditional Pugh matrix analysis, see H. Frank Cervone, “Applied Digital Library Project Management,” OCLC Systems & Services 25, no. 4 (2009): 228–32, doi.org/10.1108/10650750911001815.
63. Ramaswamy Ramesh and Stanley Zionts, “Multiple Criteria Decision Making,” Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science, ed. Saul I. Gass and Michael C. Fu (Boston, Mass.: Springer, 2016), 1007–13.
64. Mayhew, “Aligning for Impact.”
65. Developed in 2007–2008 as part of a Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Special Initiatives team project. The team worked under the leadership of former foundation staff, including Patty Stonesifer (CEO), and included Cheryl Scott (COO), Alex Friedman (CFO), Lowell Weiss (Senior Policy and Advocacy Officer), Olivia Leland, Greg Cain, and others in the project working group.
66. Framework description is based on and adapted from an unpublished project overview, with contributions from Howard W. Buffett, August 31, 2007.
67. Framework categories based on and adapted from an unpublished project overview, with contributions from Howard W. Buffett, August 31, 2007.
68. Creech, Heather, Leslie Paas, and Miruna Oana. Typologies for Partnerships for Sustainable Development and for Social and Environmental Enterprises: Exploring SEED Winners Through Two Lenses, Report for the SEED Initiative Research Program, International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2008.
69. Pittz and Adler, “An Exemplar of Open Strategy,” 1601.
70. Barca, “An Agenda for a Reformed Cohesion Policy.”
71. Reade, Todd, Osland, and Osland, “Poverty and the Multiple Stakeholder Challenge for Global Leaders.”
72. Stephan Haggard, Andrew MacIntyre, and Lydia Tiede, “The Rule of Law and Economic Development,” Annual Review of Political Science 11 (2008): 205–34.
73. Howard W. Buffett and Adam Stepan, “Aid or Investment? Post-Conflict Development in DRC and Rwanda,” Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs Case Consortium, 2018, SIPA-18-0016.0.
74. See section on “Some Negative Aspects of Partnerships” in Leslie R. Boydell and Jorun Rugkåsa, “Benefits of Working in Partnership: A Model,” Critical Public Health 17, no. 3 (2007): 217–228, at 224–25.
9. THE PORTFOLIO CASE
1. The foundation of this case comes from research conducted by Bruna Santos, Nora Shannon, Adam Stepan, Thomas Trebat and William B. Eimicke in developing a short documentary film, academic case study, and white paper on Comunitas and Juntos for SIPA’s Picker Center Case Study Program at Columbia University.
2. Interview with Columbia Professor Rodrigo Soares, Columbia University Lemann Professor of Brazilian Public Policy and International and Public Affairs, quoted in Bruna Santos, Nora Shannon, and Adam Stepan, “Juntos: Mentoring Cities in Brazil,” School of International and Public Affairs, Case Consortium@Columbia, Columbia University, 2017, 2, SIPA-17-0013.1.
3. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 2.
5. PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Bank, Paying Taxes 2014, 21.
7. World Bank Group, Doing Business 2017, 2.
10. Comunitas, Benchmarking Report on Corporate Social Investment (BISC), 2014, www.comunitas.org.
11. Interview with Comunitas President Regina Celia Esteves de Siqueria, quoted in Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 3.
13. Interview with Juntos board member and business leader Pedro Jereissati, in Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 4.
14. Interview with Dr. Thomas Trebat, in Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 5.
15. Interview with Pedro Jereissati, in Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 5–6.
16. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 6–9.
17. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 7.
18. Interview with Campinas Secretary of Administration Silvio Roberto Bernardin, quoted in Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 7.
19. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 7.
20. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 8.
21. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 9.
22. In January 2016, Bill Eimicke visited Campinas at the invitation of Professor Thomas Trebat, director of the Columbia University Global Center in Rio de Janeiro; Regina Celia Esteves de Siqueira, president and CEO of Comunitas; and Mayor Jonas Donizette of Campinas to see the innovations taking place in the city and speak to them about the benefits of developing a strategic plan as the next step in modernization.
23. Interview with Pelotas former mayor Eduardo Leite on May 31, 2017. Comunitas sponsored Leite to be a visiting scholar at SIPA during the spring semester of 2017 after his term as mayor.
24. “Quero Ser Um Prefeito Amigo, Diz Eduardo Leite Apos Vitoria Em Pelotas,” Eleicoes 2012 No Rio Grande Do Sul, October 28, 2012.
25. Bruna Santos, “Juntos: Building Governance for the 21st Century: Public Private Coalition to Reform Local Government in Brazil,” Picker Center Case Collection White Paper, SIPA, Columbia University, January 2017, 16–17.
26. Interview with former Mayor Eduardo Leite, May 31, 2017.
27. Santos, “Juntos: Building Governance for the 21st Century,” 17.
28. Robin Banerji, “Niemeyer’s Brasilia: Does It Work as a City?” BBC Magazine, December 7, 2012.
29. David Adler, “Story of Cities, #37: How Radical Ideas Turned Curitiba Into Brazil’s ‘Green Capital’,” The Guardian, May 6, 2016.
30. Drew Reed, “How Curitiba’s BRT Stations Sparked a Transport Revolution—A History of Cities in 50 Buildings, Day 43,” The Guardian, May 26, 2015.
31. Reed, “How Curitiba’s BRT Stations Sparked a Transport Revolution,” 4.
32. Santos, “Juntos: Building Governance for the 21st Century,” 11–12.
33. Santos, “Juntos: Building Governance for the 21st Century,” 12.
34. See Simon Romero, “Michel Timer Government in Brazil Reels as Dozens Face New Graft Investigations,” New York Times, April 11, 2017; and Amanda Taub, “How Fighting Corruption Could Imperil Brazil’s Political Stability,” New York Times, May 28, 2017.
36. Dom Phillips, “Brazil President Endorsed Businessman’s Bribes in Secret Tape, Newspaper Says,” New York Times, May 17, 2017.
38. See Gregory Scruggs, “Latin America’s New Superstar,” Next City, March 31, 2014, https://nextcity.org/features/view/medellins-eternal-spring-social-urbanism-transforms-latin-america; Ashoka, “The Transformation of Medellin, and the Surprising Company Behind It,” Forbes, January 27, 2014; and “McBains Cooper Wins PPP Consultancy Contract in Medellin, Colombia,” September 20, 2017, http://www.worldhighways.com/categories/auctions-equipment-supply-servicing-finance/news/mcbains-cooper-wins-ppp-consultancy-contract-in-medellin-colombia/.
39. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 11–12.
40. Santos, Shannon, and Stepan, “Juntos,” 17.