For additional primary and secondary source material, readers can consult the online resource linked to this book. Go to hunter.cuny.edu/history/DangerousMelodies.
Introduction
1. “City Cheers for Cliburn in Parade,” New York Herald Tribune, May 21, 1958. Sources upon which these opening paragraphs are based are cited fully in chapter eight.
2. “The Neighbors,” Chicago Tribune, June 17, 1958.
3. “Wonder Boy Wins Through,” New York World Telegram, May 20, 1958.
4. On the challenges Shostakovich faced in Leningrad, see Laurel E. Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 123–33.
5. The notion that a piece of music might simply be about music is suggested in an interview with composer Philip Glass. When asked if a recent composition reflected the “political turmoil” of the “current moment,” Glass responded, “Symphony No. 11 doesn’t have any of that: It’s just about music.” See “80 Candles, 11 Symphonies and Wishes for Many More,” New York Times, January 28, 2017.
6. For studies that consider the popularity and impact of classical music in nineteenth-century America, see website.
7. On Beethoven, see Michael Broyles, Beethoven in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011); on the German symphonic repertoire, see Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht, Sound Diplomacy: Music and Emotions in Transatlantic Relations, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009). My discussion of Maria Garćia is based on Richard Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 180–85. For the discussion of Elizabeth Austin, including the quotation, see Crawford, 185.
8. On Lind, see Crawford, 186–90.
9. On Lind, including the quotation, see Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. The quotations are from John Dizikes, Opera in America: A Cultural History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 138, 130–31.
12. On Patti, see Dizikes, 223–30.
13. See Crawford, 181. On San Francisco, see Crawford, 193–94; and Dizikes, 109–19, 281–84.
14. On touring, see Dizikes, chs. 24–25. On Gilded-Age New York, see Joseph Horowitz, Wagner Nights: An American History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). More broadly, in assessing the impact of classical music in late nineteenth-century America, Horowitz writes that it was “held to be morally instructive.” See his Moral Fire: Musical Portraits from America’s Fin de Siècle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 59.
15. See Gienow-Hecht, passim.
16. On the orchestra’s founding, see Crawford, 304–5.
17. On the German orchestras, see Crawford, 282–85; on the Germania Musical Society, see Nancy Newman, Good Music for a Free People: The Germania Musical Society in Nineteenth-Century America (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2010), passim.
18. On Thomas’s career, including the quotations, see Crawford, 305–12. For a splendid discussion of Thomas, see Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: A Social History of American Concert Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 27–33. See also Charles Hamm, Music in the New World (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), 312–17.
19. On the developments of American orchestras, see American Orchestras in the Nineteenth Century, John Spitzer, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
20. On the musical spectacles, see Hamm, 309–11.
21. Ibid.
22. The assessment is Richard Crawford’s, 497.
23. Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 240.
24. Edward Said, Musical Elaborations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 97.
25. Nicholas Cook, Music: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 97.
26. Jessica Gienow-Hecht has written with great insight about musical nationalism and musical internationalism, particularly in the context of nineteenth-century German-American relations. See Gienow-Hecht, 45–50, 223. Informed by Gienow-Hecht’s work, my consideration of the ideas and policy prescriptions embraced by the musical nationalists and the musical universalists in twentieth-century America relates to the years since World War I, when their highly public debates reflected how each group, comprising a multitude of listeners and performers, understood the nature of classical music and imagined how it might influence American engagement with the world. In the context of painting during the Cold War, the American arts community believed in the power of art to enhance global cooperation, while government officials believed art could advance the national interest of the United States, a story Michael Krenn tells most compellingly in Fall-Out Shelters for the Human Spirit: American Art and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
27. Quoted in The Republic of Plato, Frances MacDonald Cornford, trans. (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 90.
28. Among scholars, the idea of music’s universality is a contested subject. See, for example, the reflections of the distinguished ethnomusicologist Bruno Nettl in his book, The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-Three Discussions, 3rd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015), ch. 3.
29. Lawrence Kramer, Why Classical Music Still Matters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 14. Daniel Barenboim, Music Quickens Time (London, Verso, 2008), 17, 108. For a work that brilliantly interweaves a variety of themes in making the case for the importance of twentieth-century classical music, see Alex Ross, The Rest is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007).
Chapter One: “We Must Hate the Germans”: Tormented by Wagner and Strauss
1. Quotations from John Milton Cooper, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York: Knopf, 2009), 385–87, 388. On the war address, see Robert W. Tucker, Woodrow Wilson and the Great War: Reconsidering America’s Neutrality, 1914–1917 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), ch. 9.
2. “Demonstration at Opera When War Message Arrives,” Musical America (April 7, 1917): 1; “Patriotism at the Metropolitan Opera,” Musical Courier (April 5, 1917): 5.
3. On the war’s domestic impact: Christopher Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Alan Dawley, Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
4. On wartime anti-German sentiment, see Ronald Schaffer, America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), chs. 1–2; and Kennedy, ch. 1. On the German-American experience during the war, see Frederick C. Luebke, Bonds of Loyalty: German Americans and World War I (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974), passim. On the Prager lynching, 3–24.
5. The Literary Digest quoted in Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1946), 610.
6. Quoted in Cooper, 263.
7. “European Musical Life Paralyzed by War; Prominent Artists Involved in Conflict,” Musical America (August 8, 1914): 1–2. On the uncertainty concerning the Metropolitan’s repertoire, see Gatti-Casazza’s Setember 27, 1914, letter to Otto Kahn, chairman of the Met’s board in the Gatti-Casazza Correspondence (1918–1919), folder 1914–15 season, Metropolitan Opera Archives, Lincoln Center, New York City (hereafter MOA). On the fears about sailing to the United States and about worries concerning reception in New York, see Gatti-Casazza to Kahn, July 16, 1915, Ibid., folder 1915–16 season, Ibid.
8. See the following in the Musical Courier : “Opera Here Hit Hardest by the European War” (August 15, 1914): 1–2; “Local Managers throughout Country Optimistic over Musical Outlook” (August 22, 1914): 1; “Feeling of Confidence Spreads as to Return of Artists Marooned Abroad” (August 22, 1914): 1–2; “Boston Symphony Cancels Fall Tour Because of War” (September 5, 1914): 1–2; “Boston Opera and Campini Forces Abandon Seasons” (September 5, 1914): 1; “Manager Hanson Found European Artists Eager to Come to America” (September 5, 1914): 2; “Managers Receive Assurances that Artists Will Be Here for Season” (September 5, 1914): 2–3; “Metropolitan Issues Official Statement” (September 5, 1914): 3–4. “Metropolitan May Bring Back Stars on Chartered Ship” (September 12, 1914): 1.
9. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (August 22, 1914): 7.
10. On Stransky, see Howard Shanet, Philharmonic: A History of New York’s Orchestra (New York: Doubleday, 1975), 222–23.
11. “Sees Dawn of New Music Era in European Chaos,” Musical America (October 17, 1914): 4.
12. See George Martin, The Damrosch Dynasty: America’s First Family of Music (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1983); and Walter Damrosch, My Musical Life (New York: Scribners, 1923).
13. “ ‘Be Neutral’ Talk for Orchestra Men,” Musical America (October 10, 1914): 3. For reflections on Damrosch’s address, see “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (October 17, 1914): 11.
14. “Musical America’s Open Forum,” Musical America (November 21, 1914): 22–23.
15. On German atrocities in Belgium, see Hew Strachan, The First World War (New York: Viking, 2004), 48–51. On the German submarine campaign, see Patrick Devlin, Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson’s Neutrality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), esp. chs. 7, 10–11.
16. “Philharmonic Gives All-Wagner Concert,” Musical America (December 5, 1914): 33.
17. See Joseph Horowitz, Wagner Nights: An American History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). Note John Dizikes, Opera in America: A Cultural History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), ch. 22.
18. “A Profoundly Moving ‘Parsifal’ at Metropolitan,” Musical America (December 5, 1914): 4.
19. “Siegfried Sung in the Open Air at Harvard Stadium,” Musical America (June 12, 1915): 1–2.
20. Ibid. See also “Boston’s Al Fresco Performance of ‘Siegfried’,” Musical America (June 19, 1915): 3.
21. See the ad, “Mme. Johanna Gadski with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, October 27, 1916,” which includes multiple reviews of the performance. Musical America (January 13, 1917): 14.
22. John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 (New York: Atheneum, 1975; orig. 1955), 196. On the treatment of Germans, see Higham, 194–217. For figures on Germans living in the United States and a history of German immigration, see Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 405–25.
23. Michaela Hoenicke Moore, Know Your Enemy, The American Debate on Nazism, 1933–1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 18.
24. Frank Trommler, “Inventing the Enemy: German-American Cultural Relations, 1900–1917,” in Confrontation and Cooperation: Germany and the United States in the Era of World War I, 1900–1924, Hans-Jürgen Schröder, ed. (Providence, RI: Berg, 1993), 107.
25. Higham, 196.
26. This assessment, including the quotations, draws on the work of Jörg Nagler. See Nagler, “From Culture to Kultur: Changing American Perceptions of Imperial Germany, 1870–1914,” in Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America Since 1776, eds. David Barclay and Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 131–54. Paul Finkelman asserts that long before the war, Germans in the United States were seen in a negative light. See Finkelman, “The War on German Language and Culture, 1917–1925,” in Confrontation and Cooperation, 177–205.
27. See Ian Tyrrell, Transnational Nation: United States History in Global Perspective since 1789 (New York: Palgrave, 2007), 164; and Capozzola, 181–82.
28. See Higham. Note Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York: Harper, 1990), chs. 7–10. German immigrants are typically not included in the group historians refer to as the “new immigrants” from southern and eastern Europe. The western United States experienced vicious anti-Chinese and anti-Japanese sentiment in these years.
29. See Reinhard Doerries, “Empire and Republic: German-American Relations before 1917,” in America and the Germans: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History, eds. Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 2: 10–11. Note Doerries, “Promoting Kaiser and Reich: Imperial German Propaganda in the United States during World War I,” in Confrontation and Cooperation, 135–65.
30. See Carl Wittke, German-Americans and the World War, esp. ch. 6.
31. See Kennedy, ch. 1; and Schaffer, ch. 1.
32. Quoted in Charles Hamm, Music in the New World (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), 336–37. On the German character of classical music in nineteenth-century America, see Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht’s luminous work, Sound Diplomacy: Music and Emotions in Transatlantic Relations, 1850–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
33. Hamm, 336.
34. “Two Wagner Operas Returned to Metropolitan Repertoire,” Musical America (January 27, 1917): 4. Note the review of a January 4, 1917, Boston Symphony concert led by Muck that included Wagner. “Muck Translates Franck and Wagner,” Musical America (January 13, 1917): 18; and “Plan to Found New Bayreuth at San Diego,” Musical America (January 20, 1917): 1.
35. See Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 373.
36. There is a vast literature on American neutrality from 1914 to 1917, which explores how Wilson responded to the diplomatic challenges of the war. See Tucker; Devlin; and Ernest R. May, The World War and American Isolation, 1914–1917 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959).
37. Wilson quoted in Cooper, 375–76.
38. “Walter Damrosch in Double Role of Conductor and Orator,” Musical Courier (February 15, 1917): 18. Note “Music Awakens Patriotism,” Musical America (February 10, 1917): 48; and “Status of German Opera Stars at Metropolitan Remains Unchanged,” Musical America (February 10, 1917): 1.
39. See John A. Thompson, Woodrow Wilson (London: Pearson, 2002), 146.
40. “German Opera at Metropolitan as War Is Declared,” New York Herald, April 7, 1917. Note Rose Heylbut and Aimé Gerber, Backstage at the Opera (New York: Thomas Crowell, 1937), 80–81.
41. “ ‘Parsifal’ Sung at Metropolitan on Day of Declaration of War,” Musical America (April 14, 1917): 4. Patriotism and music intersected on April 6 during a performance of Tosca at the Metropolitan, at which soprano Geraldine Farrar sang “The Star-Spangled Banner” before the start of the final act. See “Audience Joins Miss Farrar in ‘The Star-Spangled Banner’,” New York Herald, April 7, 1917; and “Miss Farrar, Flag in Hand, Sings ‘Star-Spangled Banner’ at Metropolitan,” New York Tribune, April 7, 1917.
42. On the performance, see “N.Y. Globe Brings Specific Charges against Gadski and Otto Goritz,” Musical America (April 21, 1917): 1; “ ‘Star-Spangled Banner’ Played; Mme. Gadski in German Opera,” New York Herald, April 14, 1917; and “Peace Prevails at the Opera; No Anti-German Demonstration,” Musical America (April 21, 1917): 6. For a generous view of the behavior of Gadski and Goritz, see “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (April 21, 1917): 7.
43. “Peace Prevails at the Opera; No Anti-German Demonstration,” Musical America (April 21, 1917): 6.
44. See two editorials from the New York Globe: “Overdoing Tolerance,” April 7, 1917; and “Persistent Tolerance,” April 12, 1917. For the Globe letters, see “Herr Goritz and Frau Gadski,” April 11, 1917; and “The German Singers,” April 12, 1917. Note a letter from Goritz, in which he defended himself against charges that he had sung a “ribald song” glorifying the Lusitania sinking: “Otto Goritz at Frau Gadski’s,” April 9, 1917.
45. “The Ring at the Metropolitan,” The Chronicle (May 1917): n.p. For a supportive piece, directed at the New York Globe, which repudiated the attacks on Gadski, see “Music and Militarism,” Musical Courier (April 19, 1917): 21.
46. “Mme. Gadski Leaves the Metropolitan,” Musical Courier (May 17, 1917): 5. Note “Criticism Drives Mme. Gadski Out,” New York Herald, May 11, 1917; and “Mme. Gadski Quits the Metropolitan,” Musical America (May 19, 1917): 13.
47. “German Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 29, 1917.
48. “Brotherhood in Music,” Musical America (May 19, 1917): 30. On why banning Wagner’s music would be “irrational,” see “Wagner and Prussia,” Nation (April 26, 1917): 483.
49. “Starve Out Music,” New York Times, November 25, 1917.
50. Quoted in “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (June 16, 1917): 7.
51. Quoted in Ibid.
52. “Fate of German Music for this Season Left to Public for Decision,” New York Herald, October 14, 1917. Note “Germany’s Declining Musical Supremacy,” Literary Digest (September 29, 1917): 29.
53. “American Opera, Ballet, and Singers among Novelties for Metropolitan,” New York Herald, September 17, 1917. “Two Orchestras Open Their Season,” New York Times, October 26, 1917. Note “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (November 3, 1917): 7. According to the 1910 federal census, New York City had 4.7 million residents. Foreign-born New Yorkers: 1.92 million; US-born New Yorkers with two foreign-born parents: 1.44 million; US-born New Yorkers with one foreign-born parent: 375,000. Foreign-born Germans in New York: 278,000; US-born with two German parents: 328,000; US-born with one German parent: 118,000. Total of German heritage in New York: 724,000. Ira Rosenwaike, Population History of New York (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1972), 188, 203.
54. “First Concert Audiences of the Season Accept German Music without Prejudice,” New York Herald, October 28, 1917.
55. See “The Damrosch Plea for German Music,” Musical Courier (November 1, 1917): 17.
56. Ibid. See “Symphony Enlarged Opens Its Season at Carnegie Hall,” New York Herald, October 26, 1917; “First Concert Audiences of the Season to Accept German Music without Prejudice,” New York Herald, October 28, 1917; “Damrosch Upholds German Geniuses,” Musical America (November 3, 1917): 20. For a letter supporting Damrosch, see “German Music Not Hohenzollern,” New York Tribune, November 10, 1917.
57. See Michael Wreszin, Oswald Garrison Villard: Pacifist at War (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1965).
58. Oswald Garrison Villard presidential address to Philharmonic Society, February 17, 1917, Board of Directors file, box 005-04, folder 50, Villard, New York Philharmonic Archives, Lincoln Center, New York City (hereafter NYPA).
59. A year before he resigned, Villard wrote to Mrs. Elizabeth Jay, a prominent New York society figure and the only female member of the orchestra’s board, saying he was “amazed” that his stance on the war had led board members to discuss his retirement. Oswald Garrison Villard to Mrs. William Jay, 13 March, 1917, Villard Papers, NY Philharmonic, box 112, Houghton Library, Harvard University.
60. Villard to New York Philharmonic Board of Directors, 2 January, 1918, Villard Papers, NY Philharmonic, box 112, Harvard. The board accepted Villard’s resignation with “very deep regret.” Felix Leifels (manager of the Philharmonic) to Villard, 3 January, 1918, Ibid.
61. Thomas L. Elder to Felix Leifels, 27 September, 1917, Managing Director Papers, box 008-01, Leifels Papers (1903–1921), folder 13, NYPA; Felix Leifels to Thomas L. Elder, October 2, 1917, Ibid.
62. Elder to Leifels, 3 October, 1917, Ibid.
63. Program for 13 December, 1917, New York Philharmonic Program Books, NYPA.
64. On the statement and the audience reaction, see: “Philharmonic Justifies Itself for Playing Wagner,” New York Herald, December 14, 1917; “Audiences Find Emotions of War in Carnegie Hall Concerts,” New York Tribune, December 14, 1917.
65. “Philharmonic in Wagner,” New York Times, January 28, 1918. Note “Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony Played at Carnegie Hall under Stransky,” New York Herald, January 18, 1918. The review questioned whether it was necessary to “ban” Schiller’s German text.
66. Leifels quoted in “Philharmonic Society Bars Music of Living Germans,” New York Herald, January 22, 1918.
67. “Dead Germans” is from the Herald article cited above. Leifels quoted in “Philharmonic and the Germans,” Musical Courier (January 24, 1918): 21.
68. Mrs. William Jay concurred with Leifels’ assessment, noting the orchestra had heard increasing criticism about some of its all-German programs. “Philharmonic Society Bars Music of Living Germans,” New York Herald, January 22, 1918. The board also stated that the “old masters” of German music should not be punished. “Philharmonic Bars German Composers,” New York Times, January 22, 1918.
69. “Philharmonic and the Germans,” Musical Courier (January 24, 1918): 21.
70. “Exeunt Strauss and Others,” Musical America (February 2, 1918): 24.
71. “Oust Stransky as Pro-German, Plea to Philharmonic,” New York Tribune, April 2, 1918.
72. Ibid. The “incriminating” photo was described here. Note “Stransky Attacked as Karl Muck Was,” New York Times, April 2, 1918.
73. “Stransky Declares He Stands for America,” New York Times, April 3, 1918. Note “Stransky Loyal, He Says,” New York Tribune, Ibid. The complete letter also appeared in several places that week, including the New York Tribune (April 7), Musical America (April 6), and the Musical Courier (April 4). Note “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (April 13, 1918): 7.
74. “A ‘Musical Necessity,’ ” The Chronicle (May 1918): n.p. One Philharmonic musician suggested to the board that it might be helpful to appoint someone to assist with the conducting duties, should Stransky’s position become untenable; he suggested himself. Leo Schulz to Board of Directors, 9 April, 1918, Managing Directors file, box 008-01, folder 13, papers of Felix Leifels, 1903–1921, NYPA.
75. The following fall, Stransky was attacked again in the pages of The Chronicle, which challenged his claim that he was of Czecho-Slovak descent. “How Teutons Hang On,” The Chronicle (November 1918): n.p. On the start of the Philharmonic’s 1918–1919 season, see “The Philharmonic Makes Ready for Patriotic Season,” New York Herald, October 6, 1918; “Philharmonic Society,” New York Tribune, October 6, 1918.
76. Walter Damrosch to Mrs. Lewis Cass Ledyard, May 8, 1918, Biographical, W.D., 1, Damrosch Collection, Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts (hereafter NYPLPA).
77. Walter Damrosch to Mrs. Lewis Cass Ledyard, May 14, 1918, Ibid. Damrosch’s memoirs claim that those who wished to ban the music of Wagner’s “Ring Cycle” did not grasp the essence of its message. Walter Damrosch, My Musical Life (New York: Scribner, 1923), 261–62.
78. Mrs. William Jay, “German Music and German Opera,” The Chronicle (November 1917): n.p.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Quoted in “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (October 20, 1917): 11. Note Ibid. (September 29, 1917): 7.
82. “War-Time Opera,” Nation (October 4, 1917): 363. Note “Again the German Opera Question,” Musical America (September 22, 1917): 20; and “Is Wagner a German or an International Phenomenon?,” Musical America (September 29, 1917): 32.
83. “Metropolitan Directors Bar German Opera,” New York Herald, November 3, 1917.
84. Giulio Gatti-Casazza, Memories of the Opera (London: John Calder, 1977; orig. Scribners, 1941), 180–81.
85. Ibid., 181–82. The estimate of forty to forty-five works is from Irving Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera, 1883–1966: A Candid History (New York: Knopf, 1967), 270. Unfortunately, the minutes of the board meetings in this period shed no light on how or why the decision was made because the records of those meetings are incomplete. The records skip from April 8, 1913 to March 13, 1916. They also skip from March 12, 1917 to December 27, 1917. Finally, they skip from April 3, 1918 to March 10, 1919. See Board minutes, 1908–1929, MOA.
86. See “War-Time Antagonism Halts Wagner Opera,” Musical Courier (November 8, 1917): 5. Musical America claimed there was no significant disapproval among Met subscribers when the decision was made to ban German opera. See “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (December 22, 1917): 7. Parsifal reappeared at the Met in February 1920 (in English). A complete Ring cycle would not be heard until the 1924–1925 season. See William H. Seltsam, ed., Metropolitan Opera Annals: A Chronicle of Artists and Performances (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1947), 308.
87. “Metropolitan Directors Bar German Opera,” New York Herald, November 3, 1917. On November 2, 1917, the New York Times reported that a minority of the board opposed performing opera in German. “Halt German Opera at Metropolitan.” The November 8, 1917, issue of the Musical Courier reported that the Met board voted unanimously to ban German opera. “War-Time Antagonism Halts Wagner Opera,” 5. Kolodin suggests the board’s decision was hasty and reflected timidity. See Kolodin, 269–70.
88. “Wagner in English,” Musical Courier (November 8, 1917): 22. Note “Why Not Wagner?,” Ibid. (November 22, 1917): 22. Note a letter on performing Wagner in English: “Russian Opera for German,” New York Times, November 14, 1917.
89. “Fools Who Would Be ‘Broad’,” The Chronicle (December 1917): n.p.
90. “Singers to Blame,” New York Times, November 25, 1917.
91. “German Arms, Not Art,” New York Times, November 11, 1917.
92. “Pleasure-Giving Wagner,” New York Tribune, November 12, 1917.
93. “Music Universal, Not National,” New York Tribune, November 9, 1917.
94. “Metropolitan Ban on Wagner the Theme of Many Letters and Conflicting Views,” New York Times, November 11, 1917. Note the letter from Emily Bloch: “German Opera Here,” New York Tribune, November 2, 1917; and “Why Assail German Art?” New York Tribune, November 19, 1917. Despite the ban, the debate on German music persisted. See “Time to Drop Wagner,” New York Tribune, March 29, 1918. On the day the editorial appeared, a Tribune reader wrote to oppose the paper’s position and the ban. See “Wagner’s Message,” Ibid., April 7, 1918.
95. “There Is Danger in German Music,” The Chronicle (September 1918): n.p. For a more reasonable perspective on German music, see “Not a Question of Art,” Musical America (July 27, 1918): 18.
96. Population data in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 413. Christiane Harzig, “Germans” in Encyclopedia of Chicago. www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org. For background on anti-German sentiment see Howard B. Furer, ed., Chicago: A Chronological and Documentary History, 1784–1970 (Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana, 1974), 40.
97. Material on Stock is from the website of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, www.cso.org/archives. On Stock’s achievements, see Joseph Horowitz, Classical Music in America: A History of Its Rise and Fall (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 305–8. On Theodore Thomas, see Lawrence W. Levine, Highbrow, Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 112–19.
98. “Chicago Symphony Season Concluded,” Musical America (May 5, 1917): 15. On the final concert, see “Symphony Concerts Close,” Chicago Herald, April 21, 1917; and “All German Program by Stock,” Chicago Examiner, Ibid. During the 1916–1917 season, the orchestra played Strauss frequently (ten pieces), along with excerpts from eight Wagner operas. Chicago Symphony Orchestra Programs, 1916–1917 Season, Rosenthal Archives, Chicago Symphony Orchestra (hereafter CSO Archives). In the 1917–1918 season, the orchestra played three Strauss pieces and seven Wagner opera excerpts. Ibid., 1917–1918 Season. On the three boys, see “Defends Youths’ Affront to Flag as ‘Poor Taste’,” Chicago Tribune, April 23, 1917. Note that the Chicago newspaper clippings in the rest of the chapter are from the clipping files in the Rosenthal Archives, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Orchestra Hall, Chicago.
99. “World Warfare Brings Discords,” Chicago Herald, April 21, 1917. After the intermission of an April 1918 concert, the orchestra expressed its allegiance to the United States in a resolution read by an orchestra official. Some claimed the orchestra was rife with pro-German sentiment. See letters to the editor of the Chicago Journal: “Expel Huns from Orchestra,” August 21, 1918; and “Orchestra Always Pro-Hun,” August 22, 1918.
100. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (March 30, 1918): 7. Note “Of Ballads, Songs, and Snatches,” Chicago Tribune, April 14, 1918; and Philo Adams Otis, The Chicago Symphony Orchestra: Its Organization, Growth, and Development, 1891–1924 (Chicago: Clayton F. Summy, 1924), 305.
101. On Stock, see: “U.S. Probes F. A. Stock’s Activities,” Chicago Journal, April 23, 1918; “Stock is Loyal, Is Declaration of F. J. Wessel,” Chicago Evening Post, April 23, 1918; “Leader Stock Satisfies U.S. of Loyalty,” Chicago Examiner, April 24, 1918; “Frederick Stock Gets Clear Bill as to Loyalty,” Chicago Herald, April 24, 1918; “Indorse Stock for Loyalty; Rumor Nailed,” Chicago Tribune, April 24, 1918. The Stock quotation is from “Says War Is ‘Purely Commercial’,” Chicago Journal, April 24, 1918.
102. “Aliens Dropped by Federation of Musicians,” Chicago Tribune, August 14, 1918; “Stock Must Quit, Decree of Musicians,” Chicago Journal, August 14, 1918; “ ‘O.K.’ by U.S. or Stock Loses Job,” Chicago Herald, August 15, 1918; “Union to Drop Aliens as Blow at Symphony,” Chicago Tribune, August 15, 1918; “Fred’K Stock Forced to Quit,” Chicago Journal, August 16, 1918.
103. “Union Revokes Ouster of Alien Musicians,” Chicago American, August 17, 1918; “Union to Eject Disloyal,” Chicago Herald, August 17, 1918; “Symphony Members Pledge Loyalty to the United States,” Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1918; “Stock Menace to [unclear],” Chicago Journal, August 17, 1918.
104. “The Case of Frederick Stock,” Musical America (August 24, 1918): 18.
105. “Matters of Music,” Chicago Tribune, August 18, 1918. Note “Symphony Seeks to Retain Stock,” Chicago Herald, August 21, 1918.
106. Stock to the Trustees of the Orchestral Association, August 17, 1918, Frederick Stock, ART-I-1/23, Rosenthal Archives, CSO Archives. He petitioned the US Government to have his status as an enemy alien changed, which would have allowed him to become a naturalized US citizen. Stock declared his loyalty and devotion to American principles. Frederick Stock to His Excellency, The President of the United States, n.d. (most likely summer of 1918 or just afterward), ART-I-1/22, Ibid.
107. For the October 1, 1918, reply, see the Trustees’ letter to Stock, Minutes of the Board of Trustees, TOA-B-1, 55–56, CSO Archives. For press accounts: “Mr. Stock Quits Orchestra Till Made a Citizen,” Chicago Tribune, October 2, 1918; “Trustees Praise Stock’s Ability,” Chicago Herald, Ibid.; “Stock Is Out of Orchestra,” Chicago Journal, Ibid. For positive editorials: “Mr. Stock’s Resignation,” Chicago Tribune, October 3, 1918; and “The Orchestral Problem Solved,” Chicago Herald, October 4, 1918.
108. “Probe Loyalty of 7 Symphony Orchestra Men,” Chicago Evening Post, August 8, 1918.
109. “Kaiser Lovers in Orchestra under Probe,” Chicago Journal, August 8, 1918; “7 of Symphony Orchestra May Be Interned,” Chicago American, August 8, 1918; “Seven Symphony Players under Anti-U.S. Cloud,” Chicago Tribune, August 9, 1918.
110. “Orchestra Men Charged with Pro-Hun Talk,” Chicago Tribune, August 10, 1918. Note “Americanized Symphony to Be Asked of Stock,” Ibid., August 11, 1918; “More Symphony Players Heard in Loyalty Quiz,” Ibid., August 13, 1918; “Bruno Steindel in U.S. Inquiry,” Chicago Herald, August 10, 1918; “Steindel Stills Cello,” Chicago News, August 13, 1918.
111. For the resolution, see “Minutes of the Board of Trustees,” August 19, 1918, TOA-B-1, Rosenthal Archives, Chicago Symphony Orchestra. On the U.S. district attorney’s position, see “Trustees Offer U.S. Aid to Make Symphony Loyal,” Chicago Tribune, August 22, 1918. On the investigation, see “Americanized Symphony Asked of Stock,” Chicago Tribune, August 11, 1918.
112. “Charges of Disloyalty,” Chicago Tribune, August 22, 1918. Note “Disloyalists in Orchestra Soon Will Be Named,” Chicago Evening Post, August 22, 1918; “Truth-Justice,” Chicago Herald, Ibid.; “Our Orchestra,” Chicago Tribune, August 16, 1918.
113. “Symphony Members Pledge Loyalty Publicly to the U.S.,” Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1918. Note “Alien Symphony Men Renounce Kaiser and Home,” Chicago Herald, August 17, 1918; “Orchestra Men in Symphony of Real Loyalty,” Chicago Evening Post, Ibid.
114. “Bruno Steindel Gives Up His Job with Orchestra,” Chicago Tribune, October 3, 1918.
115. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (October 12, 1918): 7.
116. “Four Orchestra Players Ousted for War Views,” Chicago Tribune, October 11, 1918. Note “More Musicians Now Facing Trial for Disloyal Acts,” Chicago Evening Post, October 11, 1918.
117. On the oath, see “Loyalty Test for Minnesota Players,” Musical America (September 7, 1918): 23. Note Jack K. Sherman, The Story of the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1952), 113, 138–39.
118. “Emil Oberhoffer—An American,” Musical Courier (June 27, 1918): 6. Note a Musical Courier interview with the manager of the Minneapolis Symphony, which lauded Oberhoffer. “Wendell Heighton, Resourceful and Able Manager of the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra, Expresses Himself Regarding Music in War Times,” Ibid. (June 20, 1918): 9.
119. Ibid.
120. See Kenneth H. Marcus, Musical Metropolis: Los Angeles and the Creation of a Music Culture, 1880–1940 (New York: Palgrave, 2004), esp. ch. 2.
121. “Will Not Hear German Music,” Los Angeles Times, January 29, 1918.
122. Ibid.
123. Ibid.
124. “Concert Programmes Are Being Revised, Ibid., January 31, 1918. Note “Tainted Money, Baer’s Theme,” Ibid., May 13, 1918; and “Approves Elimination of German Music,” Ibid., August 28, 1918.
125. “Kultur-Tainted School Songbooks Withdrawn,” Ibid., June 13, 1918.
126. “Why German Music Is Banned,” Ibid., June 18, 1918.
127. “Must Not Play German Songs,” Ibid., September 1, 1918.
128. “German Music Must Become ‘Verboten’,” Ibid., September 2, 1918. Note “Pro-German Apologists,” Ibid., May 15, 1918.
129. On the events that evening, see “Beethoven Festival Concerts Unqualified Artistic Successes,” Pacific Coast Musical Review (August 14, 1915): 1. The review criticized the decision to play the anthem: “ ‘Bulletin’ Writer Victim of Stupid Musical Hoax,” Pacific Coast Musical Review (September 4, 1915): 1. The preceding exculpated Hertz. For Hertz’s account, see his memoir, “Facing the Music,” which was serialized over several weeks in the San Francisco Chronicle. See installment 24 of “Facing the Music,” July 5, 1942. For concert reviews, see “Thousands Pay Homage to Art of Beethoven,” San Francisco Examiner, August 7, 1915; and “Hertz is Hero at Beethoven Concert,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 7, 1915.
130. See “ ‘Bulletin’ Writer Victim of Stupid Musical Hoax” (cited above); and “Hadley’s Friends, in Huff, Quit Music Association,” San Francisco Bulletin, August 27, 1915. Note installment 24 of “Facing the Music” in San Francisco Chronicle.
131. See “Hadley’s Friends, in Huff, Quit Music Association,” San Francisco Bulletin, August 27, 1915.
132. See the board minutes for the San Francisco Symphony, September 6, 1918, 395–97, San Francisco Symphony Archives (hereafter SFSA), Davies Symphony Hall, San Francisco, CA. On the citizenship question, see Hertz’s account in “Facing the Music,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 7, 1942; and “Contract with Mr. Hertz,” Board minutes, May 1, 1918/April 19, 1918, 374, SFSA.
133. See Edmund Bowles, “Karl Muck and His Compatriots: German Conductors in World War I (and How They Coped),” American Music 25, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 405–40.
134. On the board’s dissatisfaction, see “Selfridge Quits Music Committee,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 28, 1915. Note “Hertz Wins Place,” San Francisco Bulletin, August 28, 1915.
135. Quoted in “Weapons Are Sharpened for Symphony War,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 5, 1916.
136. See “Contract with Mr. Hertz,” Board minutes, May 1, 1918/April 19, 1918, 373, SFSA.
137. On “The Star-Spangled Banner,” see “Facing the Music,” installment 25 of Hertz’s memoir, San Francisco Chronicle, July 7, 1942. For reviews, see “Alfred Hertz Wins Triumph with Symphony Orchestra,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 8, 1915; and “Alfred Hertz Reveals Himself as a Great Symphony Conductor,” Pacific Coast Musical Review (December 25, 1915): 1–2. On the challenges Hertz confronted, see Larry Rothe, Music for a City, Music for the World: 100 Years with the San Francisco Symphony (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2011), 39–50; and Leta E. Miller, Music and Politics in San Francisco: From the 1906 Quake to the Second World War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 52–56.
138. See “German Composers,” Board minutes, August 6, 1918, 382, SFSA. On anti-German sentiment, loyalty, and citizenship, see Board minutes, September 6, 1918, 395–97, SFSA.
139. For the orchestra’s repertoire, see the concert program lists for the 1918–1919 and 1919–1920 seasons, SFSA.
140. “Wisconsin Music Teachers Urge Ban on Alien Artists,” Musical America (June 8, 1918): 1.
141. “St. Louis Union Drops Seven Aliens,” Ibid. (July 27, 1918): 4.
142. “Club to Teach No German Music,” Christian Science Monitor, October 10, 1918.
143. “Orchestra Changes Its Wilmington Concert,” Musical America (November 17, 1917): 31.
144. See “Mrs. Jay Bars German Music,” New York Times, August 17, 1918.
Chapter Two: “It Would Be a Gross Mistake to Play Patriotic Airs”: Locking Up the Maestros
1. Edmund A. Bowles, “Karl Muck and His Compatriots: German Conductors in America during World War I (and How They Coped),” American Music 25, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 405–440. Quotation from 428. For an illuminating discussion of music and World War I, see Barbara L. Tischler, An American Music: The Search for an American Musical Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), ch. 3.
2. Bowles, 426–27.
3. “Dr. Muck Bitter at Sailing,” New York Times, August 22, 1919.
4. According to the 1910 census, Cincinnati’s population was 363,591, of whom 28,425 were born in Germany, which represented half the foreign-born residents of the city. The number of US-born residents with both parents born in Germany was 59,986; the number of U.S.-born residents with one parent born in Germany was 28,959. Thus, 117,370 residents were either German-born or were born in the United States to one or two German parents. Information from Thirteenth Census of the United States taken in the Year 1910 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1913), 3: 398, 426.
5. On Kunwald’s arrival in Cincinnati, see the following: “Cincinnati’s New Conductor,” Cincinnati Times-Star, n.d. but 1912, Clipping file, Ernst Kunwald, Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Lincoln Center, New York (NYPLPA); and “Ernst Kunwald Is Cincinnati’s Choice,” Musical America (n.d. but 1912), Ibid.
6. “Cincinnati Orchestra’s New York Triumph,” Musical Courier (January 11, 1917): 25. “Dr. Kunwald’s Great Gifts,” Ibid. (January 18, 1917): 27. Note a somewhat less adulatory review. “Rousing Reception for Cincinnatians,” Musical America (January 20, 1917): 17.
7. “Dr. Kunwald’s Great Gifts,” Musical Courier (January 18, 1917): 27.
8. Note “The Cincinnati Orchestra in Retrospection,” Musical Courier (January 18, 1917): 27; and a collection of excerpted reviews in “The Triumphal Tour of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra,” Musical America (February 10, 1917): 14.
9. “Kunwald to Lead Players in Local Songs,” Cincinnati Post, October 25, 1917. Kunwald said he did not anticipate being called home to serve. “Kunwald Attends Only to His Music,” Toledo Times, April 29, 1917.
10. Quoted in “Kunwald Attends Only to his Music,” Ibid.
11. “Symphony Season Opens with Admirable Concert,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, October 27, 1917.
12. “Symphony Scores Success in Native Music Program; Delightfully Presented,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, November 3, 1917.
13. “Many Subscriptions to the Liberty Loan by Symphony Players,” Cincinnati Times-Star, October 25, 1917. On the opening concert, see “The Symphony Concert,” Cincinnati Enquirer, October 27, 1917; “Symphony Is Triumph for Player Body,” Cincinnati Post, October 27, 1917; and “Symphony Season Is Opened with Brilliant Concert,” Cincinnati Times-Star, October 27, 1917.
14. On the Springfield concert and interview, note the following, all from November 21, 1917: “Cincinnati Orchestra Commended,” Springfield Daily News; “Philip Frey,” Springfield Sun; “Bar Music of Living Composers,” Ibid.; “Audience Waits,” Ibid. Material from the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra Scrapbooks, vol. 19 (hereafter CSO Scrapbooks), Cincinnati Historical Society, Cincinnati, Ohio.
15. “Pittsburgh Puts Ban on Enemy Musicians,” Philadelphia Public Ledger, November 22, 1917, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 19. The mention of Sherman is undoubtedly a reference to the Civil War general’s observation that “war is hell.” Note “Orchestra Not to Play in This City,” Pittsburgh Daily Dispatch, November 22, 1917; “Orchestra Forced to Cancel Concert,” Pittsburgh Post, November 22, 1917.
16. Descriptions from the Cincinnati press found in the CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 20: “Appearance of Director Is Barred,” Cincinnati Enquirer, November 22, 1917; “Pittsburgh Bars Dr. Kunwald; Date Cancelled,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, November 22, 1917. Note “Orchestra Muddle Elucidated by Manager Roberts,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, November 23, 1917.
17. “Jingoism and Practicality,” Cincinnati Enquirer, November 23, 1917.
18. “Attitude of Dr. Kunwald Made Plain,” Cincinnati Times-Star, November 22, 1917, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 20. Note “Member of the Board,” n.d. newspaper clipping, Cincinnati Symphony 1915–1917, Clipping file, NYPLPA.
19. “Holds It to Contract,” Chillicothe News Advertiser, November 22, 1917, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 20.
20. “Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra Gave Chillicothe Musical Treat,” Chillicothe Scioto Gazette, November 24, 1917; and “Just as Enjoyable,” Chillicothe News Advertiser, November 24, 1917, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 19.
21. “Brilliant Audience Greets the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra,” Chillicothe News Advertiser, November 24, 1917, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 19.
22. “Dr. Kunwald and Cincinnati,” Musical Courier (November 29, 1917): 19. “Resignation of Kunwald Given Symphony Head,” Cincinnati Post, November 22, 1917; “Successor to Kunwald for Director, Aim,” paper title uncertain, November 22, 1917 (both in CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 20). Note an October 15 editorial in the Cincinnati Times-Star, “They Are Working for Our City.”
23. “Kunwald Declares Loyalty to Austria after Arrest; Taken to Dayton Jail,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, December 9, 1917. Note “Kunwald Held,” Cincinnati Post, December 8, 1917.
24. “As Prisoner of War Kunwald Is Registered,” Ibid.
25. “Mum in Washington,” Ibid.
26. “Rothwell Makes Debut as Conductor of the Cincinnati Orchestra,” Musical Courier (December 20, 1917): 5.
27. “Swift Release Follows Dr. Kunwald’s Arrest; Whole Incident Mystery,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, December 10, 1917. Note “Alien Director Freed from Jail,” New York Morning Telegraph, December 10, 1917; “Dr. Kunwald Released from Jail,” Christian Science Monitor, December 10, 1917; “Dr. Kunwald Released,” New York Times, December 10, 1917.
28. “Kunwald Out as Director, Remains Here,” Cincinnati Post, December 11, 1917.
29. “Resignation of Kunwald Accepted,” Cincinnati Enquirer, December 11, 1917.
30. “Arrest of Kunwald,” Musical Leader, December 13, 1917, from the CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 20. One report (appearing to quote from the press) said Kunwald was arrested because of his anti-American remarks. See “Rothwell Makes Debut as Conductor of the Cincinnati Orchestra,” Musical Courier (December 20, 1917): 5.
31. “Arrest of Kunwald In Line with Policy Adopted by Washington,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, December 11, 1917.
32. “Arrest Any Time,” Cincinnati Enquirer, December 11, 1917. The dispatch noted the arrest was made under the authority of the attorney general, but without his “specific knowledge.”
33. “The Symphony Orchestra,” Cincinnati Post, December 12, 1917.
34. See “Selected as Guest-Conductor,” Cincinnati Times-Star, December 11, 1917; “Dvorak Symphony Feature of This Week’s Concerts,” Ibid., December 12, 1917; “To Direct Orchestra,” Cincinnati Enquirer, December 12, 1917; “New Conductor Arrives,” Ibid., December 13, 1917; “The Symphony Concert,” Ibid., December 15, 1917; “Conductor Rothwell Will Reach City Today,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, December 12, 1917; “Rothwell Arrives for Symphony Concerts,” Ibid., December 13, 1917.
35. “Former Director of Symphony Orchestra to Be Interned,” Cincinnati Post, January 12, 1918. The arrest was widely reported: “Dr. Ernst Kunwald Now on Way to Prison Camp,” New York Herald, January 13, 1918; “Former Symphony Director in Cincinnati to Be Interned,” St. Louis Dispatch, January 13, 1918; “Dr. Kunwald Sent to Internment Camp,” New York Times, January 13, 1918; “Dr. Ernst Kunwald Is Interned as Enemy,” Boston Globe, January 13, 1918; “Dr. Kunwald Interned,” Washington Post, January 13, 1918.
36. For the Kunwald quotations, which vary slightly, see: “Kunwald Sent to Ft. Oglethorpe,” Cincinnati Enquirer, January 13, 1918; “Kunwald Again Arrested; Washington Orders His Internment in the South,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, Ibid.
37. “Former Director of Symphony Orchestra to Be Interned,” Cincinnati Post, January 12, 1918.
38. “Kunwald Again Arrested; Washington Orders His Internment in the South,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, January 13, 1918. One allegation claimed Kunwald had praised the leadership of the German army as it rolled through France and Belgium, comparing its organization and execution to “the construction of Beethoven’s . . . symphonies.” See “A Symphony by von Moltke,” Musical America (October 24, 1914): 16.
39. Material from the following: “Sleuths Pose as ‘Guests’ to Hear Kunwald,” Cincinnati Post, January 14, 1918; “Talk Is Kunwald’s Undoing,” Cincinnati Enquirer, Ibid.
40. On camp life, see Bowles, 405–40; “Kunwald to Organize Orchestra,” Cincinnati Enquirer, January 31, 1918; and “Just How the Interned Germans Are Treated,” New York Times, July 7, 1918.
41. “Kunwald Takes Daily Exercise in Prison Camp,” Cincinnati Post, January 31, 1918.
42. See “Release Given to Dr. Kunwald by Government,” Cincinnati Times-Star, June 4, 1919. In the summer of 1918, it was reported that government officials had broken into the Kunwalds’ safety deposit boxes in their local bank. Press reports indicated incriminating documents were found linking Kunwald to German agents in the United States. See “Plot to Aid Huns Seen,” Cincinnati Enquirer, August 29, 1918; “Gold Coin is from Kunwald Box,” Ibid., August 30, 1918.
43. “Cincinnatians, in Varied Fields of Activity, Declare That Now, of All Times, Orchestra Should Be Fostered,” Cincinnati Times-Star, January 12, 1918; “Mayor Lauds Orchestra as Symbol of Pure Harmony,” Ibid.; “ ‘Now of All Times Should Orchestra Be Cherished,’ Says New Head of Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce,” Ibid.
44. See “Ysaÿe Leads Orchestra in Great Concert,” Cincinnati Times-Star, April 6, 1918; “The Symphony Concert,” Cincinnati Enquirer, Ibid.; “Ysaÿe Leads Orchestra in Inspiring Concert,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, Ibid. Note, too, “Master of the Violin also Master of Men,” Cincinnati Times-Star, April 2, 1918.
45. See “Kunwald Interned, Cincinnati Takes Ysaÿe as Leader,” New York Herald, n.d., CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 19; and “Suffers Much from Germans,” Chattanooga News, January 23, 1919, Ibid., vol. 21.
46. “Cincinnati Orchestra Led by Eugen [sic] Ysaÿe,” Musical Courier (April 11, 1918): 5. Note, too, “Ysaÿe Arouses Ovation as He Praises Loan,” Cincinnati Post, April 6, 1918; “Ysaÿe Led Orchestra in Inspiring Concert,” Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, Ibid.
47. Ysaÿe reported that his salary was $25,000; Kunwald’s was $17,000. See Louis Russell Thomas, “A History of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra to 1931” (PhD diss., University of Cincinnati, 1972), 442–43.
48. “Ysaÿe Reveals Great Plans for Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra,” Cincinnati Times-Star, April 16, 1918; “Cincinnati Jubilant over New Director,” Musical America, article dated April 20, 1918, CSO Scrapbooks, vol. 19.
49. “Orchestra to Omit All German Music,” Pittsburgh Post, November 8, 1917. Pittsburgh also stopped Fritz Kreisler, the Austrian violin virtuoso, from performing in the city. Several women’s organizations demanded that he be prevented from playing.
50. “Orchestra to Omit All German Music,” Pittsburgh Post, November 8, 1917; note “German Orchestra Music Is Barred,” Pittsburgh Sun, November 8, 1917.
51. “Bar Kreisler and Hempel,” New York Times, November 10, 1917. Note “Ban German Music,” Pittsburgh Dispatch, November 10, 1917; and “German Music under Ban in the East,” Los Angeles Times, November 10, 1917.
52. “Dissenting Aliens and Pacifists Flayed by Ex-Envoy,” Pittsburgh Post, November 14, 1917.
53. “Musical Comments and Current Events,” Pittsburgh Sunday Post, November 11, 1917. Note Ibid., November 18, 1917.
54. “Even with Their Music, These Germans Make War,” Pittsburgh Dispatch, December 9, 1917.
55. Ibid.
56. Letter excerpted in “ ‘Enemy Music,’ ” Musical Courier (December 27, 1917): 22.
57. “Beethoven and the Great War,” New York Tribune, November 14, 1917. The president of the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh rejected the premise of the editorial. See “Why Pittsburgh Banishes German Music and German Artists,” Ibid., November 16, 1917. On the Pittsburgh decision, see “Where Pittsburgh Leads,” The Chronicle (January 1918): n.p.; “Pittsburgh Regrets ‘Chauvinistic’ Stand,” Musical America (January 19, 1918): 26.
58. Bliss Perry, Life and Letters of Henry Lee Higginson (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1921), 319–22.
59. “Muck Opens with German Program,” Musical America (October 24, 1914): 8.
60. Higginson letter quoted in Perry, 470.
61. Numbers from the 1920 census. Total population: 748,060; foreign-born: 238,919; native-born with foreign-born parents: 238,241; native-born with “mixed parentage”: 71,514. United States Census Bureau, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3: Population, 445. The Massachusetts State Census of 1915 reflects similar numbers. The 1915 Massachusetts Census provides these numbers on Bostonians of German heritage: foreign-born: 8,402; German-born father: 14,979; German-born mother: 12,413; two German parents: 10,050. It appears the single-parent numbers include those who had two German-born parents. Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics, The Decennial Census 1915 (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1918), 292, 334.
62. Perry, 484.
63. Description of the afternoon of October 30 from Perry, 486–87. On the Providence events, see “Symphony Does Not Play U.S. Anthem,” Boston Globe, October 31, 1917; “Threat to Disband Boston Symphony,” New York Times, November 1, 1917; “Dr. Muck Resigns under a Storm of Public Criticism,” Musical America (November 10, 1917): 1, 4–5; “Dr. Muck Balks at ‘The Star-Spangled Banner,’ ” New York Tribune, November 11, 1917; and “Patriotic Fury Directed at Boston Orchestra,” Musical Courier (November 8, 1917): 5, 19.
64. Providence Evening Journal quotation in M. A. Dewolfe Howe, The Boston Symphony Orchestra, 1881–1931 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 132–33. Note “The Case of Dr. Karl Muck,” Providence Evening Journal, November 1, 1917. Note that all newspaper accounts from Boston and Providence (through the end of this chapter) are from the Clipping file, Pres 56, Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives (hereafter BSOA), Symphony Hall, Boston, MA.
65. See “Boston Orchestra May Be Barred in Providence,” Boston Globe, November 1, 1917; “Providence Business Men Would Bar Karl Muck,” Boston Globe, November 2, 1917; “Symphony’s Action Is Put before Board of Aldermen,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 1, 1917; “The National Anthem in Concerts,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 2, 1917; “War Council Here Indorses Move to Bar Out Dr. Muck,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 7, 1917; and “Threat to Disband Boston Symphony,” New York Times, November 1, 1917. Note letters to the Baltimore Sun on November 3, 1917, “Which Is the More Valuable, Patriotism or Symphonies?”
66. “Dr. Muck Resigns Under a Storm of Public Criticism,” Musical America (November 10, 1917): 1, 4–5. Note “Major H. L. Higginson Defends Symphony,” Boston Globe, November 1, 1917; “Symphony Orchestra May Be Obliged to Disband,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 1, 1917; and “Muck Resigns as Conductor of Boston Symphony,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 2, 1917.
67. “Threat to Disband Boston Symphony,” New York Times, November 1, 1917.
68. “Dr. Muck Balks at ‘The Star-Spangled Banner,’ ” New York Tribune, November 11, 1917.
69. On the performances, see Perry, 487, and the following: “Boston Symphony Plays Anthem, Dr. Karl Muck Ready to Resign,” Boston Globe, November 3, 1917; “Dr. Muck Leader in Playing of Anthem,” Ibid., November 3, 1917; “Muck Leads Boston Symphony in National Anthem,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 3, 1917; “Plays It and Resigns,” Baltimore Sun, November 3, 1917; “Dr. Karl Muck Resigns; Then Leads Anthem,” New York Herald, November 3, 1917; “Dr. Muck Resigns, Then Plays Anthem,” New York Times, November 3, 1917; “Muck Renders Anthem,” Washington Post, November 3, 1917; “Anthem on All Muck’s Programs; His Resignation Is Still Pending,” Ibid., November 4, 1917.
70. See “Symphony Headed for More Trouble,” Boston Globe, November 5, 1917; and “Muck Blameless, Higginson Insists,” New York Times, November 5, 1917.
71. Perry, 487–88. On the Philadelphia concert, see “Philadelphia Tense at Dr. Muck’s Concert,” Musical America (November 10, 1917): 23; “Bulk of Music Lovers Want Muck Retained,” Boston Globe, November 7, 1917; “Bostonians Won’t Come,” Baltimore Sun, November 5, 1917. For Carnegie Hall, see “Dr. Muck Plays National Anthem to Tense Audience,” New York Herald, November 9, 1917. For Washington, DC, see “Doubt as to Reception Dr. Muck Will Get Today from Concert Audience,” Washington Post, November 6, 1917; “Society,” Ibid., November 7, 1917; and “Muck Twice Leads in Playing Anthem,” Boston Globe, November 7, 1917.
72. “Ex-Gov. Warfield Would Mob Muck,” New York Times, November 5, 1917. On Warfield’s opposition, see “To Resent Muck’s Slur,” Baltimore Sun, November 4, 1917. Note, too, “Ex-Governor Threatening Baltimore Mob Violence,” Boston Globe, November 4, 1917; and “Muck Likely to Be Mobbed if He Visits Baltimore,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 5, 1917.
73. Quotations from “Ex-Gov. Warfield Would Mob Muck,” New York Times, November 5, 1917. From the Baltimore Sun, see “Soldiers Oppose Muck,” November 5, 1917; and an anti-Muck letter published on November 5, from Dr. B. Merrill Hopkinson.
74. “Baltimore Forbids Dr. Muck’s Concert,” November 6, 1917, New York Times. Note “Bar Symphony in Baltimore,” Boston Globe, November 6, 1917; “Baltimore Grand Jury Forbids Muck Concert,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 6, 1917; and “ ‘The Star-Spangled Banner,’ ” Ibid.
75. Ibid. See also “Baltimore Police Board Forbids Appearance of Boston Orchestra,” Washington Post, November 6, 1917.
76. For quotations and a description of the event, see “Dr. Muck Denounced at Mass Meeting,” Baltimore Sun, November 7, 1917; and “Denounce Muck at Rally,” New York Times, November 7, 1917.
77. As above, see “Dr. Muck Denounced at Mass Meeting,” Baltimore Sun, November 7, 1917; and “Denounce Muck at Rally,” New York Times, November 7, 1917. From the Baltimore Sun, note “Anti-Muck Patriots Like Minute Men of ’75,” November 8, 1917; “Frederick Extols Flag,” November 10, 1917; and letters to the Sun’s editor on November 7, 1917.
78. “Muck Resigns Under a Storm of Public Criticism,” Musical Courier (November 10, 1917): 1. Note “Prussianizing of Musical Institutions in America Stirs Bitter Controversy,” New York Herald, November 2, 1917.
79. “Walter Damrosch Assails Dr. Muck’s Stand as Cowardly,” New York Herald, November 3, 1917.
80. Ibid. For letters to Damrosch on the Muck affair, see Stearns Morse to Walter Damrosch, November 3, 1917, and Morse to Damrosch, November 14, 1917, Conductors: Muck, Karl, Damrosch Collection, NYPLPA. On Damrosch’s uncharitable postwar discussion of Muck, see Walter Damrosch, My Musical Life (New York: Scribner, 1923), 338–43.
81. “Dr. Muck Resigns under a Storm of Public Criticism,” Musical America (November 10, 1917): 1, 4.
82. Ibid.
83. “Patriotic Fury Directed at Boston Orchestra,” Musical Courier (November 8, 1917): 5, 19. Note “Internment of Muck Urged by Roosevelt,” Providence Evening Bulletin, November 3, 1917.
84. “Patriotic Fury Directed at Boston Orchestra,” Musical Courier (November 8, 1917): 5, 19.
85. “Musical America’s Open Forum,” Musical America (November 17, 1917): 26.
86. Letter reprinted in “Must Not Disregard Sanctity of ‘The Star-Spangled Banner,’ ” Presto (November 8, 1917): 17. NYPLA Clipping file, Walter Damrosch, 1911–1919.
87. “ ‘Yankee Doodle’ for Muck,” New York Times, November 4, 1917. Note “Good Symphony Music,” from the Waterbury American (reprinted in the November 14, 1917, Providence Evening Bulletin), in which a Yale professor proclaimed the virtues of playing the piece at a symphony concert.
88. “Musical America’s Open Forum,” Musical America (December 8, 1917): 46. Note “The Case of Dr. Muck, Major Higginson, and ‘The Star-Spangled Banner,’ ” New York Times, November 4, 1917.
89. “Music and Patriotism,” Outlook (November 14, 1917): 407.
90. Ibid.
91. Francis Grierson, “The Pernicious Influence of German Music in America,” Philadelphia Public Ledger, December 18, 1917, Clipping file, Pres 56, BSOA.
92. Ibid.
93. Joseph Horowitz writes that no “New York critic played so influential a role within the city’s community of artists” as did Krehbiel. See Horowitz, Wagner Nights: An American History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 5.
94. “The National Anthem at Orchestral Concerts,” New York Tribune, November 4, 1917. Note “A Musician Makes a Mistake,” New York Times, November 2, 1917; “An Artist’s Grave Indiscretion,” Ibid., November 3, 1917. For an inane piece linking art and patriotism, see a November 4, 1917, Washington Post editorial, “Finishing His Education.”
95. On the New York concerts, see “Karl Muck Plays Our Anthem Here,” New York Times, November 9, 1917; “Dr. Karl Muck Leads Boston Symphony Orchestra in Carnegie Hall,” New York Tribune, November 9, 1917; “New York Receives Dr. Muck Generously,” Musical America (November 17, 1917): 3; “Boston Symphony Gives Brooklyn a Real Treat,” Ibid., 4; and “New York Hears Anthem Conducted by Dr. Muck,” Musical Courier (November 15, 1917): 17.
96. See “A Letter of Protest,” in the March 1918 issue of The Chronicle, n.p.
97. “Major Higginson Replies,” Ibid.
98. “A Final Warning,” Ibid.
99. Ibid. Also banning Muck’s performances were Pittsburgh, Baltimore, Detroit, Washington, DC, and Springfield, Illinois. The list would soon include Cleveland, Providence, and Brooklyn. The American Defense Society demanded that the entire Boston Symphony be prohibited from performing anywhere in the country. See “Asks Ban on Boston Symphony Concerts,” Boston Globe, December 1, 1917. For another exchange of letters between Jay and Higginson, see “Mrs. Jay and Her Associates in a New Muck Attack,” New York Herald, March 9, 1918.
100. “Protests Fail to Bar Concert by Muck and Enemy Aliens: Shall Doktor Karl Muck with His 23 Enemy Aliens Play in Concert To-night?,” New York Herald, March 14, 1918.
101. Preceding quoted in Ibid.
102. “Dr. Manning Joins Attack on Dr. Muck,” New York Times, March 13, 1918; “Dr. Manning Joins Muck’s Opponents,” New York Sun, March 13, 1918.
103. “War on Dr. Muck Growing Warmer,” New York World, March 14, 1918. Note a sampling of stories in the New York press prior to the performances: “Opposition Grows to Doktor Muck as Concert Director,” New York Herald, March 12, 1918; “City Is Confident Ban Will Be Put on Doktor Muck,” Ibid., March 13, 1918; “Renews Dr. Muck Protest,” New York Times, March 12, 1918; “Major Higginson Defends Dr. Muck,” Ibid., March 14, 1918; “Muck Defended by Higginson,” New York Evening Sun, March 13, 1918; “Muck Will Not Be Barred Here,” Ibid., March 14, 1918; “Loyal Citizens Rally to Support Mrs. Jay in Fight to Bar Dr. Muck,” New York Telegram, March 13, 1918; “Keep Up Fight to Ban Dr. Muck Here To-night,” Ibid., March 14, 1918; “Fair Play Asked for Dr. Muck,” New York Evening Journal, March 14, 1918; “Mrs. William Jay Plays ‘Trumps’ in Fight to Bar Dr. Muck,” New York Tribune, March 14, 1918.
104. “Dr. Muck Unmolested at New York Concerts,” Musical Courier (March 21, 1918): 5. Note “Muck Plays Here, Guarded by Police,” New York Times, March 15, 1918; “No Jarring Note in Audience at Muck Concert,” New York Tribune, March 15, 1918; “Muck Leads Band and All Survive,” New York World, March 15, 1918. On the Brooklyn concert, see “Dr. Muck Plays again without Causing a Riot,” New York Tribune, March 16, 1918.
105. “Hun Sympathizers Hear Muck Concert,” New York Telegram, March 15, 1918.
106. “New York Bows Head in Shame as Muck Leads,” New York Herald, March 15, 1918. For a harsh condemnation, see “Doktor Muck Will Go,” The Chronicle (April 1918): n.p.
107. “Brooklyn Wants No More of Dr. Muck,” New York Times, March 17, 1918. Note “Institute Bars Dr. Karl Muck,” Brooklyn Citizen, March 16, 1918; “Brooklyn Bars Doktor Muck and His Enemy Aliens,” New York Herald, March 17, 1918; “Brooklyn Bars Dr. Muck and 22 Enemy Musicians; Sixth City Taking Action,” New York Telegram, March 17, 1918; “The Passing of Muck,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 18, 1918.
108. “Dr. Karl Muck Arrested as Alien Enemy,” Boston Herald, March 26, 1918. Note the March 26, 1918, edition of the Boston Globe, the front page of which was filled with coverage of the story, under the headline, “U.S. Agents Arrest Muck.”
109. “Muck Arrest Most Important of War,” Boston Traveller, March 26, 1918. On the Bach performance, see “St. Matthew Passion Given in Entirety,” Boston Record, March 27, 1918; “J. S. Bach’s ‘Passion’ Performed,” Boston Post, March 27, 1918; and obscured title, Boston Transcript, March 27, 1918. On his stay in the Federal Building, see “Muck Sent to Jail while Inquiry Is On,” New York Times, March 27, 1918.
110. “Dr. Karl Muck Taken to the Jail at East Cambridge,” Boston Globe, March 27, 1918.
111. “Muck Broken by Jail Life,” Boston Herald, April 2, 1918. Note “Seize Papers Belonging to Dr. Karl Muck,” Ibid., March 27, 1918; “Dokter Muck’s Papers Imperil German Friends,” New York Herald, March 28, 1918.
112. The Department of Justice said his arrest was approved “on the ground that his presence at large was a danger to the peace and safety of the country.” “Approved Muck’s Arrest,” New York Times, March 29, 1918.
113. “Accepts Muck Resignation,” Boston Traveller, March 30, 1918; “Dr. Muck in Jail, His Resignation is Finally Accepted,” Musical America (April 6, 1918): 1.
114. “Dr. Muck Interned,” Boston Globe, April 6, 1918; “Dr. Muck to Be Interned Today,” Boston Herald, April 6, 1918; “Muck on Way to Fort Oglethorpe,” Boston Globe, April 7, 1918; “Doktor Karl Muck Ordered Sent to Internment Camp,” New York Herald, April 6, 1918. Note “To Intern Muck in South,” Boston American, March 26, 1918; “Internment at Oglethorpe for Muck,” Ibid., March 27, 1918.
115. “Dr. Muck, Citizen of Switzerland,” New York Times, December 8, 1917.
116. “Dr. Karl Muck, Switzer,” Musical America (December 15, 1917): 24. See “Says Muck Is Swiss Citizen, Not German,” Ibid., 2.
117. On Muck’s citizenship, see “Calls on Dr. Muck for Proof That He Is Swiss Citizen,” New York Evening World, March 14, 1918; “Muck Plays Here, Guarded by Police,” New York Times, March 15, 1918; “Swiss Minister Will Take Up Case, If Asked,” Boston Globe, March 27, 1918; “Dr. Muck Is Citizen of Switzerland,” Boston Post, March 27, 1918; “Swiss Query on Dr. Muck,” Washington Post, April 8, 1918.
118. “Swiss Reject Muck’s Claim,” Boston Herald, April 25, 1918. Note “Deny Dr. Muck Is Citizen of Switzerland,” Boston Advertiser, April 10, 1918; and “Trying to Prove Dr. Muck Is Not a Swiss,” Boston Globe, April 10, 1918.
119. “Muck’s ‘Citizenship’,” Boston Record, April 25, 1918.
120. On Muck’s questionable activities, covered widely, see “Charge Muck Sent Money to Germany,” Boston Record, March 26, 1918; “Scrutinizing Muck Papers,” Boston Post, March 29, 1918; “See Move to Seize Muck’s Properties,” Boston Globe, March 29, 1918; “Muck’s Arrest Leads to Talk of Wireless,” Boston America, March 29, 1918; “Muck Had Wireless Station, Is Rumor,” Baltimore Sun, March 29, 1918; “Try to Link Muck with Propaganda,” New York World, April 1, 1918; “Muck Seizure Brings Wide Plot to Light,” New York Telegram, date unclear (late March or early April), Clipping file, Pres 56, BSOA.
121. Discussed in Bowles, 405–439.
122. Apparently, Higginson had made the decision in February 1918. M. A. DeWolfe Howe, The Boston Symphony Orchestra, 137–39.
123. “Major Higginson Bids Touching Farewell to Boston Symphony,” Musical Courier (May 9, 1918): 26. Note “Major Higginson Quits Symphony,” Boston Herald, April 28, 1918; “Major Higginson to Give Up Orchestra,” Boston Globe, April 28, 1918.
124. On the dismissals and the French replacements, see “Boston Symphony Ousts 18 Players as Enemy Aliens,” Musical America (June 29, 1918): 1; “Symphony Gets Five from French Band,” Boston Globe, June 22, 1918; “Symphony Drops Huns,” Boston American, June 22, 1918. Note “Symphony Proves Patriotism, Discharges Germans; Hires French,” Boston Post, June 30, 1918; “Rebuilding the Boston Symphony,” Musical Leader, May 2, 1918; “Advice to Boston Symphony Trustees and Others,” Musical America (June 29, 1918): 36; and “Music World Agog over Question of Muck’s Successor,” Musical America (April 27, 1918): 1.
125. On the premiere of Le Sacre du Printemps, see Thomas Forrest Kelly, First Nights: Five Musical Premieres (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), ch. 5.
126. “German Music Announced by the Boston Symphony,” Musical Courier (October 3, 1918): 3; and “Monteux Will Not Taboo the Works of German Masters,” Musical America (October 5, 1918): 2.
127. Ibid.
128. On Monteux, see “Symphony Orchestra Resumes in Triumph,” Boston Globe, October 26, 1918. Note “Boston Symphony Orchestra in Victory Concert,” New York Sun, November 8, 1918.
129. “Symphony Orchestra Resumes in Triumph,” Boston Globe, October 26, 1918.
130. “A Ballad of Boston,” Musical Courier (September 19, 1918): 23.
131. For the New York interview, see “Older Composers German, Not Boches,” Boston Globe, October 29, 1918. For Paris, see “Proud to Conduct Boston Musicians, Says Mr. Rabaud,” New York Herald, October 12, 1918. Note “Rabaud Succeeds Muck in Boston Symphony,” New York Times, October 5, 1918.
132. On Rabaud’s selection, see “Americans Not Wanted,” Musical America (October 12, 1918): 18; and “Mephisto’s Musings,” Ibid. (October 19, 1918): 13.
133. “Will Play Best Music of Germany,” Boston Post, October 30, 1918. On the same date, note “Wagner’s Works Barred in Boston,” Boston Globe; and “New Symphony Conductor Here,” Boston Herald.
134. “When Grim War Ceases,” Musical Courier (October 18, 1917): 20.
135. “The German Myth,” Musical America (October 19, 1918): 1–3. Note the subheadings: “How the Doctrine of World Domination for the Benefit of Humanity Was Propagated”; “The Germans Lacking in Inventive Genius”; “The State Supreme—the Individual Nothing”; “Germany’s False Claim for Supremacy in the Musical Industries”; “Germany’s Moral Degradation.”
136. “ ‘The German Myth’,” Musical America (November 9, 1918): 33. Note “German Propaganda in Music,” a letter from an Ohioan in the same issue, 32.
137. In 1917 and 1918, Musical America and the Musical Courier pondered the war’s effect on classical music. They considered the extent to which the United States, after the war, would no longer occupy an inferior musical position vis-a-vis Europe. See website.
138. On the source of the false espionage charges leveled against Muck, see “The Muck Affair,” Boston Globe Magazine (November 5, 2017): 16–29. According to this well-researched article, the stories about Muck’s treacherous activities were fabrications provided to an editor of the Providence Journal by British intelligence sources engaged in an anti-German propaganda campaign. See also Gayle Kathryn Turk, “The Case of Dr. Karl Muck: Anti-German Hysteria and Enemy Alien Internment during World War I” (Harvard University undergraduate thesis, 1994).
Chapter Three: “There Is No Visible Relationship between a Wagner Opera and a Submarine”: From Manhattan Riots to Wagner’s Piano
1. “Opera Season Ushered in on ‘Victory Night,” Musical America (November 16, 1918): 1.
2. Ibid. Note “Mephisto’s Musings” in Ibid., 7. The Musical Courier praised the company and its director Gatti-Casazza for his wartime skill. See “Brilliant ‘Samson’ Commences Metropolitan Opera Season,” Musical Courier (November 14, 1918): 3; and “New Baritone Features Joyous Opening of Season in ‘Samson and Dalila,’ ” New York Tribune, November 12, 1918.
3. See “Millions Join in ‘Victory Sing’ on Thanksgiving Day,” Musical America (December 7, 1918): 1–2.
4. Musical Courier (December 3, 1918): 3.
5. “German Music or Not?—‘That Is the Question,’ ” Musical America (December 18, 1918): 24.
6. “Prof. Phelps Praises Musical Alliance,” Ibid. (November 30, 1918): 15.
7. “Wants German Music Again,” Ibid. (November 23, 1918): 9. A piece in a Minneapolis literary magazine criticized the “virtual exclusion” of all German music from the nation’s concert halls and opera houses. See “German Music Once More,” The Bellman (December 28, 1918): 708.
8. “The Victory Sing and Some Other Singers,” New York Herald, December 1, 1918. Note De Koven, “Are American Audiences Ready Again for Wagner?,” Ibid., January 12, 1919.
9. “German Music’s Return,” Los Angeles Times, November 17, 1918. Note “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (November 30, 1918): 7; and “What Should the Policy of the Alliance Be with Regard to German Music and Musicians of the Future?” Ibid. (November 23, 1918): 20.
10. “Auspicious Opening of Symphony Concert Season, Cincinnati Commercial Tribune, November 23, 1918. Note “Ysaÿe Assumes Musical Reins,” Cincinnati Enquirer, Ibid.; and “Brilliant Concert at Opening of Symphony Season,” Cincinnati Times-Star, Ibid. Note a nationalistic episode in Philadelphia. See “A Peace Celebration,” Musical Courier (November 28, 1918): 22.
11. “Cordial Welcome for Rabaud in New York Debut,” Musical America (December 14, 1918): 1.
12. “Philharmonic Plays Wagner as Wounded Return from before the ‘Siegfried’ Line,” New York Herald, December 20, 1918. De Koven asserted when Wagner returned to the Met, the operas should be sung in English. See “Comment and Criticism: ‘Oberon,’ Von Weber and German Music,” Ibid., December 22, 1918.
13. “Pittsburgh Enjoys French Orchestra,” Musical Courier (January 9, 1919): 31. Note “Parisian Musicians Please Big Audience,” Pittsburg Dispatch, January 2, 1919; “Paris Orchestra Pleases Audience,” Pittsburgh Press, January 2, 1919. In February, Leopold Stokowski led the Philadelphia Orchestra in Beethoven’s Fifth. See “Stokowski Concerts Delight Pittsburgh,” Musical America (March 1, 1919): 45.
14. “Detroit Visited by Damrosch Forces,” Musical America (January 25, 1919): 34. The audience comprised many soldiers. “Damrosch Gives Drab Reading of Symphony,” Detroit News, January 15, 1919. Damrosch next offered a Baltimore audience the chance to experience Wagner.
15. “Need Stokowski Bar Wagner Any Longer? Asks Philadelphia Critic,” Musical America (January 11, 1919): 33.
16. “Philadelphia Enthusiastic over Restoration of Wagner’s Music,” Musical America (February 1, 1919): 30. When Stokowski conducted excerpts from the Ring, with Margaret Matzenauer singing in English, the response was thunderous. See “Stirring Welcome for Return of ‘Ring’ to Philadelphia,” Musical America (November 22, 1919): 33. See also “Philadelphia Cheers Return of Wagner,” Ibid. (March 20, 1920): 22.
17. “Let Us Have German Opera,” Musical America (July 26, 1919): 24. Note “U.S. Senators Say War Should Not Bias Americans against Great German Music,” Ibid.
18. “Advocates Open-Door Policy toward Music of Germany,” Musical America (August 16, 1919): 26.
19. “A Plea for German Music,” Musical America (August 23, 1919): 19.
20. “Need Nourishment of Greatest of All Music,” Musical America (August 2, 1919): 34. Note “Music Propaganda, French and German,” Musical Courier (April 10, 1919): 12.
21. “Blamed for Singing in German Songs She Gave in Norwegian,” Musical America (July 26, 1919): 36. Note “Facts and Fancies,” Ibid. (August 16, 1919): 20.
22. “No German Music—Lest We Forget,” New York Times, April 20, 1919. Another American singer, Amparito Farrar, claimed the Germans had used music during the war to advance their “wicked purposes.” See “Eliminate Singing in German Language, Urges Amparito Farrar,” Musical America (August 16, 1919): 18.
23. “Women Would Ban Kreisler,” Pittsburgh Daily Dispatch, November 7, 1917; “Police Close Pittsburgh to Fritz Kreisler,” Ibid., November 8, 1917; “Kreisler Concert Permit Is Refused,” Pittsburgh Post, November 8, 1917; “Statement Issued by Fritz Kreisler,” Pittsburgh Sun, November 8, 1917.
24. “Kreisler Defies Mob,” Musical America (December 20, 1919): 30.
25. On Louisville’s response: “Unabashed,” Louisville Courier-Journal, December 15, 1919. Kreisler was welcomed back to Carnegie Hall in October 1919. See “Fritz Kreisler” in Richard Aldrich, Concert Life in New York, 1902–1923 (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1971), 602–3.
26. “10-Minute Ovation for Fritz Kreisler,” Musical America (January 10, 1920): 27.
27. “Treat Them All Alike,” Musical Courier (November 27, 1919): 15. Kreisler’s return led to controversy over scheduled performances in Massachusetts.
28. “Pittsburgh Split on Kreisler’s Visit,” Musical America (January 17, 1920): 30.
29. “Kreisler, McCormack and Cortot Make Pittsburgh’s Week Thrice Notable,” Musical America (January 20, 1920): 43.
30. “Kreisler Gives All His Savings to Suffering European Children,” Musical Courier (August 28, 1920): 25; “Kreisler as Ambassador?,” Ibid. (December 3, 1921): 2.
31. “Rabaud Is Muck’s Superior,” Boston Post, March 16, 1919; and “Music,” Nation, December 14, 1918. Note “Wagner Still under Ban at Symphony Hall,” Boston Record, February 12, 1919. The Boston newspaper accounts cited in this chapter are from the Boston Symphony Clipping file, Pres 56, Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives, Symphony Hall, Boston, MA (BSOA).
32. “Wagner Still under Ban at Symphony Hall,” Boston Record, February 12, 1919. “News of Music,” Boston Transcript, February 12, 1919. Note “Bringing Back Wagner to Our Concerts,” Boston newspaper source unclear, early 1919.
33. M. A. DeWolfe Howe, The Boston Symphony Orchestra, 1881–1931 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 143–44.
34. “American Music Has Not Yet ‘Arrived,’ Declares New Leader of Boston Symphony,” Musical America (September 6, 1919): 16.
35. Ibid. Note “Intends to Give Music Asked For,” Boston Globe, August 26, 1919.
36. Boston Symphony Orchestra Program Books (1919–1920), 1778, BSOA.
37. “Karl Muck Tells Post His Plans,” Boston Post, June 25, 1919. Note “Dr. Muck Will Soon Sail Away for German Shores,” Boston Globe, June 29, 1919.
38. Account from “Muck Finally Bids Adieu to America,” Musical America (August 30, 1919): 5; and “Dr. Muck Bitter at Sailing,” New York Times, August 22, 1919.
39. “With the Orchestras,” New York Times, August 31, 1919.
40. The Boston Post series (found in the Boston Symphony Clipping file), which appeared on the front page, ran through much of November 1919. The headlines quoted here were published, respectively, on November 19, November 15, November 24, and November 22. For an excellent assessment of the Muck case, see Gayle Kathryn Turk, “The Case of Dr. Karl Muck: Anti-German Hysteria and Enemy Alien Internment during World War I” (Harvard University undergraduate thesis, 1994). Note, too, “The Muck Affair,” Boston Globe Magazine (November 5, 2017): 16–29. Both the Globe piece and the Turk thesis conclude that Muck was not a spy. See also ch. 2, n. 138 above.
41. On Muck’s supposedly nefarious secret meetings, which were almost certainly social encounters, see the following from the Boston Post: “Muck an Official Spy for Germany,” November 15, 1919; and “Dr. Muck Was Audacious in Use of Cipher,” November 17, 1919. On the seaside cottage, see Turk, 79, 44–45.
42. Quotations in Boston Post: “Loyalty Not in Makeup of Dr. Muck,” November 14, 1919; “Dr. Karl Muck Had Prussian Views Always,” November 16, 1919; “Muck an Official Spy for Germany,” November 15, 1919.
43. Quotations from “Muck Feared Scandal More Than Arrest,” Boston Post, November 12, 1919. On their elaborate arrangements, see “Muck Would Not Be Guided by His Friends,” Ibid., November 11, 1919.
44. “Muck Feared Scandal More Than Arrest,” Boston Post, November 12, 1919.
45. “Lest We Forget,” Boston Post, November 15, 1919. Note the Post’s November 27, 1919, letter, “Thanks Post for Exposing Dr. Muck.”
46. “Muck and Kunwald Freed by U.S. to Quit This Country,” Musical America (June 14, 1919): 8. This story claimed both had been released, but Muck would not be freed until later that summer.
47. “Variations,” Musical Courier (August 19, 1920): 25.
48. Ibid.
49. On Stock’s return, see “Meeting of the Executive Committee,” February 19, 1919, TOA-B-1, Rosenthal Archives, Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSOA), Orchestra Hall, Chicago. See “Stock Back to Wield Baton,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, February 23, 1919; “Big Welcome for Stock,” Chicago American, March 1, 1919; “Stock Again Wields Baton; Gets Ovation,” Chicago Post, March 1, 1919. On Stock’s composition, see Chicago Symphony Orchestra Programs, vol. 28 (1918–1919 Season): 338–39, CSOA. For a tepid assessment, see “The March of Democracy,” Chicago Herald and Examiner, March 5, 1919. Note that all Chicago newspaper accounts (through note 53) were found in the Rosenthal Archives Clipping file.
50. “Stock Again Wields Baton; Gets Ovation,” Chicago Post, March 1, 1919.
51. “Frederick Stock Is One of Us,” Musical Courier (March 20, 1919): 21.
52. “Frederick Stock, Orchestra Head, Now U.S. Citizen,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 23, 1919. Note a Department of Justice letter from the Special Assistant to the Attorney General for War Work to Stock, March 11, 1919, ART-1-1/22, CSOA.
53. “War Ban on Wagner Is Lifted; Polacco Proves as Dynamic in Concert as in Opera,” March 25, 1919, Chicago Herald and Examiner. See also “Polacco Leads Symphony,” Chicago Daily News, March 25, 1919.
54. Chicago Symphony Orchestra Programs, vol. 28 (1918–1919 Season) and Ibid., vol. 29 (1919–1920 Season). During the 1920–21 season, Strauss’s music would return to the Chicago repertoire. See Ibid., Vol. 30 (1920–1921 Season). See the CSOA for these records.
55. “Luring Lays of Lorelai Resound through Loop,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 12, 1919.
56. See “Tattle of the Tuneful,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 18, 1919.
57. See “Opera in English? Lohengrin Proves Quite Easy to Take,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 25, 1920. On Wagner in English, see “Music and the Musicians,” Ibid., December 26, 1920. On the performances by American singers in Die Walküre, see “American Singers Receive Ovation in ‘The Valkyrie’,” Ibid., January 11, 1921.
58. “Raisa and Van Gordon Add to Laurels in ‘Tannhäuser’ Revival,” Chicago Tribune, November 25, 1921. Note “Miss Garden Makes Good on Her Promise of a Big Year in Opera,” Ibid., December 11, 1921.
59. “Opera Wins New Triumphs in Parsifal,” Chicago Tribune, November 20, 1922.
60. “Mme. Gadski to Sing Here in German,” Chicago Tribune, November 7, 1921; and “Gadski Barred by Chicago Executive,” Musical America (December 10, 1921): 1.
61. On the lawsuit, see “Opera Company Sued by Gadski for $500,000,” Chicago Tribune, February 7, 1922; “Gadski Opens Suit for $500,000 Here,” New York Times, February 7, 1922; “Gadski Charges Denied,” Ibid., February 8, 1922; “Gadski Slander Suit Fails,” Ibid., March 14, 1922. Note an editorial in the Ft. Wayne Journal Gazette that argued Gadski should not be penalized because she was married to a German officer. See “Justice for Gadski,” Musical Courier (February 23, 1922): 20. Note “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (December 24, 1921): 7. On Tauscher, see “German Plotters Shut Out for Good,” New York Times, June 21, 1919.
62. For the Seattle recital, see “Prima Donna Sings Here Tonight,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, November 17, 1922; and “Gadski Gives Excellent Recital,” Ibid., November 18, 1922. On San Francisco, see “Madame Gadski Glad to Be Back in S.F.,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 23, 1922; and “Gadski Sings, Her Artistry Undiminished,” Ibid., November 25, 1922. For the Carnegie Hall concert, see “Music,” New York Times, October 31, 1921; and “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (November 12, 1921): 7. On the Washington concert, see “Concert of Gadski is Cancelled,” Los Angeles Times, November 19, 1922.
63. “Gadski in Defense of War Stand,” Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1922. In mid-November, it was announced by a local concert manager that the December recital would be cancelled due to “public prejudice” against Gadski. See “Concert of Gadski is Cancelled,” Los Angeles Times, November 19, 1922. Gadski attributed the cancellation to jealousy. See “Gadski, Accused, in Tears,” New York Times, November 21, 1922. Nevertheless, the recital remained on the calendar.
64. “Legion Men and Women Fight Diva,” Los Angeles Times, December 5, 1922.
65. “Legion Stands Pat on Gadski,” Ibid., December 6, 1922.
66. “Gadski Concert Row Unabated,” Ibid., December 7, 1922.
67. A telegram to the attorney general from the city’s Merchants’ and Manufacturers’ Association asked whether Gadski had had “any alliance with our enemies.” See “Gadski Row up to Daugherty,” Ibid., December 8, 1922.
68. “Gadski Fight Continues,” Ibid., December 9, 1922. Note “Officials Call Gadski Meet,” Ibid., December 10, 1922.
69. “Service Men Shift Blame,” Ibid., December 10, 1922.
70. Ibid. See also “Gadski Expects to Sing,” Ibid., December 11, 1922.
71. “Gadski Calls Concert Off,” Ibid., December 12, 1922.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. “Misdirected Patriotism,” Ibid., December 14, 1922. Note “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (December 16, 1922): 8.
75. “Cincinnati Pays Mighty Tribute of Music to War’s Heroic Dead,” Musical America (April 26, 1919): 46.
76. Information on repertoire for these years is from the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra Year Book (30th Season), published by the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra Association, Cincinnati Historical Society Library, Cincinnati, Ohio.
77. Information on the Boston Symphony’s repertoire can be found in the BSO Program Books for these years, BSOA.
78. “German Kultur Bobbing Up Again with a Theater,” New York Herald, January 17, 1919.
79. “Plethora of Grand Opera Imminent,” New York Herald, January 19, 1919.
80. “Patriotic Women Fight Proposal for German Opera,” New York Herald, January 19, 1919.
81. “Ask Hylan to Stop German Opera,” New York Times, March 8, 1919.
82. William Guthrie to Walter Damrosch, March 10, 1919, Biographical, W. D., 1, Damrosch Collection, Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Lincoln Center, New York (NYPLPA).
83. Walter Damrosch to William Guthrie, March 11, 1919, Ibid.
84. “Ask Hylan to Stop German Opera,” New York Times, March 8, 1919.
85. “Veterans to Fight Opera in German,” New York Times, March 10, 1919.
86. Ibid.
87. “Hylan Puts Stop to Opera in German,” New York Times, March 11, 1919.
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid. On the Lexington Theater saga, see “German Operetta Silenced in New York,” Literary Digest 60 (March 29, 1919): 28; “Public Resentment Frustrates Scheme for German Opera,” Musical America (March 15, 1919): 1. For an anti-German perspective, see “Mephisto’s Musings,” Ibid. (March 15, 1919): 7–8.
90. “Plan German Opera Here,” New York Times, July 17, 1919.
91. “Immodest Haste,” Musical America (July 26, 1919): 20. On the Star Opera plan, see “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (August 2, 1919): 7. Note “Marie Tiffany Wants to Know Why German Singers Remain in U.S.,” Musical America (July 26, 1919): 40.
92. “Star Opera Plans Told,” New York Times, September 14, 1919.
93. “Singer of German Silenced by Legion,” New York Times, September 24, 1919.
94. Ibid. On the episode, including the singer’s words, see “Legion Denounces Star Opera Plan,” Musical America (October 4, 1919): 28.
95. “Sees End to German Opera,” New York Times, September 25, 1919; “Sees No Need for German,” Ibid., September 29, 1919. For a Chicago perspective, see “Music and the Musicians,” Chicago Tribune, October 19, 1919.
96. “Variations,” Musical Courier (September 25, 1919): 21.
97. “Anti-German Opera Drive,” New York Times, October 16, 1919.
98. “Opera in German Given in Defiance of Hylan and Mob,” New York Times, October 21, 1919.
99. Ibid.
100. “Opera in German,” New York Times, October 22, 1919.
101. “Opera in German Opening Attended by Street Riots,” Musical America (October 25, 1919): 1. Note “Hearing on German Opera,” New York Times, October 20, 1919.
102. The story was emblazoned on the front pages of the nation’s newspapers the next day: “Riot Over Hun Opera,” Washington Post, October 21, 1919; “N.Y. Yanks Riot to Stop Opera Sung in German,” Chicago Tribune, Ibid.; “Service Men in Riot Over German Opera,” Boston Globe, Ibid.; “Opera in German Given in Defiance of Hylan and Mob,” New York Times, Ibid.
103. “Opera in German Given in Defiance of Hylan and Mob,” New York Times, October 21, 1919.
104. “Hylan Bars Opera; Legal Fight Begun,” New York Times, October 22, 1919.
105. “Hylan Bars Opera; Legal Fight Begun,” New York Times, October 22, 1919.
106. “Police Club Mob at German Opera; Sailor May Die,” New York Times, October 23, 1919. Note “German Opera Brings New Riot, Possibly Death,” Chicago Tribune, October 23, 1919; and “German Opera in German Given to Egg Obligato,” Musical Courier (October 23, 1919): 1.
107. “Give German Opera to Small House,” New York Times, October 24, 1919; “German Opera Sung Again,” Ibid., October 25, 1919.
108. “May Abandon Opera in German Tongue,” New York Times, October 26, 1919.
109. Ibid. Note letter to the editor: “German Opera? Not Yet,” Ibid., October 27, 1919.
110. “City Wins in Fight on German Opera,” New York Times, October 28, 1919.
111. Ibid.
112. “Drop German Opera Until Peace Comes,” New York Times, October 29, 1919. In late November, American Legion members prevented the North German Society of Queens and the Plattdeutsche Verein of Long Island City from offering a German-language operetta. See “German Opera Is Dropped,” Ibid., November 27, 1919.
113. “Star Opera Company Fails,” New York Times, November 25, 1919. Note “A Disgraceful Exhibition,” Musical America (November 1, 1919): 16; “German Opera under Difficulties,” Literary Digest (November 8, 1919): 30–31; “German Opera Dies,” Musical Courier (November 6, 1919): 22.
114. “The German ‘First Step’ in Music,” Literary Digest (July 5, 1919): 42. Note a letter from Edward Ziegler, the Metropolitan’s administrative secretary, to a patron, Adelaide Hamilton Gross, July 9, 1919, in which he assures her that Parsifal will not be sung in German the following season. Edward Ziegler correspondence, folder F-G-H, Metropolitan Opera Archives, Lincoln Center, New York City (MOA).
115. Richard Aldrich, Concert Life in New York, 1902–1923 (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1941), 621–24.
116. Quoted from W. J. Henderson’s review, cited by Irving Kolodin in The Metropolitan Opera, 1883–1966: A Candid History (New York: Knopf, 1967), 283. Note “ ‘Parsifal’ in Revival,” Musical Courier (February 26, 1920): 22–3; Herbert Peyser, “Wagner ‘Englished;’ An Appraisal of the H. E. Krehbiel Translation of ‘Parsifal’,” Musical America June 5, 1920): 38; and “Opera in English,” Nation (April 3, 1920): 437–38.
117. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (February 21, 1920): 7. Note “Musical America’s Open Forum,” Musical America (March 20, 1920): 26.
118. “The Opera,” New York Times, November 29, 1921. German was heard at the Met for the first time after the war at a concert performance on March 6, 1921, when the prize song from Die Meistersinger was sung by Johannes Sembach. It “hardly caused more than a ripple of surprise.” See “German Sung in Concert,” Ibid., March 7, 1921. The first opera sung in German at the Met after the war was Korngold’s Die Tote Stadt. See “Die Tote Stadt Fantastic Opera,” New York Times, November 20, 1921.
119. Reflections of the performance come from “The Opera,” New York Times, December 17, 1921; and “Die Walküre Returns Triumphant to Repertoire at Metropolitan,” Musical America (December 24, 1921): 6. Note “Wagner’s Die Walküre, Sung in Germany [sic] Makes Its Reappearance at the Metropolitan,” Musical Courier (December 22, 1921): 5.
120. On Parsifal’s return in German, see “Parsifal Reverts to Original Text at Metropolitan,” Musical America (December 16, 1922): 6. For another return in German, see “Siegfried Slays Dragon again at Metropolitan,” Ibid. (February 9, 1924): 27. On Clemenceau’s speech, see “Clemenceau Appeals to US for France; Sees Peril in German Militarists, Who May Destroy German Democracy,” New York Times, November 22, 1922.
121. On the tour, see “German Opera Company to Tour U.S. 14 Weeks,” Chicago Tribune, August 15, 1922; “Wagner ‘Ring’ Revival for the Manhattan,” New York Times, September 9, 1922; “German Opera Season for New York,” Musical Courier (September 14, 1922): 19; “Berlin Company to Stage ‘Ring,’ without Cuts, in New York Visit,” Musical America (September 16, 1922): 1. Press reports often called the group the German Opera Company.
122. “New York Hears the ‘Merry Wives’ in Last Week of German Opera,” Musical America (April 7, 1923): 6.
123. “With Coming of Wagner Singers, New York Revels in Double Opera,” Ibid. (February 17, 1923): 1.
124. “Variationettes,” Musical Courier (April 5, 1923): 22. Musical America and the Musical Courier assessed the performances over many weeks. Note “Wagner Restored,” Musical America (April 7, 1923): 26.
125. “Tour of German Opera Starts in Baltimore with Record Crowds,” Musical America (February 10, 1923): 1.
126. “Variationettes,” Musical Courier (April 12, 1923): 21. Note “German Opera Company Opens Boston Season,” Ibid., 5; and “Enthusiasm Marks Closing Week of German Opera Season in Boston,” Ibid. (April 19, 1923): 25.
127. Data compiled from program materials in the New York Philharmonic Archives, 1917–1924. For Damrosch’s perspective on performing Wagner’s instrumental excerpts, see his communication with Reginald De Koven, quoted by De Koven in his column. “Music,” New York Herald, January 26, 1919.
128. “Want No Wagner Here, Even under Japanese Baton,” New York Herald, January 24, 1919.
129. “Japanese Plays Wagner; Declares Empress Approves,” Ibid., January 25, 1919.
130. “Mrs. Jay Quits,” New York Times, July 3, 1919.
131. “Time to Lift the Bans,” Ibid., July 4, 1919.
132. Whether the German language should be heard in vocal recitals was considered in 1920 by Musical America. The article generated letters from readers. See “Discuss Return of German Tongue to Recital Stage,” Musical America (September 18, 1920): 1. For the letters, see the “Open Forum” page on the following dates in 1920: September 25: 26; October 23: 244; October 30: 38; November 6: 30; November 13: 30.
133. “Rheingold Discussed by Walter Damrosch,” Musical America (October 22, 1921): 99. Note “Variationettes,” Musical Courier (October 20, 1921): 21.
134. Subscriber (illegible name) to Richard Welling of the Symphony Society, May 4, 1922, Biographical, W. D., 1, Damrosch Collection, NYPLPA.
135. See “Richard Strauss Coming,” New York Times, May 2, 1921; and “The Return of Richard Strauss,” Ibid., May 29, 1921, which was critical of Strauss’ earlier visit. Note the full-page Musical Courier ad (May 12, 1923): 9.
136. “Richard Strauss Speaks His Mind about America,” New York Tribune, August 28, 1921. Note “ ‘Intermezzo’ and Herr Richard Strauss,” New York Times, August 1, 1921.
137. “Richard Strauss Denies He Aspersed America,” New York Tribune, September 11, 1921. Oswald Garrison Villard, editor of the Nation, stood behind the interview. See “Strauss to Visit America,” New York Times, September 16, 1921. Note “Herr Strauss Is Annoyed, But Not at Our Dollars,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 4, 1921.
138. “Strauss Says Art Must Be Happier,” New York Times, October 29, 1921.
139. “Music,” New York Times, November 1, 1921. Note “Richard Strauss Again Conquers Musical New York,” Musical Courier (November 3, 1921): 5.
140. “Why Welcome Strauss,” New York Tribune, October 28, 1921. Critical letter was from Mrs. James Roosevelt, married to a cousin of Theodore Roosevelt. A response the next day (“Why?”) claimed this was a way for Hylan to garner the German-American vote.
141. “Strauss Is Guest at City Hall,” New York Times, November 1, 1921. Note “Strauss, Welcomed to City by Hylan, Replies in German,” New York Tribune, November 1, 1921.
142. “Music,” New York Times, December 28, 1921.
143. “Variationettes,” Musical Courier (December 8, 1921): 21. Note “Music,” New York Times, November 16, 1921; Ibid., December 14, 1921; “Strauss Again Dominates N.Y. Orchestral Week,” Musical America (December 24, 1921): 33.
144. “Strauss Given Welcome Here Only as Artist,” New York Tribune, November 1, 1921.
145. “German Art and Artists and Unfettered Criticism,” New York Tribune, November 20, 1921. For additional Krehbiel reviews in the Tribune, see “German Audience Fills Metropolitan to Hear Strauss,” November 16, 1921; and “Slender Audience Hears Strauss in Town Hall Benefit,” November 19, 1921. Note additional Tribune pieces: “The Late Camille Saint-Saëns and His Visit to United States,” January 8, 1922; and “German Art, German Artists and the Tribune’s Creed,” November 13, 1921.
146. “Music and Musicians,” Boston Daily Globe, November 6, 1921.
147. “Strauss Back After 16 Years’ Absence,” Ibid., November 14, 1921.
148. “Pittsburgh Hails Richard Strauss,” Musical America (November 26, 1921): 45; “Strauss Lauded in Baltimore Recital,” Ibid. (November 19, 1921): 53; Indianapolis Hails Strauss Programs,” Ibid. (December 10, 1921): 40; “Strauss Lauded in Milwaukee Program,” Ibid. (December 24, 1921): 39; “Strauss in Concert Program Shares Interest with St. Louis Symphony,” Ibid. (December 10, 1921): 2.
149. “Strauss Welcomed in Philadelphia,” Musical America (November 12, 1921): 39.
150. “Strauss Accorded Honors in Detroit,” Ibid. (November 19, 1921): 8.
151. “Richard Strauss Has Better Luck in Second Visit,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 19, 1921. Note “Richard Strauss Here; Sees Loop as Music Theme,” Chicago Daily Tribune, November 6, 1921.
152. “Second Strauss Concert in Chicago Attracts Much Larger Audience,” Musical Courier (December 29, 1921): 5. Note “Strauss Leads Chicago Symphony in Stirring Program of His Own Works,” Musical America (December 31, 1921): 24.
153. “Strauss Receives Ovation in Adieu,” Musical America (January 7, 1922): 4. Note “Farewell to Dr. Strauss,” New York Times, January 8, 1922.
154. “Strauss Receives Ovation in Adieu,” Musical America (January 7, 1922): 4. Later, he described the orchestras of Philadelphia and Chicago as “splendid.” “Bearing the Richard in His Den,” Musical Courier (August 10, 1922): 5.
155. “Richard Strauss,” Musical America (November 5, 1921): 24. The press reported that Strauss earned $50,000 during the trip. Among those who saw him off were local representatives of the federal government, who collected $8,000 in income tax. “Strauss Closes Second Tour Here,” New York Times, January 2, 1922.
156. “Siegfried Wagner Here for $200,000,” New York Times, January 28, 1924.
157. “Chicago Tenders Siegfried Wagner a Testimonial Reception and Luncheon,” Musical Courier (February 28, 1924): 34.
158. “To the Musicians of America!,” Musical Courier (January 18, 1923): 37. Note “Fund to Aid European Musicians,” Music Trade Review (February 3, 1923): 20.
159. “Wagner’s Piano Shown,” New York Times, December 22, 1922; “American Debut of Wagner’s Piano,” Presto (December 30, 1922): 6.
160. Descriptions from “Wagner’s Piano Shown,” New York Times, December 22, 1922; “American Debut of Wagner’s Piano,” Presto (December 30, 1922): 6. Note “Richard Wagner’s Famous Piano Coming to America,” Musical Courier (May 18, 1922): 24–25.
161. “Nationalism Again,” Musical Courier (March 17, 1921): 22.
Chapter Four: “I Want to Teach a Lesson to Those Ill-Bred Nazis”: Toscanini, Furtwängler, and Hitler
1. Cable quotation from “Eyes of Musicians Turned to New Regime in Germany,” Musical America (April 10, 1933): 10. Leading newspapers across the country (e.g., in New York, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia) published the cable on April 2, 1933. The cable was also signed by conductors Serge Koussevitzky, Ossip Gabrilowitsch, Artur Bodanzky, Walter Damrosch, Alfred Hertz, and Fritz Reiner; music educator Frank Damrosch; pianist Harold Bauer; and composers Charles Loeffler and Rubin Goldmark. Of the eleven signatories, only Goldmark was American-born; several were of German ancestry.
2. Program annotations by Lawrence Gilman for the New York Philharmonic, April 2, 1933, New York Philharmonic Archives (hereafter NYPA), Lincoln Center, New York. On Beethoven’s view of Napoleon, see Maynard Solomon, Beethoven (New York: Schirmer, 1998; orig. 1977), 173–85.
3. “Toscanini Directs ‘Eroica’ at Philharmonic’s Second Concert of Beethoven Cycle,” New York Times, April 3, 1933.
4. Ibid.
5. “Eyes of Musicians Turned to New Regime in Germany,” Musical America (April 10, 1933): 10.
6. John Diggins, Mussolini and Fascism: The View from America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972); and Benjamin Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 17–20.
7. For polling data, see Michaela Hoenicke Moore, Know Your Enemy: The American Debate on Nazism, 1933–1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 75–77. On America’s unwillingness to become involved in world affairs in this period, see Manfred Jonas, Isolationism in America, 1935–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1966).
8. Deborah Lipstadt, Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (New York: Free Press, 1986), chs. 1–2; and Moore, ch. 2.
9. “Music Leaders Here Plead for German Artists,” New York Herald Tribune, April 2, 1933; “Nazis to Control All Cultural Life,” New York Times, April 9, 1933; “Germany’s Art Must Be ‘Aggressive’—Goebbels,” Boston Globe, April 11, 1933; “Changes in German Musical Life,” New York Times, April 16, 1933.
10. “Busch Forced from Dresden Opera,” Musical America (March 10, 1933): 4; “Dresden Nazis Oust Busch,” Musical Courier (April 1, 1933): 5. One report claimed that Hitler tried and failed to intercede on Busch’s behalf. “Fritz Busch Not to Be Reinstated,” Ibid. (April 29, 1933): 5. Note “Hitlerites’ Jeers Drive Conductor from Opera,” New York Herald Tribune, March 8, 1933; “Nazis Break Up Busch ‘Rigoletto’ Performance,” Washington Post, March 8, 1933; “One Dies in Attack on Funeral of Nazi,” New York Times, March 8, 1933; “Take Up Case of Opera Head,” New York Times, March 9, 1933. See Michael H. Kater, The Twisted Muse: Musicians and Their Music in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 120–22. Busch also ran afoul of local Nazi politicians who wanted to cut the state opera’s budget.
11. Descriptions from Musical America (March 10, 1933): 6: “Bayreuth to Show Wagner Souvenirs”; “Wagner’s Germany Stands to Salute the Master”; “Leipzig Honors Anniversary of Illustrious Son.” Note “All Reich Honors Wagner in Leipzig,” New York Times, February 13, 1933.
12. “Art before Politics: The Crying Need for Tolerance in Germany’s Music,” Musical America (March 10, 1933): 16; “Wagner Celebrations in Germany,” Musical Courier (March 11, 1933): 5.
13. Among those who came to the United States were Maurice Abravanel, Adolf Busch, Paul Hindemith, Otto Klemperer, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Lotte Lehmann, Erich Leinsdorf, Arnold Schoenberg, Artur Schnabel, Rudolf Serkin, Franz Shreker, William Steinberg, George Szell, Bruno Walter, and Kurt Weill. See Peter Gay, “ ‘We Miss Our Jews’: The Musical Migration from Nazi Germany,” in Driven into Paradise: The Musical Migration from Nazi Germany to the United States, Reinhold Brinkmann and Christoph Wolff, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 21–30; and David Josephson, “The Exile of European Music: Documentation of Upheaval and Immigration in the New York Times,” in Ibid., 92–152. Note Joseph Horowitz’s fascinating study, Artists in Exile: How Refugees from Twentieth-Century War and Revolution Transformed the American Performing Arts (New York: Harper, 2008), esp. ch. 2.
14. “Bruno Walter Concert Barred by Nazi Anti-Semite Campaign,” New York Herald Tribune, March 17, 1933; “Bruno Walter Concert Prohibited by Nazis,” Baltimore Sun, March 17, 1933; “Ban Concert at Leipzig,” Chicago Tribune, March 17, 1933; “Nazis Bar Concert by Bruno Walter,” New York Times, March 17, 1933; “Germany Bars Walter from Orchestra Podium,” Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1933; “Race-Bars Rise in Fatherland,” Los Angeles Times, March 18, 1933; “Nazis Press Policy of Racial Purging,” New York Times, March 18, 1933; “Vienna Hails Walter; Nazis Denounce Him,” New York Times, April 13, 1933. See Kater, 93–94, 114–16.
15. “Otto Klemperer Concert Banned by Anti-Semites,” New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1933; “Even Art Must Bend to Regulations,” Los Angeles Times, April 11, 1933; “Plea for Art Made by Furtwaengler,” New York Times, April 12, 1933; “German Jew Deprived of Leadership,” Christian Science Monitor, June 6, 1933; “Otto Klemperer Ousted as Jew at Berlin Opera,” New York Herald Tribune, June 7, 1933.
16. “Philharmonic’s New Leader Rated among Five Greatest,” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1933; and “Philharmonic’s Leader Arrives,” Los Angeles Times, October 15, 1933. Kater, 92–93, 112–14.
17. Norman Lebrecht notes Toscanini’s “fanatical” precision, while astutely pointing out that he made adjustments to the score when he thought it necessary. See The Life and Death of Classical Music (New York: Anchor, 2007), 16.
18. On the Verdi performances, see Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: A Social History of American Concert Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 53. On Toscanini’s background and early career, see Harvey Sachs, Toscanini (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), chs. 1–2. In 2017, Sachs published a second, quite extraordinary biography: Toscanini, Musician of Conscience (New York: Liveright, 2017). I identify the relevant references as Sachs (1987) and Sachs (2017). On the early years, see Sachs (2017): chs. 1–3.
19. In the Herald Tribune, Lawrence Gilman was enthusiastic. Reviews quoted in Horowitz, 99. Some were less laudatory. Ibid., 100.
20. Recollections from Cesare Civetta, The Real Toscanini: Musicians Reveal the Maestro (Milwaukee: Amadeus Press, 2012), 20, 25 (Glantz); 156 (Shulman); 208 (Berv).
21. Sachs (1987), 135–36; Sachs (2017), 311–15; and Horowitz, 82–83. Note “Toscanini,” New York Times, September 4, 1917.
22. Sachs (1987), 139–40.
23. Norman Rich writes that the party initially combined socialistic and nationalistic elements. See Great Power Diplomacy since 1914 (New York: McGraw Hill, 2003), 166.
24. Sachs (1987), 139–40; Sachs (2017), 327–28.
25. Sachs (1987), 154–55; Sachs (2017), 369–70.
26. Quoted in Sachs (1987), 154.
27. Sachs (1987), 179, discusses a 1926 confrontation between Toscanini and Mussolini. Tensions with the fascists arose in Italy during Toscanini’s 1930 European tour with the New York Philharmonic. Sachs, Reflections on Toscanini (Rocklin, CA: Prima, 1993), 67–68; and Sachs (2017), 478–79.
28. Description based on Sachs (1987), Toscanini, 208–15; and Sachs, Reflections on Toscanini, 68–82. See Sachs (2017), 506–8.
29. Sachs (1987), Toscanini, 209–10; and Sachs, Reflections, 68–70; and from the following newspaper accounts: “Italian Youths Trounce Toscanini for Refusal to Play Fascist Hymn,” New York Herald Tribune, May 15, 1931; “Toscanini Assailed,” New York Sun, May 19, 1931; “Slap Toscanini; Refuses to Play Fascist Anthem,” Chicago Tribune, May 16, 1931; “Toscanini, Hurt in Row, Cannot Lead Vienna, New York Times, May 16, 1931; “Censure for Toscanini Voted by Italian Professional Groups,” Ibid., May 19, 1931. Note “A Cultural Reign of Terror,” Boston Globe, May 16, 1931.
30. Sachs (1987), 209–10; Sachs, Reflections, 68–70. Note the following accounts, and those cited below: “Toscanini Faces Fascist Discipline,” New York Post, May 21, 1931; “Detaining Toscanini,” Ibid., May 22, 1931; “Toscanini Plans to Conduct at Bayreuth in July,” New York Herald Tribune, May 23, 1931.
31. In addition to the press accounts cited above, see “20 Arrested in Milan, Cheering Toscanini,” New York Times, May 20, 1931; “Toscanini Held in Milan, Passport Taken; Koussevitzky Cancels Contract in Protest,” New York Times, May 22, 1931; “Toscanini Has to Cancel Vienna Engagement; Pleads ‘Illness,’ but Is Still Held by Fascisti,” Ibid., May 23, 1931; “Toscanini Refuses to See Any Callers,” Ibid., May 24, 1931; “Footnotes on a Week’s Headlines, Ibid.; “Friends of Toscanini Arrested,” Los Angeles Times, May 20, 1931; “Toscanini Loses His Passport,” Ibid., May 22, 1931; “Hold Toscanini ‘Prisoner’; Italy Seizes Passport,” Chicago Tribune, May 22, 1931. Additional accounts from Baltimore, San Francisco, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Boston on website.
32. Toscanini letter reprinted in Sachs, Reflections, 70–71, which is where the Mussolini quotes appear. Note Sachs (2017), 508–9. See “Toscanini Writes Appeal to Duce; Still ‘Prisoner’,” Chicago Tribune, May 23, 1931; “Duce Handling Toscanini Row,” Los Angeles Times, May 27, 1931; “Mussolini Handling Toscanini Affair,” New York Times, May 27, 1931.
33. “Toscanini Incident Resented by Labor,” New York Times, June 12, 1931. Dewey taught at Columbia, Taussig at Harvard, and Lovett at the University of Chicago.
34. “Toscanini Held in Milan, Passport Taken; Koussevitzky Cancels Contract in Protest,” New York Times, May 22, 1931. Note “Koussevitzky Shuns Italy after Toscanini Affront,” New York Herald Tribune, May 26, 1931.
35. “Koussevitzky Sees Italy’s Doors Closed to Him; Links Fascisti and Red in ‘Crimes’ against Art,” New York Times, May 31, 1931.
36. “Detroit Conductor Declines to Lead Italian Concerts,” Chicago Tribune, May 29, 1931. Note “Gabrilowitsch Refuses to Lead Concerts in Italy,” Baltimore Sun, Ibid.; “Gabrilowitsch Refuses to Conduct in Italy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, Ibid; and “Praises Toscanini as Man of Courage,” New York Times, June 11, 1931 (by Gabrilowitsch). It appeared as “Toscanini Tells His Story” in the Boston Globe, June 15, 1931.
37. “Stokowski Reproves Italy for Toscanini Treatment,” New York Herald Tribune, June 3, 1931; “Attack on Toscanini by Fascisti Stirs Art World,” Musical America (June 1931): 5. Note “Stokowski Protests Slapping of Toscanini,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 3, 1931.
38. “Attack on Toscanini by Fascisti Stirs Art World,” Musical America (June 1931): 5. On the Bartók statement, see Sachs (1987), 215; Sachs (2017), 511–12.
39. On Toscanini’s departure for Switzerland, see “Toscanini in Retreat, Wears Haggard Look; Fascist Attack on Him Called an Ambush,” New York Times, June 15, 1931; “Toscanini to Quit Italy,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 4, 1931; “Toscanini Leaves Italy,” Los Angeles Times, June 28, 1931. On Bayreuth, “Toscanini Expects to Be at Bayreuth,” New York Post, May 23, 1931; “Toscanini Has Passport; Will Go to Bayreuth,” New York Herald Tribune, May 29, 1931; “Toscanini Going to Bayreuth,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, June 4, 1931.
40. “Disciplining Toscanini,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 25, 1931. A reader took issue with the editorial. “Toscanini’s Refusal to Play,” Ibid., May 30, 1931.
41. “Toscanini in Retreat, Wears Haggard Look; Fascist Attack on Him Called an Ambush,” New York Times, June 15, 1931.
42. “Again Toscanini Battles for His Art,” New York Times Magazine (June 21, 1931): 3. Fritz Reiner, former music director of the Cincinnati Symphony, who was conducting a symphonic concert at La Scala, acceded to the crowd’s demands; they insisted he conduct the Royal March and “Giovanezza.” “Toscanini on June 15 Leaves for Baireuth,” New York Times, June 4, 1931; and “Echoes of Toscanini Affair,” Ibid., June 21, 1931.
43. “Toscanini Heads Protest to Hitler,” New York Times, April 2, 1933; “Music Leaders Here Plead for German Artists,” New York Herald Tribune, April 2, 1933.
44. “Toscanini Heads Protest to Hitler,” New York Times, April 2, 1933.
45. “Toscanini Heads Protest to Hitler,” New York Times, April 2, 1933.
46. Sachs, Reflections, 118; Sachs (2017), 544–45.
47. “Toscanini’s Appeal Brings Ban by Nazis,” New York Times, April 5, 1933; “German Radio Boycotts Toscanini Recordings,” New York Herald Tribune, April 5, 1933; “Germany Rules Toscanini and Others off the Air,” Boston Globe, April 5, 1933; “Nazis’ Boycott Not to Reopen,” Los Angeles Times, April 5, 1933.
48. “Kreisler Deplores Plea to Toscanini,” New York Times, April 5, 1933. Note “Above the Battle,” Boston Globe, April 7, 1933.
49. “Kreisler Deplores Plea to Toscanini,” New York Times, April 5, 1933. Note “Kreisler Opposes Toscanini Action,” New York Post, April 5, 1933; “Kreisler Urges Toscanini Make Bayreuth Visit,” New York Herald Tribune, April 5, 1933.
50. “Insists Toscanini Will Go to Reich,” New York Times, April 9, 1933.
51. “Toscanini’s Appeal Brings Ban by Nazis,” New York Times, April 5, 1933. Dr. Richard Lynch of the New York Unity Society argued Toscanini should go to Bayreuth. “Toscanini Urged to Conduct at Baireuth [sic] for Good-Will,” New York Times, April 10, 1933.
52. Toscanini to Hitler, April 29, 1933, in The Letters of Arturo Toscanini, Harvey Sachs. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 138.
53. Toscanini to Bayreuth, May 5, 1933, in Ibid.
54. “Wagner’s Birthday Celebrated by Nazis,” New York Times, May 23, 1933.
55. “Toscanini Denies Rumors of Illness,” New York Times, October 7, 1931; “Frau Wagner Decries Politics at Beireuth,” New York Times, October 18, 1931.
56. “Toscanini Cancels Bayreuth Visit over Nazi Persecution of Jews,” New York Herald Tribune, June 6, 1933; “Toscanini Refuses to Go to Bayreuth,” New York Times, Ibid.; “Toscanini Refuses to Conduct Wagnerian Festival at Bayreuth,” Baltimore Sun, Ibid.; “Toscanini’s Refusal Disappoints Germans,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 7, 1933; “Strauss Will Conduct at Wagner Festival,” Boston Globe, June 8, 1933. Toscanini cabled the contents of the telegram to Frau Wagner to the New York Philharmonic from Florence. “Activities of Musicians Here and Afield,” New York Times, June 11, 1933.
57. “Toscanini Stays Away,” Baltimore Sun, June 7, 1933. New York Herald Tribune quoted in “Toscanini Forsakes Bayreuth,” Literary Digest (June 24, 1933): 16. “Toscanini’s Decision,” letters page, New York Herald Tribune, June 10, 1933.
58. “Maestro Toscanini’s Protest,” Philadelphia Inquirer, June 7, 1933.
59. “Snub by Toscanini Worries Germans,” New York Times, June 8, 1933. Americans read about the German decision to lift the ban on Toscanini’s recordings (although only his recordings would be played), which indicated a willingness to ease the sanctions that were originally imposed on those who had cabled Hitler. Once the conductor announced he would not perform at Bayreuth, the ban was reinstated. “Snub by Toscanini Worries Germans,” New York Times, June 8, 1933; “Germany Lifts Toscanini Ban,” Los Angeles Times, June 8, 1933.
60. “Jews Pay Tribute to Toscanini Here,” New York Times, January 24, 1934. Note “Toscanini: Beloved Orchestral Tyrant Celebrates a Birthday,” News-week (March 31, 1934): 17–18; “Jewish National Fund to Honor Toscanini,” Boston Globe, June 7, 1933.
61. Sachs (1987), 243–45; Sachs (2017), 612–13.
62. “Arturo Toscanini’s Farewell,” New York Times, April 26, 1936; “Toscanini Cheered in Great Ovation,” Ibid., April 27, 1936; “Beethoven and Wagner Offered as Toscanini’s Parting Gesture,” Ibid., April 30, 1936; “Toscanini Admirers Storm Hall for His Farewell Concert Here,” Ibid., April 30, 1936; “Toscanini Receives Roosevelt Tribute,” Ibid., May 2, 1936.
63. Though written after the Furtwängler episode, note Olin Downes, “And after Toscanini—What?” North American Review (June 1936): 204–22.
64. On the Philharmonic’s decision: Executive Committee Meeting, February 12, 1936, Conductor file, Furtwängler, no. 16, NYPA; “Cables Interchanged between Mr. Triller and Dr. Furtwängler,” March 2, 1936, Ibid. Note Roger Allen, Wilhelm Furtwängler: Art and the Politics of the Unpolitical (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2018), chs. 1–4; and Sam Shirakawa, The Devil’s Music Master: The Controversial Life and Career of Wilhelm Furtwängler (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) chs. 1–3.
65. “Philharmonic Post for Furtwaengler,” New York Times, February 29, 1936. Note “Furtwaengler to Conduct Here,” New York Sun, February 29, 1936; “Furtwaengler Is to Direct Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid. For coverage across the country, see website.
66. Gunther Schuller, The Compleat Conductor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 84–85. Schuller also considers whether these distinctions are real or imagined. Joseph Horowitz is altogether illuminating on this. Understanding Toscanini, 363–68. The phrase “priestly aura” is from Norman Lebrecht, 20.
67. “Critics of ‘Nazi’ Plan to Boycott Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 1, 1936; “To Fight Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 9, 1936. Note “Orchestra Boycott Brews on Nazi Link,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1936; “Jews Oppose Nazi Leader of New York Symphony,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, March 1, 1936; “New York Group Formed to Oppose Furtwängler,” Baltimore Sun, March 9, 1936.
68. “Furtwaengler Is Queried on Nazism by N.Y. Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 9, 1936.
69. “Teachers’ Union Protests Naming of Furtwaengler,” New York Herald Tribune, March 5, 1936.
70. “Reich Reinstates Dr. Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 1, 1936; “Reinstated in Berlin,” Washington Post, March 1, 1936; “Furtwängler Agrees to Conduct in Berlin,” Baltimore Sun, March 4, 1936.
71. “Furtwaengler Is Queried on Nazism by N.Y. Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 9, 1936; “New York Group Formed to Oppose Furtwängler,” Baltimore Sun, Ibid; “Furtwaengler Hit as Protest Grows,” New York Post, Ibid.
72. “May Boycott Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 6, 1936.
73. “Philharmonic Faces Threat of Anti-Nazis,” New York World-Telegram, March 5, 1936.
74. “Declares Article on Philharmonic Squabble Is Based on Wrong Theory,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 22, 1936.
75. “The Philharmonic’s Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936. The newspaper noted it had received many letters on the subject, but published just a few.
76. Ibid. Note the letter from Walter Jackson labeled “Conductor’s German Position,” Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Sachs (1987), 244; Sachs (2017), 615.
79. “ ‘Alien Experimental Mania’ in Art Attacked by Nazis,” New York Times, April 16, 1933. The article contains Goebbels’s reply to Furtwängler. Note “Plea for Art Made by Furtwaengler,” Ibid., April 12, 1933; Samuel Lipman, “Furtwängler and the Nazis,” Commentary (March 1993): 44–49; Harvey Sachs, “Furtwängler and the Führer,” Yale Review (July 1993): 105–21. On Furtwängler’s effort to have Jews and other “undesirable” foreign artists play with the Berlin Philharmonic, see “Foreign Musicians Spurn Reich Bids,” New York Times, July 26, 1933; “Musicians Rebuff Reich,” Ibid., August 2, 1933. Kater is extraordinarily illuminating on the complexity of Furtwängler’s motives in this period, Twisted Muse, 195–203.
80. On Hindemith, see Michael H. Kater, Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 2; and Shirakawa, ch. 11.
81. “Hindemith Defended from Nazi Criticism,” New York Times, November 26, 1934.
82. “Dr. Mason Praises Furtwaengler,” New York Times, December 6, 1934.
83. “Furtwaengler Resigns in Nazi Music ‘Revolt’,” New York Herald Tribune, December 5, 1934.
84. “Hindemith Centre of Nazi Music Row,” New York Times, December 3, 1934; “Dr. Furtwaengler Quits Reich Posts,” New York Times, December 5, 1934. On the attacks on Furtwängler, see “Rebukes Furtwaengler,” Ibid., December 7, 1934; “Nazi Papers Score Dr. Furtwaengler,” Ibid., December 8, 1934. For Chicago Tribune coverage: “Music Revolt Flares in Berlin for Art and Freedom,” December 6, 1934; “In Nazi Revolt,” December 7, 1934 (this was a large photo of Furtwängler and a brief note that he had resigned); “Composer Cries 3 Words at Nazi Opera; Is Jailed,” December 12, 1934; “Germany Bans Critic for His Taste in Music,” December 13, 1934; “German Cabinet Tightens Nazi Grip on State,” December 14, 1934.
85. “Music in Germany Is Now at Low Ebb,” New York Times, December 9, 1934.
86. Shirakawa, 189–94.
87. “Furtwängler Reinstated,” Time (May 6, 1935): 41; “German Maestro Wins Cheers at 1st Concert since Row with Nazis,” Chicago Tribune, April 26, 1935; “Berlin Hails Conquering Hero as Furtwängler Resumes Baton,” Musical Courier (May 18, 1935): 5; “Berlin Emotionally Hails Furtwängler Return,” Musical America (June 1935): 10.
88. “An Artistic Conductor,” Washington Post, March 2, 1936.
89. “The Philharmonic Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936. The so-called reinstatement referred to a position on the Council of State in the Nazi government and also, though Cooper did not mention it, to his conducting position at the State Opera. “Furtwaengler to Conduct Here,” New York Sun, February 29, 1936; “Reinstated in Berlin,” Washington Post, March 1, 1936; “Noted German Opera Maestro Wins Old Post,” Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1936.
90. “The Philharmonic Appointment of Furtwaengler,” New York Times, March 15, 1936.
91. Ibid.
92. “Philharmonic Should Rescind Furtwaengler Appointment,” American Hebrew (March 6, 1936): 443–44; “Heil Furtwaengler!” New Masses (March 10, 1936): 11–12.
93. “Philharmonic Should Rescind Furtwaengler Appointment,” American Hebrew (March 6, 1936): 443–44. Note “Furtwaengler Drops Mendelssohn Opus,” New York Times, January 14, 1936; “What Is Nazi Propaganda?” Commonweal (March 13, 1936): 535–36; “Heil Furtwaengler!” New Masses (March 10, 1936): 11–12.
94. “Music and Musicians,” New York Sun, March 7, 1936.
95. “Furtwaengler Appointment a Philharmonic Blunder,” New York Post, March 7, 1936. Critic B. H. Haggin considered Furtwängler’s musical limitations. “Furtwaengler and the Philharmonic,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 8, 1936. For an anti-Furtwängler editorial, see “The Week,” Ibid., March 15, 1936.
96. “Furtwaengler Bid Solely as Artist,” New York Times, March 7, 1936. The statement was published widely. Note “Art Ruled Choice of Furtwaengler,” New York American, Ibid.; “Furtwaengler’s Job Not Political,” New York Sun, Ibid.; “Furtwaengler and Philharmonic Deny Art Is Colored by Politics,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid.; “ ‘Music My Only Job,’—Furtwaengler,” New York World-Telegram, Ibid.
97. “Furtwaengler Bid Solely as Artist,” New York Times, March 7, 1936. The statement appeared in full or in part in the newspapers cited above.
98. Walter W. Price to Charles Triller, March 9, 1936, box 010-13-16 (also in Conductor file, Furtwängler, folder 16), NYPA.
99. Ibid.
100. David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 384. Note Ernest R. May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 35–38.
101. Reverend Harry Abramson to Mrs. Richard Whitney, March 7, 1936, Conductor file, Furtwängler, folder 16, NYPA.
102. “Furtwaengler Declines Post Here; Will Not Mix Music and Politics,” New York Times, March 15, 1936.
103. Ibid. Coverage of the resignation was widespread. “N.Y. Bid Rejected by Nazi Conductor,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 15, 1936; “N.Y. Offer Declined by Furtwängler,” Washington Post, March 15, 1936; “Furtwängler Declines to Serve with New York Philharmonic,” Baltimore Sun, March 15, 1936; “ ‘Politics’ Leads Furtwaengler to Decline Post,” New York Herald Tribune, March 15, 1936; “Furtwaengler Cancels N.Y. Symphony Debut,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 15, 1936.
104. “Nazi Stays Home,” Time (March 23, 1936): 51.
105. “Best Way Out,” Baltimore Sun, March 16, 1936.
106. “Politics and Art,” Washington Post, March 16, 1936.
107. “Exit Mr. Furtwaengler,” New York Sun, March 16, 1936. Note “Mr. Furtwaengler Declines,” New York Times, March 16, 1936.
108. “Politics and the Philharmonic,” Brooklyn Eagle, March 29, 1936. Note “Dissenting Opinions,” Ibid., March 22, 1936.
109. “Beethoven and Wagner Offered as Toscanini’s Parting Gesture,” New York Times, April 30, 1936.
110. “Stransky Dies; Philharmonic Leader 12 Years,” New York Times, March 7, 1936.
111. “Toscanini to Conduct Concerts of New Orchestra in Palestine,” New York Times, February 23, 1936.
112. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, April 10, 1936, The Letters of Arturo Toscanini, Harvey Sachs, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 198.
113. “Toscanini Decides to Do Mendelssohn,” New York Times, April 21, 1936.
114. “Toscanini Reaches Jerusalem by Plane,” New York Times, December 21, 1936. Note “Palestine Symphony,” Time (January 4, 1937): 24.
115. “Toscanini Opens Palestine Season,” New York Times, December 27, 1936; “Plans of Toscanini,” Ibid., December 30, 1936. Note “Toscanini Directs at Cairo Concert,” Ibid., January 8, 1937; “Toscanini Leads Exile Orchestra in Holy Land City,” Chicago Tribune, December 27, 1936; “Exiles Play under Baton of Toscanini,” Washington Post, Ibid.
116. “Holy City Concert Pleases Toscanini,” New York Times, December 31, 1936.
117. “Palestine Grove Given to Toscanini,” New York Times, January 4, 1937.
118. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, January 4, 1937, Letters, 229–30.
119. “Palestine Greets Toscanini at Haifa,” New York Times, April 10, 1938.
120. “1,700 in Palestine Applaud Toscanini,” New York Times, April 14, 1938. Note “Toscanini in Exile,” Los Angeles Times, April 10, 1938; and “Palestine Hails Toscanini,” Washington Post, April 14, 1938.
121. “Toscanini Repeats Palestine Triumph,” New York Times, April 18, 1938.
122. Ibid.
123. “Toscanini Draws Jerusalem Crowd,” New York Times, April 21, 1938. Note an October 1938 report in the paper of the New York musicians’ union (Local 802, A.F. of M.): 7, Clipping file, A. Toscanini, folder 8, NYPLPA.
124. See “Toscanini and Walter Win Ovations at Salzburg Festival,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1934): 5; “Music,” Time (September 2, 1935): 30; “The Greatest Musical Event of the Year,” Literary Digest (September 21, 1935): 22.
125. “Toscanini Bars Salzburg Broadcast to Reich; Refuses to Conduct Unless Plan Dropped,” New York Times, July 30, 1936; “Music,” Time (August 24, 1936): 44.
126. “Music,” Time (July 26, 1937): 37; “Toscanini’s Magic Flute is Crowning Salzburg Feature,” Musical Courier (September 1, 1937): 7; “Salzburg Has Brilliant Start under Toscanini,” Musical America (August 1937): 5.
127. “Salzburg Concert by Furtwaengler,” New York Times, August 28, 1937. Musical America said the Beethoven was “a trifle nervous and overdone.” “Ovations End Salzburg’s Finest Festival,” Musical America (October 10, 1937): 10. The reviews, writes Harvey Sachs, were “mainly tepid.” Sachs (2017), 371.
128. “Ovations End Salzburg’s Finest Festival,” Musical America (October 10, 1937): 10. Note Shirakawa, 212–15; and Toscanini to Bruno Walter, July 3, 1937, Letters, 265–66. Note his telegram to the Austrian Minister of Education, July 3, 1937, Letters, 268.
129. “Salzburg Festival Closes Tomorrow,” New York Times, August 30, 1937. Note the account by Sachs (2017), 671–72.
130. “German Conductor Refuses Vienna Bid,” New York Times, September 3, 1937.
131. “Two Conductors Battle over Art,” New York Sun, September 24, 1937; “May Shun Salzburg,” New York Times, September 24, 1937. Another version has the two men meeting in Toscanini’s dressing room after a performance, with Toscanini accusing Furtwängler of being a Nazi. Furtwängler said this was a lie, and Toscanini replied even if he had helped Jewish friends, he was still working for Hitler. Shirakawa, 215.
132. Toscanini to Bruno Walter, July 3, 1937, Letters, 265–66.
133. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, July 12, 1937, Letters, 269.
134. Toscanini to Ada Mainardi, July 24, 1937, Letters, 271.
135. “Toscanini Seems Salzburg Victor,” New York Times, November 22, 1937. Note “Denies Toscanini Demand,” Ibid., December 22, 1937.
136. New York Times: “Germans Threaten Austria,” February 15, 1938; “Ultimatum Is Met,” February 16, 1938; “Reich Is Jubilant,” February 16, 1938.
137. “Toscanini Breaks with Salzburg because of Nazi Victory in Austria,” New York Times, February 17, 1938. Note “Salzburg Concert Canceled by List,” Ibid., February 18, 1938. Note Gerhard Weinberg, Germany, Hitler, and World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 95–108.
138. “Toscanini Breaks with Salzburg because of Nazi Victory in Austria,” New York Times, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini Drops Salzburg Baton because of Nazis,” New York Post, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini, Foe of Nazis, Drops Salzburg Date,” New York Herald Tribune, February 17, 1938; “Toscanini to Stay Away from Salzburg Festival,” Boston Globe, February 18, 1938; “Toscanini Puts Salzburg Fete on Boycott List,” Chicago Tribune, February 18, 1938; “Toscanini Won’t Go to Salzburg,” Los Angeles Times, February 18, 1938; “Maestro Turns Down Salzburg Music Festival,” San Francisco Chronicle, February 18, 1938.
139. “Toscanini Declines,” Baltimore Sun, February 20, 1938.
140. “Salzburg’s Blow,” Musical Courier (March 1, 1938): 36.
141. “Surprised at Toscanini,” New York Times, February 19, 1938.
142. “Salzburg Asks Toscanini Not to Drop Its Festival,” New York Herald Tribune, February 19, 1938.
143. “Toscanini Refuses Plea,” New York Times, March 4, 1938.
144. “Salzburg Mourns Loss of Toscanini,” New York Times, March 5, 1938.
145. “Salzburg Repeats Plea to Toscanini,” New York Times, March 8, 1938.
146. “Toscanini Sails; To Shun Salzburg,” New York Times, March 10, 1938; “Toscanini Sails on Queen Mary under Escort,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid.
147. “Salzburg Alters Plans,” New York Times, April 22, 1938.
148. “Nazis Burn Books on Salzburg Pyre,” New York Times, May 1, 1938. Note “Roosevelt Blasts ‘Book Burners,’ Censors of News,” Washington Post, July 1, 1938.
149. “Salzburg Festival Is Opened by Nazis,” New York Times, July 24, 1938.
150. “Nazi Salzburg,” Time (August 1, 1938): 42.
151. “Salzburg Festival—1938 Edition,” New York Times, September 25, 1938. Note “Changes in Austria,” New York Times, April 3, 1938.
152. “Toscanini Hailed at First Lucerne Festival of Music,” Musical America (September 1938): 3. Note “Toscanini to Give Wagner Program,” New York Times, June 11, 1938; “Toscanini Directs for Lucerne Fete,” Ibid., August 26, 1938; “Lucerne as a Music Center,” Ibid., December 3, 1938 (letter to the editor).
153. “Lucerne: Salzburg’s Rival Draws Toscanini’s Following,” Newsweek (August 7, 1939): 31; “Musical Axes,” Time (August 14, 1939): 47–48. Note “Second Lucerne Festival,” New York Times, February 26, 1939; “Lucerne Festival,” April 2, 1939, Ibid.; “Toscanini to Be Heard in Series from Europe,” Chicago Tribune, June 11, 1939.
154. “Lucerne Festival Ends upon Note of Exultation,” Musical America (October 10, 1939): 5. Note “Toscanini Shuns Vacation in Italy,” New York Times, August 27, 1939; “Lucerne Festival,” Ibid., October 1, 1939. For a letter to the editor, see “Swiss City, It Is Held, Established Its Claim Last Summer,” Ibid., December 3, 1938.
155. Note “Nazi System,” Time (May 30, 1938): 24; and “Nazi Index,” Ibid. (June 27, 1938): 36.
156. Justus D. Doenecke and John E. Wiltz, From Isolation to War, 1931–1941 (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2003), 168; and Jonas, 214–15.
Chapter Five: “Let Us Conquer Darkness with the Burning Light of Art”: Shostakovich and Toscanini Confront the Dictators
1. For the description of the Pearl Harbor attack, see David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 520, 522; and Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990), 404–8. Quotations from Freidel.
2. “Variations,” Musical Courier (April 5, 1943): 17.
3. “Seattle Continues Music Plans,” Musical Courier (January 5, 1942): 8. Note “Music Plays Relief Role during War,” Seattle Daily Times, December 10, 1941.
4. “Music: Robeson Proves He’s Still Greatest Bass,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 17, 1941; and “San Francisco Reports Boom for Orchestra,” Musical Courier (January 5, 1942): 5.
5. “Orchestras Expect Rise in Attendance,” New York Times, December 19, 1941. Note “Orchestral Managers Confident,” Musical Courier (January 1, 1942): 20. For a genuinely illuminating study, see Annegret Fauser, Sounds of War: Music in the United States during World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).
6. Casualty figures from Gerhard Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 894; and Andrew Roberts, The Storm of War: A New History of the Second World War (New York: Harper Collins, 2011), 579. Lower figure: Roberts; higher figure: Weinberg.
7. “Voice of the People,” Chicago Tribune, September 13, 1939. Note original editorial, “The War Is in Europe,” Ibid., September 7, 1939.
8. “Chicago Sees No Change in Plans because of the European Situation,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1939): 3. On Kreisler, see “First Big Name of Recital Season Will Be Fritz Kreisler,” Chicago Tribune, September 17, 1939. “ ‘Eroica’ Is Billed as a Major Item of 1st Concerts,” Chicago Tribune, October 8, 1939.
9. “Gala Opera Series in San Francisco Opens Auspiciously,” Musical Courier (November 1, 1939): 3. Note “ ‘Walküre’ Tonight, Opens Full Week of Season,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 17, 1939; “The Opera,” Ibid., October 18, 1939.
10. “Ormandy Declares Strict Neutrality,” Musical America (October 10, 1939): 18.
11. “Words on Music,” Bridgeport (CT) Post, September 17, 1939. Note “Boston Proceeds Calmly with Plans,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1939): 17; and “War May Affect the Boston Symphony,” Musical America (September 1939): 3.
12. “N.Y. Philharmonic Season Unaltered,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1939): 7; and “Barbirolli to Give Many Novelties,” Musical America (September 1939): 3.
13. “Metropolitan Will Carry Out Schedule,” Musical Courier (September 15, 1939): 26.
14. Ibid. Note “The Season at the Metropolitan,” Musical America (October 10, 1939): 16.
15. “Musicology Congress Held in New York,” Musical America (September 1939): 3, 15; “1st U.S. Congress of Musicologists Stresses New Role of the Americas,” Musical Courier (October 1, 1939): 3, 7; “Congress of Music Opens Despite War,” New York Times, September 12, 1939.
16. Ibid., 7.
17. “The New Outlook of Musical Scholarship in America,” Musical America (September 1939): 12.
18. “Keep Music and Politics Apart, Critic Urges,” Chicago Tribune, June 29, 1941. Note “Music and Politics,” Boston Evening Transcript, September 30, 1939. Before America went to war, such views were widespread.
19. “Heard in Rochester,” Musical America (April 10, 1940): 8; “Visits Baltimore,” Ibid.; “Bostonians Welcome Week of Opera,” Ibid.; “Metropolitan Closes Series in Philadelphia,” Ibid., 17.
20. “War and Music,” Washington News, September 23, 1939.
21. Ad in Chicago Tribune, June 7, 1940.
22. “Hitler Sees Self as Wagner Hero, Symphony Fans Told,” Cleveland News, September 18, 1939.
23. “If You Like It, It’s Music, Critic Says,” Cleveland News, September 19, 1939.
24. “Strauss Tone Poem on First Orchestral Program,” Cleveland Press, September 23, 1939. Wagner piece was Polonia, an obscure work written “in prayer for the liberation of Poland.”
25. “Dr. Karl Muck, Famed Musician, Dies in Stuttgart,” New York World-Telegram, March 4, 1940; “Dr. Karl Muck— Martyr or Spy?,” Milwaukee Journal, March 18, 1940; “Noted Musician Dies at German Home,” Pasadena Star-News, March 4, 1940; “Karl Muck, Alien but Not Enemy,” Christian Century (Chicago), March 20, 1940.
26. “Karl Muck, Former Head of Boston Symphony,” Boston Post, March 4, 1940.
27. “Dr. Karl Muck: His Death Recalls Problems of the Artist in Time of War,” New York Times, March 10, 1940.
28. “Karl Muck, Former Head of Boston Symphony,” Boston Transcript, March 4, 1940. Note “Muck, 80, Awarded Plaque by Hitler,” New York Post, October 23, 1939; “Who’s News Today?,” New York Sun, October 25, 1939.
29. “Culled from the Mail Pouch,” New York Times, March 10, 1940. Note the laudatory contribution from the Boston Symphony’s publicity director during the Muck era.
30. “Metropolitan Will Continue Original Language Policy,” Musical Courier (December 11, 1941): 4. On the decision (including Johnson’s view) not to alter its wartime repertoire, see Board Minutes, December 11, 1941, Board Minutes of Metropolitan Opera Association, 1941–1945, Metropolitan Opera Archives, Lincoln Center, New York City (hereafter MOA).
31. “Contralto Wins Ovation in Her Chicago Debut,” Chicago Tribune, December 13, 1941.
32. Note Virgil Thomson’s column, “A Happy Return?,” New York Herald Tribune, January 20, 1946, which marked the opera’s return. The Met’s board minutes are silent on the decision. Board Minutes, December 11, 1941, MOA.
33. Alice Yang Murray, ed., What Did the Internment of Japanese Americans Mean? (New York: Bedford, 2000), 3–20. Two-thirds of those incarcerated were American citizens.
34. On the situation in Chicago, see Ronald L. Davis, Opera in Chicago (New York: Appleton, 1966), 363, 368. See website.
35. In Michaela Hoenicke Moore, Know Your Enemy: The American Debate on Nazism, 1933–1945 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 139. Moore writes that polls indicated “most Americans did not think that they were again fighting the Huns of World War I,” 138.
36. Archibald MacLeish, Basic Policy Directive, “The Nature of the Enemy,” October 5, 1942, Office of War Information (OWI), RG 208, Entry 6A, Box 1, National Archives and Records Administration, National Archives II, College Park, MD. On the distinction between the German government and the German people, see OWI Intelligence Report, “American Estimates of the Enemy,” September 2, 1942, box 53, Archibald MacLeish Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
37. Susan A. Brewer, Why America Fights: Patriotism and War Propaganda from the Philippines to Iraq (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 106–7. On the government’s perspective on conveying to Americans the nature of the German enemy, see Moore, chs. 5–6.
38. See his letter to the editor, “Alien Tongue Press Upheld,” New York Times, April 21, 1942; and “Hatred Held Dangerous,” written by the same person to the Times, June 12, 1942.
39. “Two Significant Appeals: For Music and to Our Musicians,” Musical America (January 25, 1942): 16.
40. “Finale of Symphony Today to Feature Popular Works,” Washington Post, March 29, 1942.
41. “Army Musical Groups Planned,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1942.
42. “Musicians Here Oppose Ban on All Axis Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 6, 1942.
43. “Erika Mann Protests,” New York Times, February 15, 1942. Mann, an actress and daughter of novelist Thomas Mann, left Germany for the United States in 1937.
44. “Music by the Enemy,” Good Housekeeping (June 1942): 16. Note “Memo to the Reichskulturkammer,” Good Housekeeping (March 1943): 16.
45. “Advance, Music, to be Recognized,” Chicago Tribune, July 19, 1942. Note “Wartime Trends in Music: German Opera Still Performed; 1917–18 Bans Held Unlikely,” Newsweek (January 5, 1942): 53.
46. “No Hymns of Hate Ruffle Sanity of Art,” Musical Forecast (January 1942): 13.
47. On the Met’s performances of Wagner and the enthusiasm created, see website.
48. “The Metropolitan Season,” Musical America (March 25, 1943): 16. Note letter to Edward Johnson, the Met’s general manager. Charlotte Hammer to Johnson, April 4, 1942, folder H (1941–1942), Edward Johnson Correspondence, 1941–42, MOA.
49. “Orchestra Repertoires,” Musical America (July 1944): 6. The data used for the article are from the 1943–44 season.
50. On the opera, see website.
51. “Plea for Meistersinger,” New York Times, February 2, 1941. Note letter to Edward Johnson expressing similar sentiments. Elaine Jerome to Johnson, October 15, 1941, folder J (1941–1942), Edward Johnson Correspondence, 1941–42, MOA.
52. “The Metropolitan Season,” Musical America (March 10, 1942): 16.
53. “Meistersinger and a Sorry Mistake,” Musical America (December 25, 1942): 7.
54. “Nation’s Symphonic Diet Subject of Survey,” Musical America (May 1943): 22; and “Requests from Our Sevicemen,” New York Times, June 17, 1945.
55. “Political Music,” Boston Transcript, December 30, 1939; in Musician: “Wagner’s Political Polemics,” September 1940, 155; and “Our Contemporaries,” June 1941, 103. At Brooklyn’s Church of the Holy Trinity, the Reverend William Howard Melish delivered a sermon on “Hitler and Wagner: The Perversion of an Art.” “ ‘Debauching’ Wagner Charged to Hitler,” New York Times, September 16, 1940. Note “Wagner No Aryan?,” Time (February 3, 1941): 45.
56. “Hitler and Wagner,” Common Sense (November 1939): 3–6. Part two of Viereck’s analysis: “Hitler and Wagner,” Common Sense (December 1939): 20–22.
57. On European artists who came to the United States, note Joseph Horowitz’s highly engaging Artists in Exile: How Refugees from Twentieth-Century War and Revolution Transformed the Performing Arts (New York: Harper Collins, 2008), esp. 398–405.
58. “In Defense of Wagner,” Common Sense (January 1940): 11–14.
59. Ibid. On Wagner, see Jacob Katz, The Darker Side of Genius: Richard Wagner’s Anti-Semitism (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1986); M. Owen Lee, Wagner: The Terrible Man and His Truthful Art (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); Bryan Magee, The Tristan Chord: Wagner and Philosophy (New York: Henry Holt, 2000); and Bryan Magee, Aspects of Wagner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968).
60. “Wagner: Clue to Hitler,” New York Times Magazine (February 25, 1940): 97.
61. Ibid. See website.
62. “Dr. Rodzinski’s Remarks from the Stage at Severance Hall before Conducting Wagner’s ‘Rule Britannia,’ ” April 16, 1942, Archives Reference file, Music and Nazism and Politics, Cleveland Orchestra Archives, Severance Hall, Cleveland, Ohio (hereafter COA).
63. “Wagner, Man and Artist, and the Nazi Ideology: A Myth Exploded,” Musical America (November 25, 1944): 5. “Mephisto” rejected claims that Wagner set the stage for Nazism. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (March 25, 1944): 9.
64. “Opera, War, and Wagner,” Etude (October 1942): 657–58.
65. “Background Music for Mein Kampf,” Saturday Review (January 20, 1945): 5–9.
66. “Pictures Music as a Force Against Evil, Destruction,” New Brunswick Home News, March 17, 1943.
67. “Two Significant Appeals: For Music and to Our Musicians,” Musical America (January 25, 1942): 16.
68. The first opera broadcast came from Chicago in 1919 and the first symphonic broadcast featured the Boston Symphony in 1926. See Timothy Taylor, “The Role of Opera in the Rise of Radio in the United States,” in Music and the Broadcast Experience: Performance, Production, and Audiences, Christina Baade and James Deaville, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 69–87; Richard Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 586; Joseph Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini: A Social History of American Concert Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 139, 152–55.
69. “Arturo Toscanini Will Conduct NBC Symphony in Brilliant Premiere of Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony,” June 19, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts (NYPLPA). Note “Symphony,” New Yorker (July 18, 1942): 9.
70. “Soviet’s Best Bet,” Time (February 16, 1942): 82. The Soviet premiere was on March 5, 1942, in Kuybishev, a performance broadcast in the Soviet Union and abroad; the Moscow premiere occurred on March 29. Premiered overseas in June 1942, in London, first in a BBC broadcast performance, and a week later in concert. Laurel E. Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 130–32.
71. “Shostakovich, Composer, Explains His Symphony of Plain Man in War,” New York Times, February 9, 1942. Note “Shostakovich—a Major Voice of the Soviets,” Ibid., April 5, 1942.
72. “Arturo Toscanini Will Conduct NBC Symphony in Brilliant Premiere of Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony,” June 19, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA. On the music’s trip from the Soviet Union to the United States, see “Asides of the Concert and Opera Worlds,” New York Times, June 21, 1942.
73. “Arturo Toscanini Will Conduct NBC Symphony in Brilliant Premiere of Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony,” June 19, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
74. “Stating the Case for Slavonic Culture,” New York Times, June 21, 1942.
75. Ibid.
76. Quoted in Horowitz, Understanding Toscanini, 174–75. The two men would serve as co-conductors during the next two seasons.
77. Toscanini to Stokowsi, June 20, 1942, Letters of Arturo Toscanini, Harvey Sachs, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 385–86.
78. For Toscanini’s second letter to Stokowski, written on June 25, see Letters of Arturo Toscanini, 386.
79. In March, the piece had been performed in three Russian cities: Kuibyshev, Moscow, and Leningrad. The Sunday afternoon broadcast was heard live in the United States; a recording of the performance was rebroadcast later that night in Central and South America, and in the West Indies. The following Wednesday, the recorded Toscanini performance was broadcast across Europe, including in Russia and Germany. “Shostakovich’s War Symphony Cheered Here under Toscanini,” New York Herald Tribune, July 20, 1942.
80. “Shostakovich Outlines Aim of 7th Symphony,” New York Herald Tribune, July 19, 1942.
81. Note “Shostakovich and the Guns,” Time (July 20, 1942): 53–54.
82. “Shostakovich Seventh Symphony,” July 19, 1942. Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA. This is a script for the radio broadcast.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. “Shostakovich Has U.S. Premiere,” New York Times, July 20, 1942.
86. The London broadcast performance of June 22 might have been heard in the United States on the BBC.
87. “Shostakovich,” Life (August 3, 1942): 35–36.
88. Time cover, July 20, 1942, and “Shostakovich and the Guns,” 53–54. The Time cover and possibly the story were reprinted as part of the program for the July 19 concert. Note “Premiere of the Year,” Newsweek (July 27, 1942): 66.
89. “Shostakovich’s War Symphony Cheered Here under Toscanini,” New York Herald Tribune, July 20, 1942.
90. No title visible, New York World-Telegram and Sun, July 20, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
91. “Shostakovich’s Seventh,” New Republic (August 3, 1942): 144.
92. “Music,” Nation (August 15, 1932): 138.
93. “Shostakovich 7th Has U.S. Premiere,” New York Times, July 20, 1942.
94. Ibid. Note another Downes critique: “Second View of a Symphony,” New York Times, July 26, 1942. On the work’s critics, see “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (August 1942): 9. For Koussevitzky’s critique of the critics, see “Shostakovich Upheld,” New York Times, August 2, 1942.
95. “Shostakovich’s 7th Symphony on NBC at 3:15 P.M.,” Chicago Tribune, July 19, 1942; “Current Music News,” Ibid.; “Shostakovich Work Has U.S. Premiere,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 20, 1942.
96. “Shostakovich Strikes High Note of Week,” Los Angeles Times, July 26, 1942.
97. “Programs of the Week,” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 1942; “Screen,” Ibid., July 21, 1942. Note “Hollywood Pays Tribute to Shostakovich with Recital,” Ibid., July 20, 1942.
98. “ ‘Front Page’ Music,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 20, 1942. Note the Washington Post’s coverage: “Shostakovich Work to Be Heard,” July 19, 1942; “War Symphony Acclaimed,” July 20, 1942.
99. “Allied Aid to Russia Is Stressed in Benefit Concert at Tanglewood,” Musical Courier (September 1942): 13. Shostakovich cabled Koussevitzky to express his gratitude for the decision to perform the work. “Shostakovich 7th Given First Concert Performance Tonight,” New York Daily Worker, August 14, 1942.
100. “New England Receives a Message from Russia and Understands It,” PM, August 16, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
101. Trampler in Herbert Kupferberg, Tanglewood (New York: McGraw Hill, 1976), 95, 98.
102. “New England Receives a Message from Russia and Understands It,” PM, August 16, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
103. “Symphony Written during Nazi Attack Heard at Tanglewood,” Worcester Telegram, August 15, 1942.
104. “New England Receives a Message from Russia and Understands It,” PM, August 16, 1942, Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
105. “Shostakovich Battle Symphony Wins Ovation at Tanglewood,” Daily Worker, August 16, 1942.
106. “Give Their Parrot a Lesson in Patriotism,” Chicago Tribune, August 21, 1942. From the Tribune, see “Chicago Orchestra to Play Shostakovich’s 7th Symphony,” Chicago Tribune, August 16, 1942; “New Symphony Stirs Guests at Ravinia Concert,” August 23, 1942; and “Society Enjoys Night of Music to Aid Russians,” Ibid.
107. “Shostakovich Seventh Opens New Symphony Season,” Boston Herald, October 10, 1942. Note “Boston Symphony Season Opens,” Christian Science Monitor, October 10, 1942.
108. “Hails Symphony of Shostakovich,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, October 15, 1942. Note “The Seventh Symphony,” a Plain Dealer editorial on the work, in Ibid.
109. “Stokowski and Philharmonic to Give Concert for Army,” Los Angeles Times, September 23, 1942; “A Musical Event of Prime Importance,” Ibid., September 27, 1942.
110. “Shostakovich Concert Musical Event of Year,” Los Angeles Times, October 10, 1942. Note “Shostakovich Program May Set Precedent,” Ibid., October 11, 1942.
111. “Soldiers Hear Shostakovich,” Los Angeles Times, October 12, 1942. U.S. readers learned of the desert performance from Life. “Shostakovich’s Seventh,” Life (November 9, 1942): 99–100; and “Music: Tank Corps,” Time (October 26, 1942): 50–51.
112. Website for the New York reviews.
113. Reprinted on October 15, 1942 (newspaper unidentified), Clipping file, Shostakovich, NYPLPA.
114. “Shostakovich and Sonya,” Newsweek (August 16, 1943): 79–80.
115. “The Symphonist of Russia’s Travail,” New York Times, February 7, 1943.
116. Benjamin L. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), ch. 8.
117. “Koussevitzky to Do All to Aid Russia,” Boston Globe, October 20, 1941; and “Believes Russians Will Win,” Boston Post, Ibid. Note “Koussevitzky Forgives Soviets, Will Head Russian War Relief,” Boston Herald, Ibid. Note that the newspaper and magazine accounts (through note 128) are from the Boston Symphony Clipping files, Pres 56, Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives, Symphony Hall, Boston.
118. “Koussevitzky Lost to Reds ‘Over Million’,” date and publication uncertain, but Boston publication (likely February 20, 1941). Note “Citizenship New Symphony for Koussevitzky,” Boston Herald, February 20, 1941; “Symphony Head Passes Last Quiz,” Boston Post, Ibid.
119. “Citizen’s Day Stirs 12,000,” Boston Post, May 19, 1941. Note “Americanism Draws Great Throng,” Christian Science Monitor, Ibid.
120. “Conductor Offers Music for Soldiers,” Rochester Times Union, December 8, 1941.
121. “Russian Relief Benefit to Draw Gala Audience,” Washington Times-Herald, March 29, 1942; “Boston Symphony Draws Brilliant Throng from Official, Resident Circles,” Washington Star, April 1, 1942.
122. “Boston Symphony Heard in Russian War Relief Concert,” Washington Post, April 1, 1942.
123. “Thrilling Russian Relief Concert in Capital Reflects Soviet-U.S. Unity,” Daily Worker, April 2, 1942.
124. For national coverage, see website.
125. Madame Litvinoff in “Constitution Hall Crowds Cheers Soviet Banner at Relief Meeting,” Columbus Dispatch, April 1, 1942.
126. “The Revolution’s On! Society Applauds ‘The Internationale’,” PM Magazine, April 2, 1942. Note “Strange Things Can Happen,” Bristol Herald-Courier, April 2, 1942; “Mme Litvinov’s Musicale Draws Many Notables,” Washington Times-Herald, April 2, 1942; “Soviet Embassy Recital Honors Koussevitzky,” Ibid.
127. “Conductor Discusses Mission of the Artist,” address in the Springfield, MA, Sunday Union and Republican, September 26, 1943.
128. Ibid.
129. “President Praises Toscanini Concert,” New York Times, April 20, 1943. Note “Toscanini Directs Benefit Concert,” Ibid., March 25, 1943.
130. “Praise from Morgenthau,” Radio Age (July 1943): 34.
131. “Toscanini Slams a $10,000,000 Gate Right in the Fuehrer’s Face,” New York Post, April 26, 1943. On the 1943 Easter concert, see “Music,” New York Herald Tribune, April 26, 1943; “Toscanini Raises $10,190,045 for U.S.,” New York Times, April 26, 1943.
132. “Toscanini,” American Mercury (November 1944): 537–41.
133. “Art Where Men Are Free,” New York Times, April 4, 1943.
134. “Musician—and Symbol,” Musical America (September 1943): 16.
135. “Toscanini Leads ‘Victory, Act I’ Concert Tonight,” Herald Tribune, September 9, 1943. On Italy’s collapse, see R. J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini’s Italy: Life under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915–1945 (New York: Penguin, 2006), 491–97.
136. “Toscanini Marks Dawn of New Era for His Countrymen with Concert,” Musical Courier (September 1943): 3. Note “Toscanini, an Enemy of Fascism, Directs Radio Victory Program,” New York Times, September 10, 1943.
137. Background on the Life piece: Toscanini Letters, 389–94.
138. “To the People of America,” Life (September 13, 1943): 32.
139. Ibid. Note “His Music Speaks for Freedom,” New York Times Magazine, September 26, 1943, Clipping file, Arturo Toscanini, folder 17, NYPLPA.
140. “A Great Musical Event,” New York Times, May 23, 1944.
141. Preconcert descriptions: “900 to Appear in Concert for the Red Cross,” date and paper unclear, Clipping file, Arturo Toscanini, folder 17, NYPLPA; Louis Biancolli column (possibly from May 13, 1944), New World-Telegram and Sun (with no headline), Toscanini clipping file, Ibid.
142. “Toscanini Transforms the Garden and Thrills 18,000 at Benefit,” New York Post, May 26, 1944; “Mammoth Concert Benefits Red Cross,” Musical America (June 1944): 12.
143. “Toscanini Directs 2 Orchestras, 600 Voice Chorus for Red Cross,” New York Times, May 26, 1944. Note the stories under this headline; quotations from Downes’ piece.
144. Ibid.
145. On altering the language and his first performance of the piece, which was broadcast across the United States and the world, see “Toscanini Changes Verdi Line in Hymn to Read ‘Italy Betrayed’,” New York Times, February 1, 1943.
146. “Toscanini Directs 2 Orchestras, 600 Voice Chorus for Red Cross,” New York Times, May 26, 1944.
147. It appears that the January 31, 1943, broadcast of the “Hymn” and the May 25, 1944, concert version did not include the tribute to the Soviets, “The Internationale,” which Toscanini added for the 1944 documentary. (That Soviet tribute seems to have been included only in the 1944 documentary.) “The Star-Spangled Banner” excerpt, which Toscanini added in 1943, was included in all three performances of Verdi’s “Hymn.” The British and French anthems were part of Verdi’s original composition. Note “Toscanini Changes Verdi Line in Hymn to Read ‘Italy Betrayed,’ ” New York Times, February 1, 1943.
148. The documentary can be viewed on youtube.com. Go to Toscanini, “Hymn of the Nations.”
149. Ibid.
150. Transcribed from the youtube video. Ibid.
151. Ibid.
152. “Toscanini Superb in Film on Italy,” New York World-Telegram and Sun, August 21, 1944.
153. “Extraordinary Musical Diplomacy,” Etude (September 1944): 512.
154. “Sound Track to Victory,” NBC Transmitter, n.d. (likely early 1944), Clipping file, Arturo Toscanini, folder 14, NYPLPA. Note the press release, “Music News from NBC,” January 7, 1944, Ibid., folder 17.
155. “Music Speaks for America,” New York Times Magazine (January 23, 1944): 12.
156. Ibid.
157. “Blitzstein on Toscanini,” New York Times letter, April 14, 1946.
158. “Carnegie Hall Audience Spellbound as Koussevitzky Honors Roosevelt,” New York Times, April 15, 1945.
159. Ibid.
160. “Threnody,” Musical Courier (April 15, 1945): 3.
161. “Stokowski Program Heralds Peace,” Los Angeles Times, August 15, 1945.
162. “90,000 Sing of Peace at Festival,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1945; “Pre-War Cream has a Match—It’s Swarthout,” Ibid.
163. “Esplanade Holds Victory Celebration,” Musical America (September 1945): 10.
164. “Victory Night Observed at Stadium,” Musical Courier (September 1945): 18.
165. “Toscanini Concert Salutes V-J Day,” Musical Courier (October 1945): 10. Note “Toscanini Concert to Salute Victory,” New York Times, August 14, 1945.
Chapter Six: “I Come Here as a Musician”: Furtwängler, Gieseking, Flagstad, Karajan—and Hitler’s Ghost
1. “Furtwaengler Bows to the Nazis,” Chicago Daily News, January 14, 1949. Source found in the Clipping files of the Rosenthal Archives, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Orchestra Hall, Chicago (hereafter CSOA).
2. “102nd Infantry Chorus Sings for Richard Strauss in Garmisch,” Musical America (October 1945): 7. On Strauss’s relationship with the Nazi regime, see Michael H. Kater, Composers of the Nazi Era: Eight Portraits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 8.
3. Historian Benjamin Alpers astutely notes that the horrors perpetrated by the Nazi regime would “play an increasingly central role in American memory as World War II receded into the past.” Benjamin L. Alpers, Dictators, Democracy, and American Public Culture: Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy, 1920s–1950s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 276–78.
4. “Symphony Opening Features Ballet ‘Appalachian Spring’ by Copland,” Boston Globe, October 6, 1945; “Boston Symphony Fetes Victory,” Musical Courier (October 15, 1945): 7.
5. “Symphony Concert,” Boston Herald, October 6, 1945; “Elie Shifts Smoothly from War to Symphony,” Ibid.
6. “Vision of Greatness,” Boston Globe, October 5, 1945.
7. “Victory to Be Theme Tonight for Symphony,” Chicago Tribune, October 4, 1945; “Chicago Symphony Opens 55th Season with Concert Dedicated to Victory,” Ibid., October 5, 1945; “Chicago Symphony Opens 55th Season, Third under Defauw Baton,” Journal of Commerce, October 5, 1945.
8. “Symphony Opener Proves a Gala, Exciting Concert,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, October 27, 1945. Note the concert ad in Ibid., October 24, 1945.
9. “Orchestra Opening,” Cleveland Press, October 11, 1945.
10. Leinsdorf caused agitation among Clevelanders over the decision not to play the national anthem. “Leinsdorf’s Return,” Cleveland Press, October 11, 1945. Note “Orchestra Opens Its 28th Season at Tonight’s Concert,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, Ibid.
11. The website details a number of concerts.
12. The phrase is from James Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 8–9. On the war’s impact and postwar optimism, see David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Democracy and War, 1929–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 856–57.
13. “Mission of Music,” Musical Courier (October 15, 1945): 3.
14. “The International Language,” File: Esplanade, July 20–August 15, 1945, Pub 185, Esplanade Concert Programs, box 1 July 4, 1929–August 13, 1958, Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives, Symphony Hall, Boston (hereafter BSOA). Fiedler quotation from the concert program.
15. During the war, Koussevitzky emphasized music’s potential to repair the fabric of world politics. “Music’s Role in the World of Tomorrow,” Musical Courier (December 1, 1944): 5.
16. “It’s Over, Over There,” Musical America (September 1945): 16.
17. “One World in Music,” Musical Courier (May 15, 1946): 7.
18. “World Music Unity Put Up to America,” Los Angeles Times, May 27, 1945.
19. David Monod, Settling Scores: German Music, Denazification, and the Americans, 1945–1953 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 3.
20. “Muted Trumpets,” Washington Post, May 31, 1945.
21. “Wagner without Thunder,” Newsweek (August 6, 1945): 91. Note “One Man Can Save German Music: He’s Philharmonic Leader in Berlin,” Ibid. (August 27, 1945): 62–63; “Solomon for Nazi Music,” Ibid. (September 10, 1945): 96.
22. “Under Postage: Germany’s Musical Future,” New York Times, August 19, 1945. Note Nettl’s “Nazi Crimes against Music: An Indictment,” Musical Courier (May 15, 1945): 9.
23. “Music and Collaboration,” Life (February 25, 1946): 19–20, Nazis and Music, Clipping file, Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Lincoln Center, New York City (hereafter NYPLPA).
24. “Menhuin Calls on Allied World to Accept Furtwängler Again; Cites Snubs to Nazis,” New York Times, December 5, 1945.
25. “Menuhin to the Defense,” Time (December 17, 1945): 50.
26. “Furtwängler Called Trusted Friend of Nazis,” Herald Tribune, December 11, 1945. Note “Wangle by Furtwängler,” Newsweek (December 24, 1945): 107.
27. “Furtwängler Called Trusted Friend of Nazis,” Herald Tribune, December 11, 1945.
28. Ibid.
29. “Furtwängler’s Sympathies Subject of Controversy,” Musical America (December 25, 1945): 3.
30. Monod, ch. 4; Roger Allen, Wilhelm Furtwängler: Art and the Politics of the Unpolitical (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2018), ch. 7; Sam H. Shirakawa, The Devil’s Music Master: The Controversial Life and Career of Wilhelm Furtwängler (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), chs. 17–18; Daniel Gillis, Furtwängler and America (New York: Manyland Books, 1970), ch. 4.
31. For a sampling of national articles from the first half of 1946, see website.
32. Those activities included accepting an appointment by Hermann Göring as a Prussian State Councilor to the Prussian Staatsrat (the State Senate); serving as vice president of the Reichsmusikkammer (the Reich Chamber of Music); leading the Berlin Philharmonic throughout the war (including a performance celebrating Hitler’s birthday); and allegedly being responsible for the firing and drafting into the army of a music critic who, to Furtwängler’s chagrin, had lauded a young conducting rival named Herbert von Karajan. See “Furtwängler Called Nazi Tool, Is Barred from Berlin Podium,” New York Herald Tribune, February 26, 1946; “Tribunal Clears Furtwaengler of Nazi Taint, Verdict Cheered,” New York Herald Tribune, December 18, 1946.
33. “Nazi Ties Denied by Furtwaengler,” New York Times, December 12, 1946. Note widespread coverage included on the website.
34. “Furtwaengler Defends Self on Nazism Charge,” Herald Tribune, December 12, 1946. A Washington Post editorial mocked Furtwängler, claiming he had responsibilities that surpassed those of a potato peddler. “Apologia,” December 13, 1946.
35. “Nazi Taint Denied by Furtwängler,” newspaper unidentified, December 11, 1946, Clipping file, Wilhelm Furtwängler, NYPLPA.
36. “Furtwaengler is Cleared of Nazi Taint; German Verdict Subject to Allied Review,” New York Times, December 18, 1946; “Tribunal Clears Furtwängler of Nazi Taint, Verdict Cheered,” Herald Tribune, December 18, 1946; “Furtwängler Cleared in Berlin of Nazi-Collaboration Charge,” Christian Science Monitor, December 18, 1946. See website.
37. “Germans Absolve Dr. Furtwaengler,” New York Times, April 20, 1947. Note “Allies Absolve Furtwaengler of Nazi Taint,” Herald Tribune, April 30, 1947.
38. “Furtwaengler Is Acclaimed in Berlin Concert,” Herald Tribune, May 26, 1947. Note “Furtwaengler Returns to Berlin to Conduct,” Chicago Tribune, May 23, 1947.
39. Shirakawa, 347–48. See website.
40. Eric Oldberg to Wilhelm Furtwängler, August 10, 1948, from the Furtwängler material prepared for Maestro Daniel Barenboim by the Rosenthal Archives of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Orchestra Hall, Chicago (hereafter FF/CSOA for Furtwängler file/Chicago Symphony Orchestra Archives). Note that the Chicago newspaper accounts (through note 95) are from the Rosenthal Archives Clipping file.
41. Wilhelm Furtwängler to Eric Oldberg, August 20, 1948, FF/CSOA.
42. Eric Oldberg to Wilhelm Furtwängler, August 25, 1948, FF/CSOA.
43. See Ibid., and Furtwängler to Oldberg, September 4, 1948, FF/CSOA.
44. Furtwängler to Oldberg, Ibid.
45. Oldberg to Furtwängler, September 13, 1948, FF/CSOA.
46. Furtwängler to Oldberg, September 16, 1948, FF/CSOA.
47. Oldberg to Furtwängler, September 23, 1948, FF/CSOA.
48. Edward Ryerson to Furtwängler, November 1, 1948, FF/CSOA.
49. “On the Aisle,” November 5, 1948, Chicago Tribune.
50. George Kuyper to Furtwängler, November 10, 1948, FF/CSOA. Note Furtwängler to Kuyper, November 26, 1948, FF/CSOA. See what appears to be Furtwängler’s reflections (written on Kuyper’s stationary) on why he could not accept the position. About the situation of the orchestras of Vienna and Berlin, he wrote, “I cannot morally justify leaving them in the lurch.” Document’s date difficult to decipher, though it was written after Kuyper visited Furtwängler in Hamburg. “Memo from George A. Kuyper,” FF/CSOA.
51. “Wait Berlin Reply on Symphony Post,” Chicago Daily News, December 2, 1948.
52. Quotations: “Furtwaengler Offer Brings Cheers, Groans,” Chicago Daily News, December 3, 1948.
53. See the offer in a December 6, 1948, cable, George Kuyper to Furtwängler, FF/CSOA. A problem arose over Furtwängler’s compensation. Ryerson to Furtwängler, December 10, 1948, FF/CCSOA.
54. On financial compensation, see Furtwängler to George Kuyper, December 10, 1948, FF/CSOA.
55. “Furtwaengler Gets New Offer from Symphony,” Chicago Tribune, December 11, 1948.
56. “Furtwaengler Will be Guest Conductor Here,” Chicago Tribune, December 17, 1948.
57. “Furtwängler Accepts Offer by Chicago Board,” Musical America (January 1, 1949): 3. On Furtwängler’s technique, see “Accepts Offer as Conductor before It’s Made,” Chicago Tribune, December 16, 1948.
58. Mrs. Joseph Perlman to Joseph Ryerson, December 20, 1948, FF/CSOA.
59. Pioneer Women to Board of Directors, January 17, 1949, FF/CSOA.
60. “Rabbi Berman Joins Fight on Furtwaengler,” Chicago Tribune, January 14, 1949. Note “Jewish Group Blasts Offer to Furtwaengler,” Chicago Sun, January 13, 1949.
61. “Wallace Supporters Open Drive against Furtwaengler Hiring,” Chicago Tribune, December 25, 1948. (Copy of the Young Progressives leaflet found in the Furtwängler file, CSOA.) “Furtwaengler Drops Mendelssohn Opus,” New York Times, January 14, 1936.
62. Murray L. Lobel to Dear Sir, January 8, 1949, FF/CSOA.
63. Reaction among classical musicians: “Furtwängler Engagement Stirs Anti-Nazi Protests,” Musical America (January 15, 1949): 3–4; “Artists Protest Furtwaengler Tour,” Musical Courier (January 15, 1949): 6; “Chill Wind in Chicago,” Time (January 17, 1949): 60, 63.
64. “Musicians’ Ban on Furtwaengler Ends His Chicago Contract for ’49,” New York Times, January 6, 1949.
65. Ibid. Note “Pianists Warn They’ll Boycott Furtwaengler,” Chicago Tribune, January 6, 1949; “Oppose Furtwaengler,” Chicago Daily News, Ibid.
66. “Others Rap Choice of Conductor,” Chicago Daily News, January 7, 1949. Note “Pons, Hubby War on Nazis’ Music Chief,” Boston Daily Record, January 7, 1949.
67. Kuyper to Furtwängler, December 28, 1948, FF/CSOA.
68. Account from a December 30, 1948, cable from Ryerson to conductor Ernest Ansermet, who was close to Furtwängler. The cable recounted a telephone conversation between Furtwängler and orchestra representatives. Ryerson to Ernest Ansermet, December 30, 1948, FF/CSOA.
69. Ryerson to Furtwängler, December 31, 1948, FF/CSOA.
70. Ibid.
71. “Musicians’ Ban on Furtwängler Ends His Chicago Contract for ‘49,” New York Times, January 6, 1949; “Others Rap Choice of Conductor,” Chicago Daily News, January 7, 1949; “Furtwaengler Gets Letter from Chicago Orchestra Manager,” Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1949.
72. “Furtwaengler Told of Row; Ryerson Mum on Contract,” Chicago Tribune, January 7, 1949. Note “Ryerson Is Silent on Furtwaengler,” New York Times, Ibid.
73. “Furtwängler Answers His U.S. Critics,” Chicago Tribune, January 12, 1949. Note “Musician Answers Critics,” Chicago Sun, Ibid; “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1949; and “Furtwaengler Row Recalls ’36 Outcry,” Chicago Sun, January 7, 1949.
74. “Yehudi Menuhin Raps Critics of Furtwaengler,” Chicago Tribune, January 13, 1949; Michael H. Kater, The Twisted Muse: Musicians and Their Music in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 196–97. Note “Menuhin Takes Furtwaengler’s Side,” Chicago Daily News, January 12, 1949.
75. “Readers Explain Why They Are for and against Furtwaengler,” Chicago Daily News, January 13, 1949.
76. “Discord,” Chicago Sun, January 7, 1949. Another reader claimed Furtwängler was under attack not because he was a Nazi, but because he was German. Ibid.
77. “Sees a Parallel,” Chicago Tribune, January 19, 1949.
78. “Two Views on Musicians’ Blasts at Furtwaengler,” Los Angeles Times, January 14, 1949.
79. “For Furtwaengler,” New York Herald Tribune, January 12, 1949.
80. “Viennese Support Director,” Chicago Sun, January 15, 1949.
81. “Germans Defend Musician,” Chicago Sun, January 18, 1949.
82. Mrs. Serena Krafft to the Philharmonic Orchestra, January 15, 1949, FF/CSOA.
83. “Sigrid Schultz Tells Furtwaengler’s Status under Nazi Regime,” Chicago Tribune, January 7, 1949.
84. Another problem emerged when James C. Petrillo, president of the American Federation of Musicians and of the Chicago local, said the musicians’ contract stipulated that the Local must approve foreign artists hired to perform with the orchestra. “Petrillo Holds Key in Case of Furtwaengler,” Chicago Tribune, January 18, 1949.
85. “Extra,” Chicago Daily News, January 19, 1949.
86. “Furtwaengler Withdraws in Orchestra Row,” Chicago Tribune, January 20, 1949. Note “Dr. Furtwaengler Drops Chicago Bid,” New York Times, January 20, 1949; “Furtwaengler Drops Chicago Orchestra Plan,” New York Herald Tribune, January 23, 1949; “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, January 23, 1949; “No Trip for Furtwaengler,” Los Angeles Times, January 20, 1949.
87. Ibid. Note “Dr. Furtwaengler Won’t Come Here,” Chicago Sun, January 20, 1949; “Seek New Guest Conductor to Replace Furtwaengler,” Chicago Daily News, January 20, 1949.
88. “Dr. Furtwaengler to Chicago—‘nein,’ ” Chicago Sun, January 20, 1949.
89. Klaus Goetze to Manager, Chicago Symphony, January 23, 1949, FF/CSOA.
90. Edward Ryerson, “To Guarantors, Sustaining Members, and Season Ticket Subscribers,” January 1949. Conductor file, Furtwängler, folder 7, New York Philharmonic Archives. A typescript copy of this document, labeled “Press Release,” is also in the Furtwängler file in the Chicago Symphony Archives.
91. Edward Ryerson to Wilhelm Furtwängler, February 4, 1949, FF/CSOA.
92. Wilhelm Furtwängler to Edward Ryerson, February 5, 1949, FF/CSOA.
93. Sekretariat Furtwängler to George Kuyper, February 27, 1949, FF/CSOA.
94. C. Monteith Gilpin (Secretary of the Society for the Prevention of World War III) to the Chicago Orchestral Association, January 7, 1949, FF/CSOA.
95. “Says We Fall Prey to Old Nazi Line,” Chicago Daily News, January 29, 1949. Note “Furtwängler Still Issue in Chicago,” Christian Science Monitor, January 25, 1949.
96. “Furtwaengler’s Standards on Trial in Berlin,” New York Times, December 29, 1946.
97. “German Musicians and Politics: Furtwaengler and Beethoven,” Commonweal (November 6, 1942): 68–70. For an altogether luminous discussion, see Kater, Twisted Muse, 195–203.
98. “Gieseking—His Death Closed A Chapter in Great Artistry,” Musical America (November 15, 1956): 9–10.
99. “A Review of Gieseking’s Record since 1934,” New York Times, February 8, 1948. Note “Whitewash vs. Blacklist,” New York Post, November 8, 1945; “Top Reich Pianist Barred by Allies,” New York Times, December 11, 1945.
100. “Vets Picket to Stop U.S. Tour of Once-Banned German Pianist,” PM (April 20, 1948): 13.
101. “Paging Tom Sawyer” (source unclear, probably New York Sun), September 25, 1948. Clipping file, Walter Gieseking, NYPLPA.
102. Ibid.
103. “Gieseking Here for Recital, Still Called Pro-Nazi,” New York Herald Tribune, January 23, 1949; “German Pianist Arrives,” New York Times, January 23, 1949. Note “Gieseking Due in U.S. Today from Germany,” Los Angeles Times, January 23, 1949.
104. “Gieseking Here for Recital, Still Called Pro-Nazi,” New York Herald Tribune, January 23, 1949.
105. “U.S. Won’t Interfere with Gieseking’s Tour,” World Telegram, January 24, 1949.
106. “Gieseking Agrees to Quit U.S. without Giving a Concert Here,” New York Times, January 25, 1949.
107. Ibid.
108. Ibid.
109. In addition to the New York Times piece cited above, descriptions of the event are taken from several papers from around the country.
110. “Gieseking Off to Paris, Bitter over Treatment,” New York Herald Tribune, January 26, 1949.
111. “Gieseking Leaves for Paris by Plane,” New York Times, January 26, 1949.
112. “Gieseking Off to Paris, Bitter over Treatment,” New York Herald Tribune, January 26, 1949. Gieseking’s manager, Charles Wagner, said the episode was a great loss, since “95 per cent of the people wanted to hear him.” Quoted in Ibid.
113. “Gieseking Off for Paris and Is Glad of It,” Daily Mirror, January 26, 1949.
114. “Gieseking Leaves for Paris by Plane,” New York Times, January 26, 1949.
115. “Gieseking Praises Furtwaengler for His ‘Good Judgment’,” Chicago Tribune, January 27, 1949; “Gieseking Blames U.S. Demagogues,” Los Angeles Times, January 27, 1949.
116. “Gieseking Off to Paris, Bitter over Treatment,” New York Herald Tribune, January 26, 1949.
117. “Rubinstein Tells Stand on Gieseking and Furtwaengler,” Chicago Tribune, February 20, 1949. Horowitz said he would not appear in any concert series that included Gieseking, and several conductors and soloists also denounced Gieseking’s war record while criticizing Furtwängler.
118. “In New York,” New York Daily Mirror, January 25, 1949.
119. “Music,” Nation (January 8, 1949): 54. The Nation’s editors had argued that the decision to attend a Gieseking performance was an individual one. “Walter Gieseking’s American Manager,” Nation (December 4, 1948): 617–18. Note a reader’s response: “Do Art and Politics Stand Apart?,” Nation (December 18, 1948): 708–9.
120. “Faith, Hope and Charity,” New York Sun, January 22, 1949.
121. “Gieseking Case Decried as Sign of Intolerance,” New York Herald Tribune, February 7, 1949. Note “Gieseking Pardon Urged,” New York Times, February 7, 1949.
122. “Further Comment on Mr. Gieseking,” New York Herald Tribune, January 29, 1949.
123. Ibid. The day’s letters page had three more letters opposing the Gieseking tour.
124. Ibid.
125. “Let Gieseking Pay for the Nazis’ Victims,” Nation (January 8, 1949): 55. For a different perspective: “What Do You Do with a Defeated Enemy Musician?,” Ibid. For further discussion, see website.
126. “Gieseking Arrives for His Recital,” New York Herald Tribune, April 22, 1953.
127. “Jewish Congress against Concert by Gieseking,” New York Herald Tribune, April 4, 1953. Note “Gieseking and the McCarran Act,” New York Herald Tribune, April 18, 1953.
128. Descriptions of the concert and the protests from “Gieseking Returns to Carnegie Hall,” New York Times, April 23, 1953; “Gieseking Is Picketed,” Ibid.; “Gieseking Picketed by 300 at Carnegie Hall Recital,” New York Herald Tribune, April 23, 1953.
129. Henderson quote: “Mme. Flagstad as Bruennhilde,” New York Sun, February 23, 1937. Flagstad story: “Music: The Flagstad Story,” Newsweek (June 25, 1945): 104; “The Kirsten Flagstad story—first time told,” Cosmopolitan (December 1950): 32–35; “A Statement by Marks Levine,” who was Flagstad’s adviser and also chairman of the board and director of the Concert Division of the National Concert and Artists Corporation, n.d., Kirsten Flagstad clipping file. Metropolitan Opera Archives, Lincoln Center, New York (hereafter MOA). A number of the newspaper and magazine accounts cited here (through note 194) were found in the Flagstad Clipping file.
130. “Flagstad Wants to Live in U.S. and Sing No More in Norway,” Herald Tribune, June 10, 1945.
131. “Flagstad’s Career Put Up to U.S. as Norwegians Here Attack Her,” New York Times, June 15, 1945.
132. “Flagstad Is Heard in Concert at Paris,” New York Herald Tribune, January 26, 1947; “Flagstad Applauded by Audience in Paris; Calls Thomsen Charge ‘an Abominable Lie’,” New York Times, January 26, 1947.
133. “Flagstad Here on America for Concert Tour,” New York Herald Tribune, March 15, 1947.
134. “Flagstad Welcomed Enthusiastically at Symphony Hall Concert,” Boston Globe, April 7, 1947.
135. “Music,” New York Herald Tribune, April 7, 1947.
136. “Flagstad Welcomed Enthusiastically at Symphony Hall Concert,” Boston Globe, April 7, 1947.
137. Cassidy’s view: “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, April 12, 1947; Chicago picketers: “Flagstad Is Picketed,” New York Times, April 12, 1947.
138. On the concert: “Flagstad Gets Ovation while Pickets March,” New York Herald Tribune, April 21, 1947; “Flagstad Receives a Great Welcome,” New York Times, April 21, 1947.
139. “Protesting Appearance of Kirsten Flagstad Here,” New York Times, April 21, 1947.
140. “Kirsten Flagstad Concert to Be Picketed by the A.V.C.,” New York Herald Tribune, April 20, 1947.
141. “Protesting Appearance of Kirsten Flagstad Here,” New York Times, April 21, 1947.
142. See photos accompanying front-page story: “Flagstad Greeted by Stench Bombs at Recital Here,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 23, 1947.
143. Description from “Flagstad Greeted by Stench Bombs at Recital Here,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 23, 1947.
144. “Bombs and Boos Fail to Silence Flagstad,” New York Times, April 23, 1947. Note “Stench Bombs,” New York Herald Tribune, April 23, 1947.
145. “Flagstad Gives Recital Marked by Wide Range,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 23, 1947.
146. Statement: “Damrosch Aids Flagstad,” New York Times, April 26, 1947; “Damrosch Asks to Play Piano for Flagstad,” New York Herald Tribune, April 26, 1947.
147. “More Artists Join Flagstad Defense,” New York Herald Tribune, April 27, 1947; “Artists Support Mme. Flagstad,” Christian Science Monitor, April 28, 1947.
148. “Walter Winchell in New York,” New York Daily Mirror, March 24, 1947. From March to May 1947, Winchell mocked and excoriated Flagstad in his columns.
149. “Walter Winchell in New York,” New York Daily Mirror, March 18, 1947.
150. “Walter Winchell in New York,” New York Daily Mirror, December 19, 1948.
151. “Music and Politics,” New York Times, March 9, 1947.
152. “In Re Flagstad,” New York Sun, March 22, 1947.
153. “These Days,” New York Sun, May 6, 1947.
154. “Miss Flagstad,” Washington Post, March 29, 1947. Editorial: “Miss Flagstad,” Washington Post, March 23, 1947.
155. “Wants Flagstad to Sing,” New York Times, April 6, 1947.
156. “Flagstad Cheered at Recital Here,” New York Times, December 13, 1948.
157. “Kirsten Flagstad,” New York Herald Tribune, December 13, 1948. For 1948 reviews lauding Flagstad: Clipping file, Flagstad, Kirsten MOA.
158. “Statement by Marks Levine, Chairman of the Board and Director of the Concert Division of National Concert and Artists Corporation,” n.d., Clipping file, Flagstad, Kirsten MOA.
159. Levine Statement, 6–7.
160. “Flagstad Is Barred,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 15, 1949.
161. “Opera Board Insists Flagstad Must Be Allowed to Sing,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 19, 1949.
162. “Flagstad Is Barred,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 15, 1949.
163. “ ‘A Traitor to Norway’,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 15, 1949.
164. “Ban on Flagstad,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 1949.
165. “The Kirsten Flagstad Case,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 16, 1949.
166. “City Calls Peace Talks on Flagstad,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 20, 1949.
167. “San Francisco Wants Flagstad,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 1949.
168. “Ban on Flagstad,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 1949.
169. “Safety Valve,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 21, 1949. Page is filled with relevant letters. Quotations: “Chauvinistic,” “Bigotry,” and “Art.”
170. “Safety Valve,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 22, 1949. See “Intolerance.”
171. “The Board Says ‘No,’ ” San Francisco Chronicle, July 22, 1949.
172. “A Setback for Flagstad,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 30, 1949. Acting Mayor Christopher’s pro-Flagstad message: “Flagstad Dispute,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 26, 1949.
173. “Music” in “Safety Valve,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 30, 1949.
174. “Ban on Flagstad Opera Is Lifted,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 2, 1949.
175. “Opera House Will Open as Scheduled,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 2, 1949.
176. “Restoring City’s Good Repute,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 2, 1949.
177. “Flagstad Triumphant as Isolde,” San Francisco Chronicle, October 2, 1949.
178. On Bing’s appointment and transition from predecessor Edward Johnson, see Irving Kolodin, The Metropolitan Opera, 1883–1966: A Candid History (New York: Knopf, 1967), 482–93.
179. Robert Tuggle, “Clouds of War,” Opera News (July 1995): 17.
180. Ibid.
181. The correspondence on Flagstad that I draw on here was shared with me by the late Robert Tuggle, director of the Metropolitan Opera Archives, who devoted a great deal of time to researching Flagstad’s life. The letters related to Flagstad were originally located in the Edward Johnson Correspondence files, 1949–1950, at the Met Archive. (Johnson preceded Bing as General Manager.) The material I quote from below comes from several folders Mr. Tuggle compiled and organized at the Archive, which he shared with me during the time I spent there. In addition to several hundred letters on the Flagstad case, the material in these folders includes postcards and telegrams, which illuminate the views of hundreds of supporters and opponents of Bing’s decision.
182. Fred and Edith Nagler of Riverdale, New York, to Bing (no date visible), Tuggle files, MOA. Bing’s response dated April 12, 1950.
183. Mrs. John Wardlaw to Bing, April 6, 1950; and Bing to Mrs. John Wardlaw, April 18, 1950, Tuggle files, MOA. Letter to the editor of the Indianapolis Star, “The People Speak,” is part of the correspondence.
184. The two letters, the first (February 16, 1950) and the second (n.d.), are from the Tuggle files, MOA.
185. Letter dated February 4, 1950, Tuggle files, MOA. The letter does not indicate whether it is from Washington, DC, or Washington State.
186. Letter (n.d.), Tuggle files, MOA.
187. Letters from the Tuggle files, February 2, 1950, and February 21, 1950, MOA.
188. Letter from Ethel Cohen to Bing, February 3, 1950, Tuggle files, MOA.
189. Letter from Bing to Mrs. Cohen, February 6, 1950, Tuggle files, MOA.
190. Undated letter from Flagstad to Bing, Tuggle files, MOA.
191. See Charles Buchanan to Bing, April 26, 1950; and Bing’s April 27 response, Tuggle files, MOA.
192. Description from “Return of Flagstad,” Newsweek (February 5, 1951): 79.
193. Quote from the Newsweek review above.
194. On Karajan’s Nazi Party membership, Michael Kater writes that Karajan joined the party twice: on April 8, 1933, in Salzburg, and three weeks after that in the Swabian town of Ulm. According to Kater, Karajan later falsely claimed he had joined in Aachen in 1935, to satisfy “a condition for permanent employment there,” where he directed the opera and (soon after) the symphony. Kater writes that Karajan’s party membership in Ulm was seen as valid in Aachen, and “his Reich membership was transferred there.” Later, it was transferred to Berlin, where the registration number remained the same. Kater, Twisted Muse, 57; and 258 (n. 101). See Kater’s superb discussion (55–61). Note “Von Karajan to Conduct Berlin Philharmonic in American Tour,” Musical America (January 1, 1955): 3.
195. “Berlin Philharmonic Hopes Art Will Win Over Reaction to Nazi Past on U.S. Tour,” New York Times, February 8, 1955.
196. “Musicians Oppose Concert Here by ‘Nazi-Led’ Berlin Orchestra,” New York Times, February 20, 1955. On petition and visit: “Shadows of the Past Darken Tour of Berlin Philharmonic,” Detroit News, February 27, 1955.
197. “Berlin Philharmonic Manager Explains Nazi Membership, Silent on Tour Protest,” New York Times, February 21, 1955.
198. “Union Urged to Drop Move to Ban Berlin Orchestra,” New York Herald Tribune, February 22, 1955.
199. On the American Committee for Cultural Freedom and the 1955 tour, see Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999), 226–28.
200. “Musicians Press Protest on Tour,” New York Times, February 24, 1955; “Bid Petrillo Ban Berlin Orchestra,” New York Herald Tribune, Ibid.
201. “Orchestra Takes Off,” New York Times, February 24, 1955.
202. “Berlin Orchestra Here,” New York Times, February 25, 1955.
203. “Berlin Philharmonic Head Explains Relations to Nazis,” New York Herald Tribune, February 26, 1955. On Karajan’s party membership, see n. 194.
204. “Berlin Philharmonic Head Explains Relations to Nazis,” New York Herald Tribune, February 26, 1955; “Two in Orchestra Support Leaders,” New York Times, Ibid.
205. “Berlin Orchestra Gets Ovation Here,” Washington Post, February 28, 1955.
206. “Berlin Orchestra Gets Ovation Here,” Washington Post, February 28, 1955. Note “Packed House Greets Karajan, Berlin Players,” Ibid.
207. “Berlin Philharmonic Concert,” Washington Post, March 3, 1955. For a harsh dissent on Karajan’s US appearance, see a letter from Julius Rosenbaum of the Jewish War Veterans of the United States. “Goodwill Tour,” Ibid., March 26, 1955.
208. “Washington Hails Berlin Orchestra,” New York Herald Tribune, February 28, 1955.
209. “Impressive Program Given by Berlin Philharmonic,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1955.
210. The first New York Herald Tribune letter appeared on March 6, 1955. See “An Orchestra’s Visit.” The second, in response, appeared on March 11, 1955. See “The Berlin Orchestra.”
211. “Berlin Musicians Met Legal Tests,” New York Times, March 1, 1955.
212. “Berlin Philharmonic Gets Rousing Welcome in Bow,” March 2, 1955, New York World-Telegram, March 2, 1955.
213. “Berlin Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 2, 1955.
214. “Music: Berlin Orchestra,” New York Times, March 2, 1955. See website.
215. On the protest, see “Berlin Philharmonic,” New York Herald Tribune, March 2, 1955; and “Berlin Philharmonic Is a Success at Carnegie,” New Daily News, Ibid. The protester’s quotation is from “300 Picket Carnegie against Nazi-Led Band,” Daily Worker, March 3, 1955.
216. “Nazi Aims Denied by von Karajan,” New York Times, March 3, 1955.
217. For the concert programs, see “Touring Berlin Philharmonic Adds Carol Brice as Soloist,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1955.
218. “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, March 12, 1955.
219. Ibid., March 14, 1955. For a glowing account of the second Chicago concert, see “Philharmonic Combines Old with the New,” Ibid., March 13, 1955.
220. “Cleveland,” Musical Courier (April 1955): 27. The same issue contains glowing reviews of the Berlin concerts in New York, 17; Chicago, 26; Washington, 28; and Philadelphia, 29.
221. “Music,” Boston Globe, March 25, 1955.
222. “Ohio Concert Scored,” New York Times, March 4, 1955.
223. “Detroit Musicians Protest Nazi-Led Tour,” Daily Worker, March 4, 1955.
224. “Nazi-Led Band Stirs More Protests,” Daily Worker, March 7, 1955. The article highlighted protests by two Jewish organizations, the Jewish Council, a Baltimore group, and the American Federation for Polish Jews, which sent telegrams to members of Congress.
225. See “Berlin Orchestra Acclaimed Here,” Detroit News, March 18, 1955; and “Berlin Conductor Heir to Greatness,” Detroit News, March 13, 1955.
226. For the description outside the hall, see “3 Pigeons Loosed as Protest at Concert of Berlin Orchestra in Carnegie Hall,” New York Times, March 31, 1955; “Cops to Guard Maestro from N.Y. Anti-Nazis,” New York Post, Ibid.; and “Berlin Group Picketed,” Long Island Star-Journal, Ibid. The argument concerning the McCarran-Walter Act was also made during the Gieseking affair.
227. “Pickets, Pigeon, Perfection,” New York World-Telegram, March 31, 1955.
228. “3 Pigeons Loosed as Protest at Concert of Berlin Orchestra in Carnegie Hall,” New York Times, March 31, 1955. Note “Pickets, Pigeon, Perfection,” New York World-Telegram, March 31, 1955.
229. “Orchestra Departs,” New York Times, April 3, 1955. Note “3d Berlin Orchestra Concert,” New York Times, April 2, 1955; and “Berlin Orchestra Leaves,” New York Herald Tribune, April 3, 1955.
230. “Philharmonic Back in Berlin After U.S. Tour,” Chicago Tribune, April 4, 1955.
231. See website.
232. “Touchy Problem,” New York Times, March 6, 1955.
233. Ibid.
234. “Artist and Morality,” New York Times, April 3, 1955.
235. “A Giant in the Earth,” Musical America (December 15, 1954): 4.
236. “On the Aisle,” Chicago Tribune, December 1, 1954. Note Cassidy’s Tribune column from September 4, 1949, based on her interview with Furtwängler in Salzburg.
237. “Furtwaengler—an Estimate,” New York Times, December 12, 1954. The Times’ obituary did consider Furtwängler’s complex relationship with Nazism. See “Furtwaengler, 68, Conductor, Dead,” Ibid., December 1, 1954. The conductor’s passing was widely covered. See website.
238. “Gieseking, Noted Pianist, Dies in London,” New York World-Telegram, October 26, 1956.
239. “Gieseking Dead; Pianist Was 60,” New York Times, October 27, 1956. An assessment of Gieseking that did not mention his politics is “Au Revoir to Walter Gieseking,” Saturday Review (December 29, 1956): 34–35.
240. See “3,500 Say Farewell to Toscanini at Funeral Service Held in St. Patrick’s,” New York Times, January 20, 1957; and “Flag Lowered at La Scala,” Ibid., January 17, 1957.
241. “The Legacy Toscanini Left,” Musical America (February 1957): 32.
242. “Tributes to Toscanini Offered by President, Mayor and Leaders in the Music World,” New York Times, January 17, 1957.
243. Quoted in “Toscanini Fought against Fascism,” New York Times, January 17, 1957. For a national sampling, see website.
244. “Arturo Toscanini,” New York Times, January 17, 1957. Note “Maestro Kept Eye on Events in Italy,” Ibid; and “A Free Spirit,” Ibid., January 20, 1957.
Chapter Seven: “The Obedient Instrument of the State”: Shostakovich and Copland in the Age of McCarthy
1. “7 Russians Silent on ‘Peace’ Mission,” New York Times, March 24, 1949. See website for additional press accounts.
2. “Red ‘Peace’ Group Here; Rival Rally Wins New Support,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
3. “7 Russians Silent on ‘Peace’ Mission,” New York Times, March 24, 1949.
4. “Red ‘Peace’ Group Here; Rival Rally Wins New Support,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
5. On the placards: “N.Y. ‘Peace’ Rally Protest Planned,” Baltimore Sun, March 24, 1949; “Magazine Sees Intellectuals Forced to Sponsor Red Rally,” New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1949.
6. See website for writings on the Cold War, including its domestic implications.
7. “Music and Soviet Spirit,” New York Times, January 4, 1942. Note “Soviet Music at Quarter-Century Mark,” Musical America (February 10, 1943): 20–21. For an atypical assessment of music in wartime Russia, see the piece by composer Nicolas Nabokov. “Music under Dictatorship,” Atlantic Monthly (January 1942): 92–99.
8. “Composer, Soviet-Style,” Time (November 19, 1945): 57–62. Two readers claimed the editors were Communist sympathizers. “Letters,” Time (December 31, 1945): 2.
9. “Prokofieff’s Voice Is Cosmopolitan; His Theme Is the Spirit of Russia,” Newsweek (November 19, 1945): 82, 84.
10. “Creative Rest Centers of Russia,” Musical Courier (November 15, 1945): 4–5.
11. “Hersey Sees Russia’s Artists as Challenge to American Pace,” Herald Tribune, November 4, 1945.
12. “Commuter to the Caucasus,” Musical Courier (December 15, 1945): 9.
13. “Musicians Take Part in American-Soviet Conference,” Musical America (November 25, 1945): 3–4. Note “Events in the World of Music,” New York Times, November 4, 1945.
14. For works on Cold War origins, see website.
15. See John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), ch. 10.
16. See website on Senator Joseph McCarthy’s impact and the second Red Scare.
17. “U.S. Asks Soviet Artists to Register as Agents; Noted Musicians Protest,” Musical America (November 10, 1946): 16. The Justice Department demand caused alarm in classical-music circles. Ibid., 16. The episode on the delegation was covered widely.
18. “Party Rebuke to Shostakovich Charges His Music Is Decadent,” New York Herald Tribune, February 12, 1948. Note “Soviet Denounces Its ‘Big 3’ in Music, Order a New Line,” New York Times, February 12, 1948. Other leading newspapers (Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, DC) covered the story on that date.
19. “Leading Soviet Composers Rebuked by Communist Central Committee,” Musical America (March 15, 1948): 3, 18.
20. Richard Taruskin, Music in the Late Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 9. In opposition to formalism was Socialist Realism, which, according to Taruskin, did not have as much to do with “Marxist socialism” as with “more traditional Russian attitudes toward the arts.” Excluding modernism, “Socialist Realism demanded that art be rooted in folklore, or . . . in styles familiar and meaningful to all without special preparation.” Richard Taruskin, Music in the Early Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 779. Note Laurel E. Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 154–65; and “Zhdanov Calls Tunes in Soviet Russia,” New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1948.
21. “Soviet Music Compared to Dentist’s Drill,” New York Times, March 24, 1948.
22. “Three Well Known in U.S.,” New York Times, February 12, 1948. Note Claudia Cassidy’s “On the Aisle” column in the Chicago Tribune, February 20, 1948.
23. “To Give Russians’ Works,” New York Times, February 15, 1948.
24. “Prokofieff Opera to Be Given Here,” New York Times, February 13, 1948. Chicagoans encountered the poetry of one writer, who lamented Shostakovich’s fate. “Bolo Thought Police,” Chicago Tribune, March 16, 1948. Soviet reaction to the crackdown, no doubt slanted, was offered to newspaper readers: “New Ridicule Heaped on Red Composers,” Los Angeles Times, February 16, 1948; “ ‘Pravda’ Readers in Tune with Music Crackdown,” New York Herald Tribune, February 15, 1948.
25. “3 Noted Soviet Composers Ousted from Posts, Paris Sources Report,” New York Times, March 29, 1948; “Composers Swept Out in Latest Red Purge,” Los Angeles Times, March 29, 1948.
26. “Russian Composers Confess Writing Antidemocratic Music,” Los Angeles Times, February 22, 1948.
27. “Shostakovich Joins Chorus of Apologists,” Washington Post, April 26, 1948. Note “Shostakovich again Apologizes for His Formal Compositions,” Chicago Tribune, April 26, 1948.
28. “Soviet Extols, Hits Composer on Same Day,” Washington Post, February 17, 1948.
29. In January 1936, Stalin and his associates left the Moscow theater before the conclusion of Lady Macbeth, which, since 1934, had been much admired and performed widely. Two days later, an editorial in Pravda, the Communist Party organ, denounced the piece as decadent and lacking the simplicity deemed essential for the Soviet masses. Laurel Fay writes that it was “singled out” for its “modernistic defects.” It would not be performed again until 1961. See Fay, 74–77, 83–85, 87–91; and Taruskin, Early Twentieth Century, 785–96, both highly illuminating.
30. “Composers in Trouble,” New York Herald Tribune, February 22, 1948. Note a second Thomson piece, “Soviet Esthetics,” New York Herald Tribune, May 2, 1948.
31. “Music and Ideologies,” Christian Science Monitor, February 26, 1948.
32. “The Stalinist Myth,” New York Times, April 18, 1948.
33. “Russia Tightens the Iron Curtain on Ideas,” New York Times, December 26, 1948. Note a critical piece by music critic Albert Goldberg, “The Sounding Board,” Los Angeles Times, July 11, 1948.
34. “Shostakovich in Soviet Delegation to Attend Arts Conference Here,” New York Times, February 21, 1949.
35. “Shostakovich Coming to N.Y. for Peace Forum Next Month,” New York Herald Tribune, February 21, 1949.
36. Perspective and quotations from Lawrence S. Wittner, One World or None: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement through 1953 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 171.
37. Whether the Waldorf Conference was a Soviet-backed or a Communist-front initiative is a question that still generates debate. The 1949 event, unlike the so-called peace gatherings before (Wroclaw: 1948) and after (Paris: April 1949 and Stockholm: 1950), was organized by Americans.
38. “ ‘Intellectual’ Pinks Map Fight on U.S. Policy,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1949.
39. “Dr. Edman Abandons ‘World Peace’ Group,” New York Times, March 4, 1949. Hovde quoted in preceding and in “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949. Note “ ‘Intellectual’ Pinks Map Fight on U.S. Policy,” Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1949.
40. “Musicians Union to Shun Cultural Parley, Urges Shostakovich Seek to Live in U.S.,” New York Times, March 17, 1949.
41. “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949.
42. “5 Leaders Uphold Cultural Parley,” New York Times, March 21, 1949.
43. “Musicians Union to Shun Cultural Parley, Urges Shostakovich Seek to Live in U.S.,” New York Times, March 17, 1949. Signatories included conductors: Serge Koussevitzky, Bruno Walter, Dimitri Mitropoulos, Leonard Bernstein, Morton Gould; composers: Samuel Barber, Aaron Copland, Paul Creston, Walter Piston; instrumentalists: Vladimir Horowitz, Erica Morini, Artie Shaw, Albert Spalding.
44. “Legion Urges U.S. Deny Reds Entry,” New York Times, March 16, 1949. Rabbi Benjamin Schultz of the American Jewish League contacted Attorney General Tom Clark. Ibid.
45. See Wittner, 175–76.
46. “Kulturfest at the Waldorf: Soapbox for Red Propaganda,” New Leader (March 19, 1949): 1.
47. Note “Thunder on the Left Rolls toward Intellectual ‘Peace Parley’,” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 1949; and “Kulturfest at the Waldorf: Soapbox for Red Propaganda,” New Leader (March 19, 1949): 1.
48. “U.S. to Admit Red Delegates; Scores Aims of Parley Here,” New York Times, March 17, 1949. The decision was covered widely. See website.
49. “U.S. Granting Parley Visas to 22 from Russia, Satellites,” Washington Post, March 17, 1949; “U.S. Lets in 22 Reds for ‘Peace’ Parley,” Los Angeles Times, March 17, 1949.
50. The State Department claimed the delegates from Russia and the Eastern bloc, while Communists, were representing their countries in an “official” capacity, whereas those from Western Europe (and one from Brazil), although also Communists, were attending as private individuals, meaning they could be denied entry by American consuls abroad. “ ‘Peace’ Parley Here Says U.S. Bars Delegates,” New York Herald Tribune, March 22, 1949.
51. “Dewey Backs Counter Rally against Reds,” New York Herald Tribune, March 23, 1949.
52. Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999), 53.
53. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917–1950 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 507–8.
54. “Counter-Rally Being Organized Against Cultural Peace Parley,” New York Herald Tribune, March 20, 1949; “ ‘World Peace’ Setup Opposed,” Baltimore Sun, March 20, 1949.
55. For Hook’s supporters, see website.
56. “Rally’s Leaders Challenged by Counter-Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1949.
57. “Pickets to Harass Cultural Meeting; Delegates Arrive,” New York Times, March 24, 1949. The Daily Worker supplied a contrary view. See website. Suburban New Yorkers read that Shostakovich had “his knuckles rapped in Russia.” “Week End at the Waldorf,” Newsday, March 22, 1949. Note “Freedom—without Illusions,” New York Herald Tribune, March 18, 1949.
58. “Pickets March, Sing and Pray in Demonstration at Waldorf,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949. Note “Tumult at the Waldorf,” Time (April 4, 1949): 21–23; “Peace; Everybody Wars over It,” Newsweek (April 4, 1949): 19–22.
59. “Democracy Defended at N.Y. Rally,” Baltimore Sun, March 26, 1949.
60. “Our Way Defended to 2,000 Opening ‘Culture’ Meeting,” New York Times, March 26, 1949.
61. Cousins quoted: “ ‘Peace’ Conference Picketed,” Christian Science Monitor, March 26, 1949; “ ‘Peace’ Rally Opens at Waldorf; Pickets Demonstrate 12 Hours; Counter-Rally to Be Held Today,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949.
62. “Democracy Defended at N.Y. Rally,” Baltimore Sun, March 26, 1949. Note “Hundreds Picket in Rain Outside ‘World Peace’ Meeting,” Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1949.
63. See note 61.
64. “Our Way Defended to 2,000 Opening ‘Culture’ Meeting,” New York Times, March 26, 1949; “Hundreds Picket outside ‘World Peace’ Meeting,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 26, 1949.
65. “Hook Invades Shapley’s Room to Ask Apology,” New York Herald Tribune, March 26, 1949; “Professor Demands Dr. Shapley Apologize,” Boston Globe, March 26, 1949; “Hook Confronts Shapley in Latter’s Hotel Room,” New York Times, March 26, 1949.
66. “Keynoters Assess East-West Blame,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
67. “Shostakovich and 2 Colleagues Defend Soviet Control of Arts,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949. A similar version appeared in the Boston Globe.
68. “Panel Discussions of the Cultural Conference Delegates Cover a Wide Range of Subjects,” New York Times, March 27, 1949; “Culture Sessions Center on Conflict of East and West,” Ibid. Note Carol Brightman, Writing Dangerously: Mary McCarthy and Her World (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1992), 322–26.
69. “Shostakovich and 2 Colleagues Defend Soviet Control of Arts,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949.
70. “Anti-Red Session Is Hailed by Tobin,” New York Times, March 26, 1949. During World War II, Kerensky came to the United States, where he remained active in the anti-Soviet cause. “Kerensky Dies Here at 89,” June 12, 1970, Ibid.
71. Hook quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Counter Rally Defends ‘Peace’ Group’s Right to Meet,” Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1949.
72. Eastman quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Soviet is Attacked at Counter Rally,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
73. Kasenkina quoted: “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949; “Soviet Is Attacked at Counter Rally,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
74. “Counter-Rally Cheers Attacks on Russia for ‘Intellectual Purge’; ‘Peace’ Rally Defends Soviets,” New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1949.
75. “2 ‘Peace’ Meetings Jeered by Pickets,” New York Times, March 27, 1949.
76. Downes in Speaking of Peace, Daniel S. Gillmor, ed., an edited report of the Waldorf Conference, published in New York in 1949 by the National Council of the Arts, Sciences and Professions, 88–89.
77. Speaking of Peace, 88–89.
78. Ibid.
79. “Shostakovich Bids All Artists Lead War on New ‘Fascists,’ ” New York Times, March 28, 1949. Excerpts are from this account; from Speaking of Peace (95–99); and from press reports: “Russians at ‘Peace’ Rally Assail U.S., Atlantic Pact, Say Moscow Is Anti-war,” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949; “Shostakovich Hits Stravinsky as ‘Betrayer,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949; “Vitriolic Attacks on U.S. at Parley,” Boston Globe, Ibid. Note “Shostakovich Stirs an Artistic Storm: Must All Music Meet Stalin’s Whistle Test?,” Newsweek (April 4, 1949): 20–21. On writing the address, see Fay, 172–74.
80. Speaking of Peace, 95.
81. “Russians at ‘Peace’ Rally Assail U.S., Atlantic Pact, Say Moscow Is Anti-war,” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949.
82. “Shostakovich Bids All Artists Lead War on New ‘Fascists,’ ” New York Times, March 28, 1949; “Shostakovich Hits Stravinsky as ‘Betrayer,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949.
83. “Shostakovich Hits Stravinsky as ‘Betrayer,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949.
84. On Prokofiev: “Shostakovich Hits Stravinsky as ‘Betrayer,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949; “Shostakovich Bids All Artists Lead War on New ‘Fascists,’ ” New York Times, March 28, 1949.
85. On Stravinsky: “Shostakovich Hits Stravinsky as ‘Betrayer,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949; “Shostakovich Bids All Artists Lead War on New ‘Fascists,’ ” New York Times, March 28, 1949. Note Irving Kolodin’s column, “Shostakovich vs. Stravinsky,” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949. In refusing, Stravinsky wrote, “Regret not able to join . . . but all my ethic and esthetic convictions oppose such gesture.” Elizabeth Wilson, Shostakovich: A Life Remembered (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 239.
86. Nicolas Nabokov, Bagazh: Memoirs of a Russian Cosmopolitan (New York: Atheneum, 1975), 237.
87. Speaking of Peace, 99. Note Nabokov, 237–38.
88. Ibid.
89. Arthur Miller, Timebends: A Life (New York: Grove Press, 1987), 239.
90. Howard Pollack, Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 48–49. Copland in Paris: Pollack, chs. 4–6; Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis, Aaron Copland, 1900–1942 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984), 41–92.
91. “Effect of the Cold War on the Artist in the U.S.,” Aaron Copland: A Reader: Selected Writings, 1923–1972, Richard Kostelanetz, ed. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 128–31.
92. “Effect of the Cold War on the Artist.”
93. Copland quoted in Speaking of Peace, 90–91.
94. Ibid.
95. “Pickets Boo 18,000 at Peace Parley,” Washington Post, March 28, 1949. Note “Vitriolic Attacks on U.S. at Parley,” Boston Globe, March 28, 1949.
96. “Russians at ‘Peace’ Rally Assail U.S., Atlantic Pact, Say Moscow Is Anti-War,” New York Herald Tribune, March 28, 1949. Note “At the Waldorf: Lightning on the Left,” Christian Science Monitor, March 28, 1949.
97. “State Dept. Acts to Block Tour of Soviet Group,” New York Herald Tribune, March 30, 1949. Note “Goodbye Now,” Time (April 11, 1949): 22.
98. “Red ‘Peace’ Junket Ends before Start,” Washington Post, March 30, 1949. Note “U.S. Spikes ‘Peace’ Tour Scheduled for 18 Reds, Orders Them to Leave,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 30, 1949.
99. “U.S. Spikes ‘Peace’ Tour Scheduled for 18 Reds, Orders Them to Leave,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 30, 1949.
100. “Yale Refuses Hall for Shostakovich,” New York Times, March 30, 1949. Note “Marsalka Loses His Job at Yale,” New York Times, April 12, 1949.
101. “Moves to Block Shostakovich Chicago Visit,” Chicago Tribune, March 29, 1949.
102. “ ‘World Peace Rally’ Speakers Here Attack North Atlantic Pact,” Chicago Tribune, April 7, 1949.
103. “Soviet Parley Sponsors Seek Huge ‘Peace Roll Call,’ ” Christian Science Monitor, April 4, 1949. Note “Shostakovich Off to Moscow, ‘Glad to Be Returning Home,’ ” New York Herald Tribune, April 4, 1949.
104. “Shostakovich Holds U.S. Fears His Music,” New York Times, May 27, 1949.
105. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America (November 15, 1949): 11.
106. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America, Ibid. Shostakovich also heard the Juilliard String Quartet perform three Bartók quartets in New York, though he noted, incorrectly, that Bartók had died of malnutrition in the city in 1945, “in terrible straits.” Ibid.
107. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America, Ibid.
108. “Mephisto’s Musings,” Musical America, Ibid. For Shostakovich’s view of Stravinsky, beyond his assessment at the Waldorf conference, see “Shostakovich Says Stravinsky Betrays Russia,” New York Herald Tribune, May 27, 1949. He fiercely criticized his music and called him “a traitor to his motherland.”
109. “Shostakovich Gives Views on New York,” New York Times, May 28, 1949.
110. In 1950, Shostakovich criticized American literature, attacking Upton Sinclair and John Steinbeck. “Russian Assails Authors,” New York Times, July 7, 1950.
111. Upon the conclusion of the event, an “action committee” was established to continue the work of the conference. “ ‘Action’ Unit Set Up for Peace Parley Goals,” New York Times, March 28, 1949.
112. “Peace: Everybody Wars over It,” Newsweek (April 4, 1949): 19–22.
113. “Tumult at the Waldorf,” Time (April 4, 1949): 23–24.
114. “Red Visitors Cause Rumpus,” Life (April 4, 1949): 39–43. For further editorial discussion, see website.
115. “Don’t Be Fooled,” Philadelphia Inquirer, March 29, 1949.
116. “Ban on Delegates Upheld,” New York Times, April 20, 1949. Note Los Angeles Times letters opposing the visit: “If Nazi Conductor Is Barred, Why Should Reds Be Let In?” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 1949; “Foreign Artist Policy,” Ibid., March 28, 1949; “Shostakovich, Furtwaengler,” Ibid., March 31, 1949.
117. “Alumnus Protests Yale Ban,” New York Times, April 2, 1949.
118. “Dinner without Tension,” New York Herald Tribune, March 29, 1949.
119. “Juri Jelagin Writes a Letter to Shostakovich,” Musical America (April 1, 1949): 14. The letter, submitted by Alexander Kerensky, first appeared in the New York Herald Tribune on March 27, 1949.
120. Ibid.
121. “Calling Washington,” Washington Post, March 29, 1949.
122. Ibid.
123. “The Kremlin in New York,” New York Herald Tribune, April 3, 1949. Note Dwight Macdonald’s piece for its description of Shostakovich: “pale, slight, sensitive-looking; . . . tense, withdrawn, unsmiling—a tragic and heart-rending figure.” “The Waldorf Conference,” Politics (Winter 1949): 313–26.
124. “On the Horizon,” Commentary (May 1949): 487–93.
125. Ibid.
126. “The Cultural Conference,” Partisan Review (May 1949): 505–11.
127. Ibid. Note “The Tragedy of Shostakovich,” New Leader (March 26, 1949): 6. The Reverend Norman Vincent Peale of the Marble Collegiate Church denounced the event. “Conference Seen as Red ‘Invasion,’ ” New York Times, March 28, 1949.
128. The Berlin meeting comprised intellectuals from some twenty countries, most from the United States and Western Europe. Richard Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 70–76; Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, 73–84. Nabokov said he was unaware at the time that the CIA funded the organization.
129. “Dmitri Shostakovich: Tragedy of a Great Composer,” Allegro (October 1950): 10–12, 31.
130. Ibid.
131. Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Schrecker notes that American Communists spied for the Soviet Union in this era, but contends that such activities did not at all justify the political repression that characterized the period.
132. Extension of Remarks of Hon. Fred E. Busbey of Illinois, Congressional Record, 83rd Congress, 1st session, January 16, 1953, appendix, A169–A171.
133. Ibid.
134. Ibid. Note “Copland Ideas Out of Tune, Busbey Says,” Washington Post, January 17, 1953.
135. “Inaugural Concert Bars Copland’s ‘Lincoln Portrait,’ ” Washington Post, January 15, 1953.
136. Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis, Copland: 1900 through 1942 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984), 344.
137. “Ban on Copland Work at Inaugural Scored,” New York Times, January 17, 1953. The League’s statement to the committee was also sent to the Times. Aaron Copland and Vivian Perlis, Copland since 1943 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 185.
138. Copland since 1943, 185.
139. “Wicked Music,” New Republic (January 26, 1953): 7. In Music and Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), Copland criticized the lack of creative freedom composers had in the Soviet Union, 74–77.
140. “Copland on Lincoln,” New York Times, February 1, 1953.
141. “Music Censorship Reveals New Peril,” Washington Post, January 18, 1953. Note “American Music Is Comfortably of Age,” Ibid., January 25, 1953.
142. “A Lincoln Portrait,” Washington Post, January 19, 1953.
143. “Basic Freedom,” Washington Post, January 24, 1953.
144. Copland since 1943, 186.
145. Copland since 1943, 189. It is not clear where this statement appeared. The Copland-Perlis volume also quotes from a letter that Copland apparently wrote to President Eisenhower about the matter, though there is no record of it in the Eisenhower Library. Ibid., 187.
146. Copland since 1943, 190–91.
147. Pollack, 457.
148. On the 1941 South America trip, see “Portrait of an American Composer,” New York Times, August 24, 1941.
149. Senate Committee on Government Operations, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, State Department Teacher-Student Exchange Program, 83rd Congress, 1st session, May 26, 1953, Testimony of Aaron Copland, 1268–69.
150. Ibid., 1269.
151. Ibid., 1270.
152. Ibid., 1267–89.
153. Ibid., 1273.
154. Ibid., 1278–79.
155. Ibid., 1280.
156. Ibid., 1283.
157. Ibid., 1284. In a statement prepared later, Copland said he had read over the account on the fine arts panel in the New York Times, noting, “I do not personally remember having seen anyone at the conference who is not listed in those published reports.” Copland since 1943, 197.
158. Senate Committee on Government Operations, Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, State Department Teacher-Student Exchange Program, 83rd Congress, 1st session, May 26, 1953, Testimony of Aaron Copland, 1289.
159. Copland since 1943, 198, 202.
160. “Not Red, Says Aaron Copland, After McCarthy Group Quiz,” Baltimore Sun, May 27, 1953. On that date, note “All Red Ties Denied by Aaron Copland,” New York Times; “Aaron Copland Denies He Ever Was Communist,” Boston Globe; “Aaron Copland Denies He’s Red,” New York Herald Tribune. Full statement in Copland since 1943, 193.
161. Copland since 1943, 193, 195.
162. Pollack, 458. Note Copland since 1943, 198–99.
163. Copland since 1943, 200. In a follow-up letter to Copland, Kennedy wrote, “I, too, deplore the intrusion of a political counterpoint, which to my mind is sadly out of key in any artistic enterprise.” Ibid., 200.
164. Copland since 1943, 201.
165. Ibid., 201.
166. Ibid., 202. See “Dean of Our Composers at 60,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, November 13, 1960.
167. Pollack, 460.
Chapter Eight: “Khrushchev Wouldn’t Know a B-flat if He Heard One”: Symphony Orchestras Fight the Cold War
1. I wish to acknowledge that the discussion of the Bernstein trip to Moscow draws on my essay in Leonard Bernstein, American Original: How a Modern Renaissance Man Transformed Music and the World during His New York Philharmonic Years, 1943–1976, Burton Bernstein and Barbara Haws, eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 2008), 124, 126–29. Bernstein’s words from Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow, a documentary directed by Richard Leacock, sponsored by the Ford Motor Company. The documentary was taped before a live audience in Moscow on September 11, 1959, and broadcast on WCBS-TV on October 25, 1959. It can be viewed at the New York Philharmonic Archive, Lincoln Center, New York City (NYPA).
2. See Barry Seldes, Leonard Bernstein: The Political Life of an American Musician (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), esp. chs. 2–3.
3. On the Cold War’s cultural dimension, see website.
4. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 129.
5. Gaddis, 129. Melvyn P. Leffler writes that the U.S. was inclined to “explore the parameters of détente.” For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 133.
6. Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 57. Osgood does not believe this was a genuine peace initiative, but claims the U.S. exploited the moment to advance its overseas aims (63–65).
7. “Text of Speech by Eisenhower Outlining Proposals for Peace in the World,” New York Times, April 17, 1953.
8. According to Osgood, the speech sought to seize the “peace initiative” from Moscow (65).
9. Osgood, 217.
10. See Kiril Tomoff, Virtuosi Abroad: Soviet Music and Imperial Competition during the Early Cold War, 1945–1958 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015), 116–29. Cellist Mstislav Rostropovich also performed in the U.S. in this period.
11. See Osgood, 217.
12. Dwight Eisenhower to Edgar N. Eisenhower, November 22, 1955, Ann Whitman file, Eisenhower Diary Series, box 11, Eisenhower Diary–November 1955, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas. (I encountered this source in Osgood’s Total Cold War, and requested the document from the Eisenhower Library.)
13. Osgood, 218. According to one report, peoples around the world perceived American culture as barren and saw Americans as a “gadget-loving people produced by an exclusively mechanical, technological and materialist civilization.” Operations Coordinating Board, “Position Paper, President’s Emergency Fund for International Affairs,” January 4, 1955, OCB Central files, box 14, OCB 007 (file 1), Eisenhower Library. (I encountered this source in Osgood, and requested the document from the Eisenhower Library.)
14. Quoted in Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998), 11.
15. Ibid. Note “U.S. Lifts Curtain on Culture Drive,” New York Times, February 28, 1955.
16. See website for a Senate hearing and two congressional reports, which explore this in depth.
17. US Congress, House Report of a Special Subcommittee to the Committee on Education and Labor, Federal Grants for Fine Arts Programs and Projects, 83rd Congress, 2nd sess., 1954, 1.
18. Ibid., 5–6.
19. Ibid., 7.
20. Ibid. The senators’ words appear in this House subcommittee report.
21. US Congress, House, Congressman Frank Thompson of New Jersey Extension of Remarks on the Boston Symphony Orchestra Aid the President in Lifting the Iron Curtain, Congressional Record—Appendix (July 26, 1955): A5492–93. Thompson asked that Washburn’s remarks be included in the record.
22. US Congress, House, Congressman Frank Thompson of New Jersey Extension of Remarks on the Boston Symphony Orchestra Aid the President in Lifting the Iron Curtain, Congressional Record—Appendix (July 26, 1955): A5492–93.
23. US Congress, House, Subcommittee on the Committee on Appropriations, The Supplemental Appropriations Bill, 1956, 84th Cong., 1st sess. June 13, 14, 20, 1955, 277–78.
24. Ibid., 281.
25. “Music in the Post-War World,” Musical Courier (March 5, 1944): 14.
26. “Music’s Cue Given at San Francisco Conference,” Musical America (May 1945): 16. The music journals demonstrate the extent to which reflections on music were wedded to the desire for peace and cooperation.
27. “New York Philharmonic-Symphony Orchestra Green Room Intermission,” October 30, 1949, Clipping file, NY Philharmonic, 1949–1950, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Lincoln Center, New York (NYPLPA).
28. “Immigration, Naturalization of Foreign Musicians,” Musical America (December 1, 1952): 14.
29. “British Broadcasting Corporation, Scottish Home Service, Speech of Floyd G. Blair, July 16, 1951, box 021-03, folder 39, Tours: Edinburgh, 1951, NYPA. Note “Artistic Interchange,” New York Times, August 12, 1951.
30. Carlton Sprague Smith to Henry Cabot, December 5, 1947, International Music Fund, Trust 7X, box 3, Boston Symphony Orchestra Archives, Symphony Hall, Boston, MA (BSOA).
31. International Exchange Program, “Procedural Provisions with Respect to Advisory Panels,” n.d. (prob. 1954), 1–2, box 100, folder 1, Bureau for Educational and Cultural Affairs Historical Collection (hereafter CU collection), Special Collections, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR. On the panel’s importance, see “Music Advisory Panel Meeting,” April 24, 1957, 2, CU collection, box 100, folder 3.
32. On the lack of American pieces played on the 1955 New York Philharmonic’s European tour under Mitropoulos, see “Music Advisory Panel, International Exchange Program, February 8, 1955, 2, CU collection, box 100, folder 1; International Exchange Program memo from Robert C. Schnitzer to International Exchange Service, 2, March 16, 1955, CU collection, Box 48, folder 6; and Music Advisory Panel, October 11, 1955, 1–2, CU collection, box 100, folder 1.
33. “Music Panel Meeting,” December 8, 1954, 2, CU collection, box 100, folder 1.
34. See panel member Virgil Thomson on criteria for selecting groups. Music Advisory Panel, September 13, 1955, 1, CU collection, box 100, folder 1; Department of State, “Basic Principles for Guidance of Agencies Administering the Cultural Program Financed from the President’s Emergency Fund for International Affairs,” 1, n.d. (probably 1954), CU collection, box 48, folder 6.
35. Department of State, “Basic Principles for Guidance of Agencies Administering the Cultural Program,” n.d. (prob. 1954), 2, CU collection, box 48, folder 6.
36. “Music Advisory Panel Meeting,” April 24, 1957, 2, CU collection, box 100, folder 3.
37. “Music Panel Meeting,” December 8, 1954, 3, CU collection, box 100, folder 1.
38. “Progress Report No. 15,” August 2, 1955, 6, CU collection, box 48, folder 6.
39. “Music Panel Meeting,” December 8, 1954, 4, CU collection, box 100, folder 1.
40. “Progress Report No. 15,” August 2, 1955, 8, CU collection, box 48, folder 6.
41. In May 1952, the orchestra made its first trip to Europe, playing fifteen concerts in eleven cities. “The Triumphal European Tour of the Boston Symphony Orchestra,” 1952 European Tour, Administrative: Miscellaneous, Mgt 48, Tour and Trip Files, 1946–1952, box 1, BSOA. All newspaper accounts (through note 52) are from the Boston Symphony Clipping files, Pres 56, BSOA.
42. On playing American works: “Two Orchestras Go Abroad This Year—They Should Play American Works,” New York Times, January 22, 1956.
43. The Soviets also provided some funding for that part of the tour. “Visit to Russia Intrigues Players,” Boston Herald, August 31, 1956; “Culture One of Hottest of United States’ Exports,” Boston Sunday Globe, August 19, 1956.
44. “Symphony to Moscow,” New York Times, June 11, 1956. Note Henry Cabot to James P. Richards, March 5, 1956, Correspondence 1955–56, Trus, 7X, box 1, BSOA.
45. The document, in the form of a short address, is dated April 25, 1956. It was most likely written by Thomas D. Perry, the BSO’s manager. 1956 European Tour, Moscow-USSR, Mgt 48, box 5, BSOA.
46. “Time’s Little Ironies,” Boston Globe, August 14, 1956.
47. Dm. Kabalevskii, “On the Concerts of the Boston Orchestra,” Pravda, September 14, 1956. BSO Scrapbooks, BSOA.
48. Alexander Gauk, Sovetskaya Kul’tura, September 11, 1956, Ibid.
49. “Boston Doctor Found Russian People Eager to Learn about America,” Boston Sunday Post, September 23, 1956.
50. “Musicians Quizzed Eagerly by Soviets,” Christian Science Monitor, September 29, 1956.
51. “With the Boston Symphony Orchestra in Europe,” William Cox 1960, Tour materials, BSOA.
52. “Boston Symphony Good Will Ambassador,” Pawtucket (RI) Times, September 13, 1956. Exceptions to this positive perspective: “Sickening Spectacles,” Manchester Union Leader, October 8, 1956.
53. “Eisenhower Lauds Boston Symphony,” New York Times, October 6, 1956. The remarks were published widely.
54. “Philadelphians’ Tour,” New York Times, October 1, 1957.
55. Press release from the Philadelphia Orchestra, Clipping file, Philadelphia Orchestra, 1958, NYPLPA. Ormandy first conducted the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1931.
56. Ibid.
57. “Philadelphians End Warsaw Tour,” New York Herald Tribune, June 23, 1958.
58. “Ormandy Troupe Toast of Rumania,” New York Times, May 22, 1958.
59. “U.S. Musicians Hit Polish Tour Aides,” New York Times, June 18, 1958; “Warsaw Hails Ormandy,” Ibid., June 19, 1958.
60. “Musical Moscow Hails U.S. Visitors,” New York Times, May 28, 1958.
61. “Izvestia Praises Debut,” New York Times, May 30, 1958.
62. “Orchestra Ends Visit in Moscow,” New York Times, May 31, 1958.
63. “Kiev Opens Its Gates,” New York Times, June 1, 1958. Many newspapers covered the trip, including those in Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and Washington. The Philadelphia Inquirer offered extensive coverage.
64. “Kiev Opens Its Gates,” New York Times, June 1, 1958.
65. “Music: Brotherly Love,” New York Times, June 3, 1958.
66. “Van Cliburn, Cold War Envoy, Dies at 78,” New York Times, February 27, 2013.
67. “The All-American Virtuoso,” Time (May 19, 1958): 58–69. Note “Van Cliburn’s Teacher Reaps Share of Fame,” Washington Post, May 13, 1958.
68. “The All-American Virtuoso,” Time (May 19, 1958): 58–69. Other details from “Van Cliburn, Cold War Envoy, Dies at 78,” New York Times, February 27, 2013.
69. “The All-American Virtuoso,” Time (May 19, 1958): 58–69. On financing the trip: “Eight U.S. Musicians Compete in Moscow,” New York Times, March 25, 1958.
70. “Moscow Hails U.S. Pianist,” Chicago Tribune, April 12, 1958.
71. “Moscow Hails Texas Pianist,” Baltimore Sun, April 12, 1958; “Russians Cheer U.S. Pianist, 23,” New York Times, April 12, 1958. Note “Texas Pianist Wows Moscow Music Lovers,” Los Angeles Times, April 13, 1958.
72. “U.S. Pianist, 23, Wins Soviet Contest,” New York Times, April 14, 1958. Newspapers covered the victory, often on the front page. See website.
73. “Texas Pianist Wins in Moscow over Reds,” New York Herald Tribune, April 14, 1958. Note “Texas Pianist Wins $6250 Soviet Prize,” Washington Post, April 14, 1958.
74. Richter quoted in “The All-American Virtuoso,” Time (May 19, 1958): 59; “Daily Review of the Soviet Press,” April 19, 1958, 8, Clipping file, Van Cliburn, NYPLPA (taken from Sovetskaya Kultura).
75. Gilels in “Daily Review of the Soviet Press,” April 19, 1958, 6–7, Clipping file, Van Cliburn, NYPLPA.
76. “Texan Gets Khrushchev Bear Hug after Winning Soviet Piano Contest,” Boston Globe, April 15, 1958. On the same date: “Texan Gets Hug from Russ Boss,” Los Angeles Times; “Van Cliburn Elated with Music Prize,” Baltimore Sun.
77. “Texan Given Ovation at Russian Music Fête,” Los Angeles Times, April 16, 1958; “Cliburn Continues as Toast of Soviet,” New York Times, April 16, 1958.
78. “Shostakovich Hails Cliburn’s Success,” New York Times, April 21, 1958.
79. “Shostakovich Is Patronizing on U.S. Music,” New York Herald Tribune, April 21, 1958. Two Newsweek readers rejected Shostakovich’s perspective. “Russia and Cliburn,” Newsweek (June 16, 1958): 8, 11.
80. All the New York papers and many throughout the country covered Cliburn’s return. For quotations: “Van Cliburn Back, Strikes Gay Key,” New York World-Telegram, May 16, 1958; “Van Cliburn Is Home with a Texas [remainder obscured],” May 16, 1958, Clipping file, Van Cliburn, NYPLPA.
81. “Music Notes,” Chicago Tribune, May 19, 1958.
82. “Wonder Boy Wins Through,” New York World-Telegram, May 20, 1958. Note “Hero’s Return,” Time (June 2, 1958): 40; “What Comes Naturally,” Newsweek (Ibid.): 53.
83. “Words and Music,” New York Post, May 20, 1958.
84. “Young Van Cliburn Excites Audience,” New York Journal-American, May 20, 1958. On his musical development: “Music to My Ears,” Saturday Review (May 31, 1958): 21.
85. “Wonder Boy Wins Through,” New York World-Telegram and Sun, May 20, 1958.
86. “Cliburn a Winner Here, Too,” New York Herald Tribune, May 20, 1958.
87. “Van Cliburn Proves He Has What It Takes,” Daily News, May 20, 1958. Note “Van Cliburn Conquers at Home, Too,” New York World-Telegram and Sun, May 20, 1958.
88. For parade description and quotations: “City Cheers for Cliburn in Parade,” New York Herald Tribune, May 21, 1958; “Van Cliburn Gets a Hero’s Parade,” New York Times, Ibid.; “100,000 Hail Van Cliburn in N.Y. Bow,” Chicago Tribune, Ibid.
89. “New York City’s ‘American Music Day’ in Tribute to Van Cliburn,” May 20, 1958, Clipping file, Van Cliburn, NYPLPA.
90. Eisenhower’s congratulatory message to Cliburn stated, “I believe such contests are good for better understanding between peoples of all nations.” “Ike Sends Bid to Pianist Who Won Moscow Prize,” Washington Post, April 18, 1958.
91. On the visit: “Cliburn Will Visit Eisenhower Today,” New York Times, May 23, 1958; “Eisenhower Hails Van Cliburn; Takes Helicopter to Gettysburg,” Ibid., May 24, 1958; “Cliburn Given High Praise by President,” Los Angeles Times, May 24, 1958; “Ike Looks Up,” Chicago Tribune, May 24, 1958.
92. On Cliburn’s activities in Washington: “Van Toasted in Vodka and Champagne,” Washington Post, May 25, 1958; “Why So ‘Quiet’ for Van?” Washington Post, May 26, 1958.
93. Peanuts in newspapers across the country, July 12, 1958. For amusing pieces: “Cliburn’s Victory at the Piano Earns Texas Seat at Summit Talk,” Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1958; “Pianist in Moscow Outplays Diplomats,” New York Daily Mirror, April 20, 1958. On religious devotion: “The Cliburn Formula: Faith, Prayer, Practice,” New York Daily Mirror, May 16, 1958.
94. “The View from Here,” New York Post, May 27, 1958.
95. “Culture Closing U.S.-Soviet Gap,” Washington Post, April 19, 1958.
96. “American Triumph in Moscow,” New York Herald Tribune, April 15, 1958.
97. “Music to My Ears,” Saturday Review (May 3, 1958): 25.
98. “An Editorial,” Musical Courier (May 1958): 12. On lack of support for American artists: Paul Henry Lang, “Music and Musicians,” New York Herald Tribune, May 27, 1958.
99. “Pianist’s Return,” Baltimore Sun, May 23, 1958. Note “Van Cliburn’s Success a Credit to America,” Los Angeles Times, May 25, 1958.
100. See my chapter on the 1958 trip in Jessica Gienow-Hecht, ed., Music and International History in the Twentieth Century (New York: Berghahn Books, 2015), 140–165.
101. On Bernstein’s career, see website. On replacing Walter: “Bernstein Makes Dramatic Debut When Walter Is Indisposed,” Musical America (November 25, 1943): 11.
102. On Bernstein’s political views and tribulations: Seldes, esp. chs. 2–3.
103. “New York Philharmonic to Make Grand Tour Including Russia,” February 26, 1959, box 023-01, folder 31, NYPA. Note “Itinerary: Tour of Europe and the Near East, August 3, 1959 to October 11, 1959,” box 23-01, folder 39, NYPA.
104. “So You’re Going to Russia,” box 023-01, folder 39, NYPA. The document was apparently produced by the US government.
105. On the American Exhibition: Walter Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), chs. 6–7.
106. “How Bernstein Met Pasternak,” New York Herald Tribune, September 27, 1959.
107. A. Medvedev, “Good—but Not All Good, Mr. Bernstein,” Sovetskaya Kultura, August 27, 1959. Other Soviet observers were more positive: Leonid Kogan, “High Mastery,” Pravda, August 24, 1959. Articles in translation in the 1959 New York Philharmonic clipping file, NYPA. Several of the newspaper accounts on the 1959 trip that are cited here (through note 123) were found in the 1959 Clipping file.
108. “Bernstein Hits Ceiling over Red Critic’s ‘Lie’,” New York Journal-American, August 28, 1959.
109. Bernstein’s words from Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow. The orchestra brought a printed Russian translation of his remarks for the audience, which was apparently misplaced.
110. “Pasternak in Public Again at the Bernstein Concert,” New York Herald Tribune, September 12, 1959.
111. Art Buchwald’s description in “How Bernstein Met Pasternak,” New York Herald Tribune, September 27, 1959. Note Pasternak’s correspondence to Bernstein in The Leonard Bernstein Letters, Nigel Simeone, ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 418–20.
112. Ibid.
113. “Pasternak Came Out on Bernstein’s Plea,” New York Journal-American, September 13, 1959.
114. “Pasternak in Public Again at Bernstein Concert,” New York Herald Tribune, September 12, 1959.
115. “Pasternak Back in Public View, Joins Ovation for Philharmonic,” New York Times, September 12, 1959.
116. “Pasternak in Public Again at Bernstein Concert,” New York Herald Tribune, September 12, 1959.
117. “Pasternak and Audience Hail Bernstein Concert,” New York Herald Tribune, September 12, 1959.
118. “Orchestra Back After Ten Weeks,” New York Times, October 14, 1959. Bernstein quoted in “Philharmonic Ends Tour in Washington,” New York Times, October 13, 1959.
119. “More Culture Swaps Urged by Bernstein,” New York Herald Tribune, October 14, 1959. Note “Bernstein, Minus the Baton, Enthralls Press Club,” Washington Post, October 14, 1959. A volume of Bernstein’s writings includes the talk he planned to give at the National Press Club in which he was quite critical of the Soviet Union and its leaders. This might explain Bernstein’s determination to embrace Pasternak and show the world how differently each regime treated its artists. Bernstein returned from Russia with the same feeling he had had “going in, only multiplied . . . I have always liked the Russian people and equally disliked the Russian regime, and I came out of Russia loving the Russian people and loathing the regime.” Bernstein also lauded American journalists and criticized the Soviet press. It is unclear why he decided not to give this talk. Findings (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 153–63.
120. “Mayor Wagner Presents Key to New York City to Leonard Bernstein,” October 15, 1959, Box 023-04, Folder 71, NYPA; “Text of Mayor Wagner’s Citation, October 15, 1959, Ibid.
121. “What’s On?” Daily News, October 26, 1959; and “Maestro for the Millions,” Philadelphia Bulletin, November 22, 1959. For widespread national coverage of the broadcast, before and after the television special, see “Bernstein in Moscow Press Book,” Acc 1060, Donaldson-McMechan Records, Box 3, Benson Ford Research Center (BFRC), The Henry Ford, Dearborn, MI.
122. Quoted in David M. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 463.
123. “Welch, TV Crew Visit Our Town,” Philadelphia Daily News, October 15, 1959.
124. Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow. On filming the documentary: “Music from Moscow,” New York Times, October 25, 1959.
125. Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow.
126. Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in Moscow. For a highly illuminating view, see Emily Abrams Ansari, The Sound of a Superpower Musical Americanism and the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 187–99.
127. Music Advisory Panel Meeting, October 21, 1959, 3, CU collection, box 100, folder 5.
128. The Symphony of the Air, the NBC Symphony’s successor, toured Asia in 1955 and the New York Philharmonic played in Japan in 1962. On the 1955 trip, see Rosenberg in Music and International History, 140–65.
129. For a different and altogether thought-provoking perspective, see Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015).
Coda: “The Baton Is Mightier than the Sword”: Berliners, Ohioans, and Chinese Communists
1. The tour was sponsored, in part, by the US State Department. Shibley Boyes, “World Tour: 1967 Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra,” 4, 88, Los Angeles Philharmonic Archives, Disney Hall, Los Angeles, CA.
2. I wish to acknowledge that the discussion of the Bernstein trip to Berlin draws on my essay in Leonard Bernstein, American Original: How a Modern Renaissance Man Transformed Music and the World during His New York Philharmonic Years, 1943–1976, Burton Bernstein and Barbara Haws, eds. (New York: Harper Collins, 2008), 131–32. The discussion also draws on my article “ ‘The Best Diplomats Are Often the Great Musicians’: Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Play Berlin,” New Global Studies 8, no. 1 (2014): 65–86. “Ford Motor Company to Send New York Philharmonic to Berlin for Two Concerts, September 22–23,” June 27, 1960, box 023-03, folder 73, New York Philharmonic Archives, Lincoln Center, New York City (hereafter NYPA). Ford paid $150,000 to finance the journey.
3. Ibid. Washburn’s words originally expressed in a May 27, 1960, letter to George Judd, managing director of the New York Philharmonic. Washburn to Judd, box 023-01, folder 41, NYPA.
4. Note the May 26, 1960, letter from Ford executive Charles F. Moore to George Judd, box 023-01, folder 41, NYPA; and Abbott Washburn to George Judd, June 16, 1960, box 023-01, folder 41, NYPA.
5. George N. Butler to George Judd, July 29, 1960, box 023-03, folder 73, NYPA.
6. “Throng at West Berlin Festival Cheers Visiting Philharmonic,” New York Times, September 23, 1960.
7. “Transporting Virtuosity—the New York Philharmonic,” Die Welt, September 2, 1960. German press accounts (in translation) found in the tour Clipping file, NYPA.
8. “Triumphal Success of the New York Philharmonic,” Die Telegraf, September 24, 1960.
9. “ ‘The Wunderkind’ also Greeted with Shouts of Joy in Berlin,” Berliner Morgenpost, September 24, 1960.
10. Ford enlisted the services of the New York advertising and marketing firm Kenyon and Eckhardt, which put together a national campaign designed to generate interest in the documentary, which was shown on Thanksgiving Day, 1960. See the file headed “Publicity—Promotion Report for Ford Motor Company: The Thanksgiving Day Concert by Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic, Acc. 1484, box 3, Thanksgiving TV Concert, December 1960, Corporate Advertising and Sales Promotion Records, Office of Public Relations, Ford Motor Company Records Subgroup, Ford Motor Company Public Relations Records Collection, Benson Ford Research Center, The Henry Ford, Dearborn, Michigan (hereafter “BFRC ad file” for Benson Ford Research Center).
11. The Thanksgiving documentary from Berlin, sponsored by Ford and produced by Robert Saudek Productions, can be viewed in the New York Philharmonic Archives. Description of the opening text and images reflects my rendering of the film’s opening section.
12. Note Annabel Jane Wharton, Building the Cold War: Hilton International Hotels and Modern Architecture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
13. From the unrevised script for the Berlin performance, September 20, 1960, box 78, folder 23, Leonard Bernstein Collection, Music Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. I have watched the broadcast and made all necessary corrections to what is in the unrevised script. Everything quoted here reflects what Bernstein said to Berliners that day and what Americans heard on Thanksgiving. (Hereafter, quotations from the documentary cited as “LB script.”)
14. LB script, 2–3.
15. LB script, 3.
16. LB script, 5.
17. LB script, 6.
18. LB script, 11.
19. LB script, 11–12. Bernstein’s decision to recite the Hebrew prayer was not received favorably by the producers, who thought it would be out of place on American television on Thanksgiving, which they considered a Protestant holiday. Bernstein claimed the holiday had universal significance. He said it would not do the Berliners “any harm to hear a little Hebrew once in a while.” Moreover, he said it was “the Hebrew in Berlin on Rosh Hashanah that will really make this show for me.” Quoted in Burton Bernstein, “Leonard Bernstein’s Separate Peace with Berlin,” Esquire (October 1961): 96.
20. Burton Bernstein, 165.
21. “Bernstein Brings TV Hour of Good Music,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, BFRC ad file.
22. The material was mailed to more than six hundred newspapers. The agency stated that “stories were sent to many editors and ‘highlight listing’ services” for television promotion. AP and UPI also received material. Undated Kenyon and Eckhardt item in BFRC ad file.
23. Letter from Wauhillau La Hay (of Kenyon and Eckhardt) to Editors, November 7, 1960, BFRC ad file.
24. Publicity drawings and newspaper photos of Bernstein are in the BFRC ad file. An ad in which Bernstein appeared, with eyes closed, in the classic pose of the brooding artist, was slated to appear in newspapers in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, and Washington, DC, on November 23–24. BFRC ad file.
25. Letter from Wauhillau La Hay to “Dear Friends,” November 7, 1960, BFRC ad file.
26. For a record of those reviews, see the BFRC ad file.
27. “A National Asset,” New York Herald Tribune, n.d., BFRC ad file.
28. “A Report on the Tour of the Soviet Union and Western Europe Made by the Cleveland Orchestra under the Auspices of the U.S. Department of State, April 13–June 26, 1965,” General Managers Tour files, Europe and Russia, 1965 European Tour, Misc., Cleveland Orchestra Archives, Severance Hall, Cleveland, Ohio (hereafter COA).
29. “The Cleveland Orchestra: European Tour, May–June 1957,” Tours: Itineraries, box 1, 1956/7-Europe, COA.
30. For Johnson’s March 16, 1965, letter to the orchestra, see Archives Reference files, Tours—Europe and USSR, 1965, COA. Note “Dean Rusk Adds His Bravo to Orchestra Cheers,” Cleveland Press, June 26, 1965.
31. “Szell Frank in Jubilation,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 29, 1965.
32. “The Cleveland Orchestra: A Message from the Secretary of State,” Tour Programs, 1965, COA.
33. Rather than citing each letter separately, I offer the following archival information on how to locate them: 1965 European Tour, Congrat letters, General Manager Tour files, Europe and Russia, COA. The letters are alphabetized and divided into the following folders: A–G, H–M, N–Z.
34. See citation above concerning archival information.
35. 1965 European Tour, Congrat letters, General Manager Tour files, Europe and Russia, COA.
36. 1965 European Tour, Congrat letters, General Manager Tour files, Europe and Russia, COA.
37. For the children’s letters, see 1965 European Tour-Congrat. Letters (Children), General Manager Tour files, Europe and Russia, COA.
38. Ibid.
39. “Orchestra Will Tour China This Year,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 23, 1973. Note “ ‘Liaison’ for U.S. and China,” New York Times, February 25, 1973. John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), ch. 9.
40. “Orchestra heads for a Tour ‘Bigger Than Music,’ ” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 9, 1973; and “Yin Spoke Only Chinese, Ormandy Only English,” New York Times, October 14, 1973.
41. “Peking Opens Door to Philadelphians,” New York Times, September 13, 1973.
42. On musicians’ interactions: “Ormandy, Unexpectedly, Leads Peking Orchestra,” New York Times, September 16, 1973. On acupuncture: “Eight Musicians Undergo Acupuncture,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 19, 1973.
43. On repertoire, see New York Times articles: “U.S. Group Plays for Mao’s Wife,” September 17, 1973; “China Denounces Respighi’s Music,” February 15, 1974.
44. Quotations from “ ‘The Greatest Tour Ever,’ ” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 22, 1973; “Philadelphians End China Visit,” New York Times, September 23, 1973.
45. National press coverage in September 1973 included, among others: the Baltimore Sun, the Boston Globe, the Chicago Tribune, the Los Angeles Times, and the Washington Post.
46. “Boston Symphony Off on China Tour Today,” New York Times, March 12, 1979.
47. “Making Musical Diplomacy,” Newsweek (April 2, 1979): 68. “BSO Comes Home to Laurel Wreaths,” Boston Globe, March 21, 1979. Note “The Political Beat of BSO in China,” Boston Globe, April 27, 1979.
48. “18,000 Hear Bostonians’ Finale in Peking,” New York Times, March 20, 1979.
49. “An international overture,” Boston Globe, March 21, 1979. Note “Playing Catch Up with Ozawa,” Time (March 26, 1979): 73; “On a Wing and a Scissors,” Time (April 2, 1979): 92; “Sweet Harmonies in China,” Life (May 1979): 102–7. There was widespread national newspaper coverage.
50. “18,000 Hear Bostonians’ Finale in Peking,” New York Times, March 20, 1979.
51. Note the superb study by Danielle Fosler-Lussier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy (Oakland: University of California Press, 2015).
52. Unlike classical music, jazz or rock ’n roll might have had a more potent political impact on foreign listeners. Note Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 166–221; Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).
53. “Philharmonic Gets a Taste of Pyongyang Diplomacy,” New York Times, December 12, 2007. Newspapers around the country covered the trip, as did the television networks. Note two stories in the New York Times: “New York Philharmonic Might Play in North Korea,” October 5, 2007; “Orchestra Considers Invitation to Korea,” October 13, 2007.
54. “Philharmonic Agrees to Play in North Korea,” New York Times, December 10, 2007. For more on the trip, see website.