ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:1–17 The Gospel as the Revelation of God’s Righteousness. This first section includes Paul’s opening greeting (vv. 1–7), thanksgiving (vv. 8–15), and statement of the letter’s overall theme (vv. 16–17).
A letter to Rome. Because Romans is Paul’s fullest explanation of his theology, it is easy to forget that Paul wrote it to a particular church in Rome. His letter applies the eternal truth of the gospel to their real-life concerns, but the letter applies today to people all around the globe, from all different kinds of backgrounds, because it is dealing with fundamental truths.
God’s judgment. Global humanity’s rejection of God is the root of all that is wrong with the world. Since Adam and Eve, everyone has responded to God’s love by doing things he hates. Everyone deserves punishment, but God offers forgiveness through Christ (see 3:23–24).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:1–7 This is the longest introduction of any of Paul’s letters. He has never been to Rome, so he summarizes the gospel for his Roman readers. Many of the things he mentions here are also in the final verses of his letter (16:25–27): (1) Paul’s apostolic authority; (2) how the gospel fulfills OT Scriptures; (3) how the gospel centers on Jesus Christ; (4) the obedience of faith; (5) Paul’s mission to the Gentiles; and (6) the glory of Jesus Christ and God the Father.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:1 Servant indicates that Paul is a “bondservant” of Christ (see note on 1 Cor. 7:21; and Preface). It also recalls the honored servants of God in the OT, such as Moses, Joshua, David, and the prophets. apostle. Paul’s authority is equal to that of the 11 original apostles chosen by Christ (Matt. 10:1–7; Acts 1:24–26; Gal. 1:1), who had seen him after his resurrection (Acts 1:22; 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:7–9). They established and governed the whole church, under Christ’s authority. They had authority to speak and write the words of God, and what they wrote was equal in authority to the OT Scriptures (1 Cor. 14:37; 1 Thess. 2:13). Paul was called to be an apostle when Jesus appeared to him on the Damascus road (Acts 9; 22; 26). Gospel means “good news.” This includes the call to saving faith and the message of how Jesus transforms all of life and all of history.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:2–3 Jesus fulfilled the OT prophecy that a descendant of David would rule forever. He is the Messiah (see 2 Sam. 7:12–16; Psalm 132; Isa. 11:1–5).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:4 As the eternal Son of God, Jesus has reigned forever with the Father and the Holy Spirit. “Son of God” was a Jewish title for the Messiah. Christ’s reign as Messiah began when he was raised from the dead according to the Spirit of holiness (through the Holy Spirit).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:5 Paul’s mission is to all humanity. His goal is to bring about the obedience of faith (see 16:26). Saving faith results in obedience.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:7 loved by God and called. God shows his love by calling his people to himself. All believers are God’s saints, his “holy ones.” Grace means God’s unmerited favor. Peace is not just the absence of conflict. It echoes the OT concept of blessing, in which the person and community are well and whole in all aspects of life.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:8 thank. Paul typically follows the greeting in his letters with a thanksgiving (compare 1 Cor. 1:1–9; Phil. 1:1–8). He is thankful because the kingdom of God is advancing throughout all the world. It is no longer confined to the Jews but has also spread to the Gentiles.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:13 Paul neither “planted” nor “watered” the church at Rome (see 1 Cor. 3:6), but he still rejoices in the harvest of their increased maturity and obedience.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:14 Paul was under an obligation to Jesus Christ, who appointed him to be the apostle to the Gentiles. Greeks. Those who spoke Greek and adopted Greek culture in the Greco-Roman world. barbarians. Those outside of Greek culture.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:15 preach the gospel to you also. The gospel is not just the initial call to saving faith. It is also the call to keep on walking by faith (6:4; 8:4; 2 Cor. 5:17).
The city plan below shows most of the features of the city of Rome that archaeologists have so far identified as dating from the time of Paul. Sections of the city would have been very impressive in his time, but most of the outstanding buildings visible in Rome today date to after his death.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:16 Jew first. The Jews have priority in salvation history because they are God’s chosen people. See chs. 9–11. Greek refers here to all Gentiles.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:17 The righteousness of God most likely means “righteousness from God.” It reflects a right standing before God that is given to people by God (see Phil. 3:9). The phrase likely has this meaning in Rom. 3:21–22 and 2 Cor. 5:21 as well (see notes on those verses). However, the expression probably also refers to God’s righteous moral character. This is seen in his holiness and justice. It is also seen in the way that his act of saving sinners through Christ’s death meets the just demand of his holy nature. From faith for faith probably means that right standing with God is by faith from start to finish. shall live by faith. People receive the gift of salvation by faith. It is also by faith that they live each day. See Hab. 2:4.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:18–3:20 God’s Righteousness in His Wrath against Sinners. God’s wrath is rightly revealed against all people, since all have sinned (3:23). Paul describes the sinfulness of the Gentiles (1:18–32), and the Jews (2:1–3:8), and of all people, Jew and Gentile alike (3:9–20).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:18 The wrath of God refers to his personal anger against sin. God’s anger is his holy response to rejection of his love and law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:19–20 things that have been made. The entire natural world reveals God through its beauty, complexity, design, and usefulness. without excuse. God has given sufficient evidence of his existence and character.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:21 they knew God. All people know God exists. They also know a lot about him, even if they do not have a saving knowledge of him.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:22 Even brilliant people who do not honor God miss the whole purpose of life and are therefore fools (see Prov. 1:7).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:23 Idolatry is the most basic sin. In addition to the images housed in great temples, Roman families commonly kept images of “house gods” in their homes. People today still devote their lives to, and trust in, many things other than God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:24 Three times Paul says God gave them up to sin (vv. 24, 26, 28). Each time the “giving up” is a reaction to idolatry. The idol worshiper refuses to recognize that God our Maker is the center of all existence. He worships the “creature” rather than the “Creator” (v. 25).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:25 exchanged the truth about God for a lie. All non-Christian religions are based on false ideas about God. They are not just “different paths” to God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:26–27 Not only homosexual acts but also homosexual passions or desires are dishonorable before God. Just as idolatry is unnatural (contrary to what God intended), so too homosexuality is contrary to nature. God made men and women with physical bodies that have a “natural” way of interacting with each other. Men . . . with men includes all homosexual relationships, not just those generally considered abusive. Due penalty could refer to the sin of homosexuality itself. Or, the “and” in and receiving may indicate some additional negative consequences received in themselves, that is, some form of spiritual, emotional, or physical disorder.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 1:32 People do not generally sin in innocent ignorance. They know God’s righteous decree (at least in an instinctive way) that their evildoing deserves punishment.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:1–29 Most interpreters say that Paul focuses on the sin of the Jews throughout this chapter. Another view is that the sin of the moral person (whether Jewish or Gentile) who judges others is condemned in vv. 1–16, while Jews alone are condemned in vv. 17–29.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:4 Do you presume is probably addressed to Jews who thought that their covenant relationship with God would save them from final judgment. They thought that his kindness and forbearance and patience showed that they were right with him and had no need for Christ. Paul says God’s blessings should have led them to repent of their sins.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:5 A soft and repentant heart is needed to avoid God’s wrath on the day of wrath, the final judgment. Such repentance leads a person to trust in Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of sins. Unfortunately, most people are storing up wrath for themselves on that final day.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:6–11 Paul establishes the principle that God judges according to . . . works. In doing so, he shows no partiality.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:12 All will be judged according to the standard they had. Gentiles will perish (face final judgment) because of their sin (see vv. 14–15) even though they are without the law (the written laws of the OT). Jews, who possess the law, will be judged for their transgressions against it.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:14–16 For Gentiles, God’s law is written on their hearts. Their consciences show what is right or wrong in their behavior. Paul does not imply that the human conscience is always a perfect moral guide (see 1 Cor. 8:7, 10; 10:29). But its existence is enough to make people accountable to God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:16 my gospel. Not Paul’s alone, but the gospel that he preaches.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:21–24 The Jews fail to practice the law they proclaim. Thus they will face judgment.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:22 rob temples. Robbing temples was a common crime in the ancient world because temples contained expensive items that could be sold for profit.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:24 Because they violated the law, the Jews were exiled by God. Their military and political defeats dishonored God because they were known as his people. Although the Jews did not face exile in Paul’s day, their sins still led Gentiles to dishonor the God they claimed to follow.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:25–26 The Jews tended to believe that they would be spared at the last judgment because of their circumcision (Gen. 17:9–14; Lev. 12:3). uncircumcision. Paul argues, however, that Jews who violate the law are considered by God to be uncircumcised. They are outside the covenant and headed for judgment. Circumcision would be of value for salvation if the circumcised would obey the law perfectly, but no one can do that. Paul takes up the issue of circumcision again in Rom. 4:9–16.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:27 The written code refers to OT laws.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 2:28–29 In striking contrast to Jewish beliefs of his day, Paul claims that true Jewishness and genuine circumcision are not ethnic or physical matters. Rather, they are matters of the heart. They are the work of the Holy Spirit. This letter/Spirit contrast compares the old era of redemptive history with the new age begun by Jesus Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:1 Now Paul raises the logical question of whether there is any advantage or value in being an ethnic Jew and being physically circumcised. He probably means “value for salvation.”
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:2 One might expect Paul to answer that there is no advantage in being a Jew (see v. 1). Instead, he claims that the Jews have great advantages, mainly in possessing the oracles of God, which refers to the OT Scriptures. On the Jews being entrusted with the oracles of God, see Deut. 4:8; 5:22–27; Ps. 147:20.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:3–4 Even though most Jews were unfaithful and refused to trust and obey God, he remains faithful to them. God will fulfill his covenant promises, particularly his promise to save them. Paul does not mean that every single Jew will be saved, though. He discusses God’s faithfulness to the Jews more fully in chs. 9–11.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:5–8 Some of Paul’s Jewish opponents claimed that he taught a doctrine of “cheap grace,” that is, that God receives more glory when Christians do evil and then are forgiven. Paul emphatically denies this but waits until ch. 6 to discuss this charge in more detail.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:9 Greeks. The entire Gentile world in contrast to the Jews.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:10–12 Paul focuses on the sinfulness of every human being, citing Ps. 14:1–3 and perhaps thinking of Eccles. 7:20. no one does good. Human beings do some things that seem to be good. But these actions, prior to salvation, are still stained by evil because they are not done for God’s glory (Rom. 1:21) and do not come from faith (14:23).
| Romans 3 | OT Reference |
|---|---|
| Sinful Condition | |
| v. 10, none is righteous | Ps. 14:3/53:3; Eccles. 7:20 |
| v. 11a, no one understands | Ps. 14:2/53:2 |
| v. 11b, no one seeks for God | Ps. 14:2/53:2 |
| v. 12, all have turned aside; together they have become worthless; no one does good, not even one | Ps. 14:3/53:3 |
| Sinful Speech (note progression from throat to tongue to lips) | |
| v. 13a, b, their throat is an open grave; they use their tongues to deceive | Ps. 5:10, Septuagint (English, 5:9) |
| v. 13c, the venom of asps is under their lips | Ps. 140:3 |
| v. 14, their mouth is full of curses and bitterness | Ps. 10:7 |
| Sinful Action | |
| v. 15, their feet are swift to shed blood | Prov. 1:16/Isa. 59:7 |
| v. 16, in their paths are ruin and misery | Isa. 59:7 |
| v. 17, and the way of peace they have not known | Isa. 59:8 |
| Summary Statement | |
| v. 18, there is no fear of God before their eyes | Ps. 36:1 |
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:13–14 Paul quotes from Ps. 5:9 and 10:7. The reference to the grave highlights either the corruption of the heart or the deadly effects of sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:15–17 Paul draws from Isa. 59:7–8 to show how human history includes murder, war, and disorder.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:18 The root cause of sin is failure to fear and honor God (Ps. 36:1).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:19–20 These verses represent the conclusion of vv. 9–18 and all of 1:18–3:20. All humans, without exception, are sinners.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:19 law. The Mosaic law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:20 Works of the law means all that the law requires. Justified is a legal term meaning “declared righteous” (see note on Gal. 2:16).
What does it mean to be “justified”? To be justified means to be declared righteous before God. It means that, as the divine judge, God looks on those who are in Jesus and declares them “guilty as charged, but pardoned and accepted.”
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:21–4:25 The Saving Righteousness of God. Paul now explains that people can have a right standing with God only through faith in the atoning work of Jesus on the cross.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:21 The righteousness of God has been shown now, in the period of salvation history that began with Jesus’ death and resurrection. On the righteousness of God, see note on 1:17. By God’s saving acts in Christ, humans may stand in the right before God, the divine judge. apart from the law. Righteousness is not based on obeying the law. Yet the Law and the Prophets bear witness to it. The OT Scriptures looked forward to salvation through Christ (see 1:2).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:24 The word redemption recalls the exodus and the blood of the Passover lamb (see Exodus 12–15; Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:14). On justification, see note on Gal. 2:16.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:25 Jesus’ blood “propitiated” or satisfied God’s wrath (1:18). Thus he could forgive sinners while also maintaining his holiness. Some scholars argue that the word propitiation should be translated expiation (the wiping away of sin), but the word refers to the satisfaction of God’s wrath, turning it from wrath to favor. God’s righteous anger needed to be satisfied before sin could be forgiven. God in his love sent his Son to meet the demands of God’s holy anger against sin. God’s justice was questioned because he had patiently overlooked former sins. But Paul says that God knew Christ’s death would happen, where the full payment for the guilt of sin would be made.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:26 In the cross of Christ, God has shown himself to be just (utterly holy, so that the penalty demanded by the law is not removed but is paid by Christ). He is also the justifier of all those who trust in Jesus. That is, he provides the means of justification and declares people to be in right standing with himself. Here is the heart of the Christian faith, for at the cross God’s justice and love meet.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:27 The word law in this verse probably means principle, though some think it refers to the OT law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:28 Justification is by faith alone, apart from . . . the law. It does not depend at all on doing any works of the law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:29–30 Since God is the Lord of all, whether Jews or Gentiles, there can be only one way of justification—by faith.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 3:31 Although Paul supports the lasting moral teachings of the law (uphold), he knows that some will accuse him of abandoning it (overthrow). He will defend himself against such charges in chs. 6–7.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:1–25 Abraham, the father of the Jewish people, is presented as a test case for the view that justification is by faith alone.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:3 Abraham had a right standing before God by believing, not by doing (Gen. 15:6).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:6–8 Paul introduces David as a second example of righteousness by faith, citing Ps. 32:1–2.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:11 sign . . . seal. Circumcision proved the righteousness by faith that Abraham had before his circumcision.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:13–14 The world to come is another term for the final salvation that will be given to Abraham and all believers (see Heb. 11:10–16; Revelation 21–22). If the inheritance is gained by observing the law, then righteousness is no longer by faith but by works.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:15 transgression. The violation of a revealed command. The Jews, who had the written law, had even greater responsibility for their sin. Paul argues elsewhere that sin also exists where no written law is involved; see 2:12, and note on 5:13.
Transgression means to disobey a specific command from God. It could refer to a violation of a command in the written law of God (4:15) or to a verbal command from God, as in the case of Adam (5:14).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:16 Faith means trusting in another, not in one’s own efforts. It corresponds exactly to grace, which involves trusting God’s gift of unearned favor. The adherent of the law refers to the Jewish believer in Christ. father of us all. Abraham is the father of all believers, whether Jew or Gentile.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:17 many nations. Genesis 17:5 confirms Abraham’s universal fatherhood. calls into existence the things that do not exist. If God created the world out of nothing, he could certainly give Sarah a child.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:23–24 but for ours also. In God’s plan, Scriptures as far back as Gen. 15:6 apply also to Christians in the new covenant age.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 4:25 raised for our justification. Both the death and the resurrection of Jesus Christ are necessary for forgiveness of sins and justification. When God raised Christ from the dead, it showed that he accepted Christ’s suffering and death as full payment for sin. At the cross, God had directed his wrath against Christ, but now, in the resurrection, God showed his favor to Christ and to all who would believe in him. This can be true because all who believe in Christ are united with him (see 6:6, 8–11; Eph. 2:6; Col. 2:12; 3:1).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:1–8:39 Hope as a Result of Righteousness by Faith. Believers in Christ, who are righteous in God’s sight, have a sure hope of future glory and life eternal.
Those who trust in Christ have peace with God (5:1). God declares them forgiven. They stand securely in God’s grace and salvation rather than his judgment (5:2, 8–9).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:1 Through faith in Christ, Christians have been justified and declared righteous by God once for all. They no longer need to live in fear of God’s wrath and judgment. Rather, they enjoy peace with God. See also note on John 14:27.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:2 grace in which we stand. The believers’ secure position as a result of their justification. hope of the glory of God. The promise that Christians will be glorified and perfected at the last day.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:5 hope does not put us to shame. Followers of Christ have no reason to fear humiliation on the judgment day, for they now belong to God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:6 In this and the following verses, Paul shows how the believer’s subjective experience of God’s love (v. 5) is firmly based on the objective work of Christ on the cross. Weak here refers to lack of moral strength and is another way to describe those who are ungodly.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:9 Christians are justified (declared right before God) because of Christ’s blood poured out at the cross. Therefore, they can know that they will be saved from God’s wrath on the day of judgment.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:10 As in v. 9, Paul argues from the greater to the lesser. Since Christians are now reconciled to God through Christ’s death, they can be assured that they will be saved on the day to come. Here “saved” includes initial justification, completed sanctification, glorification, and future rewards. Salvation is based on his life, that is, Christ’s resurrection (see 4:25; 6:1–23).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:12–21 Adam brought sin and death into the world, but those who have believed in Christ have hope. Christ has reversed the consequences of Adam’s sin and has given his own life and righteousness to secure their eternal glory. The extended comparison between Adam and Christ shows that Paul considered Adam a historical person.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:12 Sin came into the world through one man, namely, Adam (v. 14; see Gen. 3:17–19; 1 Cor. 15:21–22). and death through sin. Death is “the last enemy” (1 Cor. 15:26; see 15:54) and will be conquered forever at Christ’s return (Rev. 21:4). “Death” in these verses most likely includes both physical and spiritual death. Paul often connects the two. And so death spread to all men probably means “and in this way death spread to all men.” Because all sinned probably means that all people participated in Adam’s sin because he represented all who would descend from him (just as Christ’s obedience counts for all his followers; Rom. 5:15–19). Another interpretation is that all people have sinned individually as a result of being born into the world spiritually dead. The word translated “men” can mean either males or people of both sexes, depending on the context. It is translated “men” here (and in v. 18) to show the connection with “man,” referring to Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:13 sin is not counted where there is no law. Paul does not mean that people are guiltless without the law (see 2:12). Those without the written law are still judged by God (see Genesis 6–9; 11:1–9).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:14 Those who did not live under the law were still judged for their sin, and therefore they died. Still, their sinning was not like the transgression of Adam: Adam violated a commandment specifically given to him by God. Adam is a type (that is, a model or pattern) of Christ. Both Adam and Christ are covenantal heads of the human race. All people are either “in Adam” or “in Christ” (see 1 Cor. 15:22). All are “in Adam” by physical birth, while only those who have placed their faith in Christ are “in” him.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:15 Paul contrasts the consequences of the work of Adam and of Christ five times in the next five verses. This shows their roles as covenantal heads of the people they represent. Paul clearly teaches “original sin,” the fact that all people inherit a sinful nature because of Adam’s sin. Paul probably is also teaching that all people are in fact guilty before God because of Adam’s sin. Many (that is, all human beings excluding Christ) died. Death begins with spiritual separation from God and ends in physical death.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:16 The one trespass of Adam resulted in the condemnation of all. But Christ overcame sin, therefore all who belong to him enjoy justification.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:17 Death ruled the human race due to Adam’s sin, but Christians now stand in eternal life as rulers because of Christ’s work.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:18 for all men. Based on these verses, some interpreters have argued that all people will be saved. But Paul makes it plain that only those who “receive” God’s gift belong to Christ (v. 17; see also 1:16–5:11). The wording “as . . . so” shows that Paul’s focus is not on how many will be saved but on the method of either sin or righteousness being passed from the representative leader to the whole group. men. See note on 5:12.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:19 Because of Adam’s disobedience, all people were made (caused to be) sinners. When Adam (mankind’s representative) sinned, God viewed the whole human race as guilty sinners. All are born with a sinful nature because of Adam’s sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 5:20 The typical Jewish view in Paul’s day was that God gave the law in order to reduce the human impulse to sin. But Paul claims that the law was given to increase the trespass. That is, once people had written laws from God, they were not just committing “sins” against God’s law as it was ingrained in their conscience (see note on 2:14–16); rather, they were willfully “trespassing” against his written word. Amid this increasing sin, however, the grace revealed through Christ abounded all the more.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:1–23 The law does not and cannot conquer sin, but the grace given to followers of Christ triumphs over sin and death.
Paul was probably asked, “Does your message about salvation by grace lead people to continue in sin?” He explains what baptism symbolizes in the Christian life: Christ’s defeat of sin’s rule and the gift of new life (6:1–14). God changes believers so that they can obey him “from the heart” (6:17).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:1 Paul is likely responding to a question posed regularly by his Jewish opponents. They argued that his gospel led people to continue in sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:3 Christians died to sin when they were baptized into Christ. Paul is not arguing that baptism destroys the power of sin. Baptism is an outward, physical symbol of the inward, spiritual conversion of Christians.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:4 In the early church, baptism was probably by immersion. Baptism pictures being buried with Christ (going under the water) and being raised to new life with Christ (coming up from the water). This symbolizes union with, and incorporation into, Christ by the action of the Holy Spirit. Believers now have the power to live in newness of life.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:6 The power of sin has been broken in those who believe. Their old self (literally, “old man,” meaning who they were in Adam) was crucified and put to death with Christ. Body of sin refers to the ruling power of sin that people willingly accept. Paul does not argue that Christians do not sin at all, but he does say that they are no longer enslaved to sin. The normal pattern of life for Christians should be progressive growth in maturity and obedience to God’s moral law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:7 One who has died means one who has died with Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:10 died to sin. Jesus died because he took sin upon himself. His resurrection demonstrates that he has defeated both sin and death.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:11 dead to sin. Dead to the continual love for and ruling power of sin (see note on v. 6).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:12–13 Tension occurs here between what God has already accomplished and his people’s responsibility to obey. They are still tempted by desires to sin and must not let those desires gain control.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:14 sin will have no dominion over you. This is not a command but a promise that sin will not defeat Christians. under grace. The new covenant in Christ (see 3:24; 4:16; 5:2, 15–21).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:16 Giving in to sin leads to becoming obedient slaves to sin. This eventually leads to death. This does not mean that genuine believers can lose their salvation. It means that sinning leads them away from full enjoyment of life with Christ. However, people who do give themselves utterly to sin will die, that is, they will face eternal punishment (see notes on Heb. 6:4–8).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:20–21 Both physical and spiritual death are probably meant here.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 6:23 Wages implies that the punishment for sin is what one has earned and deserves. Free gift is the opposite of something one deserves. This fits Paul’s earlier emphasis on justification by grace alone (God’s unmerited favor; see note on 4:16), through faith alone (trusting in Christ for justification; see 1:17; 3:21–4:25).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:1–3 In this entire chapter, law refers to the Mosaic law given at Mount Sinai. Those who know the law includes both Jews and Gentiles who are familiar with the OT. Verse 1 introduces the principle that the law applies only to living people. In vv. 2–3, Paul applies that principle to marriage.
Even Christians often struggle with sinful desires (7:7–25), but they can be confident that the Spirit lives within them, helping them to obey God (8:1–11).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:4 Whereas the husband dies in the illustration in vv. 2–3, here believers die to the law through the death of Christ. The comparison does not match perfectly, but the application is clear.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:5 Flesh here stands for the old “Adam”—the unbelieving former life of those who now believe. The law led to spiritual and physical death (see 6:23) because rebellious people broke it and suffered the consequences.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:6 But now represents the new era of redemptive history. Christians now enjoy new life in the Spirit.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:7–25 The claim that the Mosaic law produced sin and death raises the question, Is the law itself sinful? Paul explains that the law itself is good and that the fault lies with sin. The “I” in these verses seems to be Paul himself (see note on vv. 13–25).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:7 The law defines sin. People ignore God’s commands in order to indulge their independence. This principle is illustrated from the tenth commandment (Ex. 20:17).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:8 The prohibition against coveting increased the desire for what was forbidden. Without such prohibitions, sin lies dead—it is still present, but not in a powerful way.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:13–25 Even if the law is not sin (vv. 7–12), is the good law responsible for death? Paul argues that the fault lies with sin, not with the law. Through the law, sin is revealed in all its horror, while the law is shown to be good. There has been much debate as to whether Paul is describing believers or unbelievers. Although good arguments are given by both sides, the most widely held view is that Paul is referring to believers. Advocates of both positions agree that Christians struggle with sin their whole lives (see Gal. 5:17; 1 John 1:8–9). They also agree that Christians can and should grow in sanctification throughout their lives by the power of the Holy Spirit (Rom. 8:2, 4, 9, 13–14). Those who think Paul is describing believers usually see this passage as describing both Paul’s own experience and the experience of Christians generally. This view is that Christians are free from the condemnation of the law, but sin continues to dwell within them. They should understand how far they fall short of God’s absolute standard of righteousness. Thus Paul cries out, “Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?” (7:24). The answer follows immediately: the one who has delivered Christians once for all (see 4:2–25; 5:2, 9) and who will deliver them day by day is “Jesus Christ our Lord!” (7:25). This reflects the ongoing tension between the “already” aspect of salvation (believers have been saved) and the “not yet” aspect (believers will be saved at the return of Christ).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:17 Paul emphasizes the power of sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:21–23 The meaning of “law” in these verses has been debated. Some think every use of the word refers to the Mosaic law. Most argue that in vv. 21 and 23 the term means “principle.” All agree that the Mosaic law is in view in v. 22. The Greek word used here can have either meaning.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 7:24–25 Who will deliver me? The living presence of Jesus Christ is the answer to the problem of sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:1–17 Paul celebrates the new life of the Spirit that Christians enjoy as a result of Christ’s saving work.
This chart focuses on statements that have Father, Son, or Spirit as the subject. For additional references to Father, Son, or Spirit in Romans 8, see vv. 1–2, 4–7, 13, 15, 17–23, 28.
| Father | Son | Spirit |
|---|---|---|
| sent his Son (v. 3) | ||
| condemned sin (v. 3) | ||
| gives life to mortal bodies of believers by his Spirit in them (v. 11) | in believers (v. 10) | indwells believers (v. 9) |
| foreknew, predestined, called, justified, glorified (vv. 29–30) | died, raised, interceding at the right hand of the Father for believers (v. 34) | leads believers (v. 14) |
| is for us (v. 31) | bears witness with the spirit of believers (v. 16) | |
| gave his Son (v. 32) | helps in weakness and intercedes for believers (vv. 26–27) | |
| justifies (v. 33) | ||
| loves (v. 39) | loves (vv. 35, 39) |
When Christ returns, he will fix everything that is broken and hurting (8:16–39; see Rev. 21:1–22:5). He will restore creation, including every corner of the globe, to its original beauty and wholeness. God will bring dead believers back to life and make all his children perfect like Christ (Rom. 8:29; 1 Thess. 4:13–18).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:1 therefore. Paul summarizes and concludes his preceding argument (see especially 7:23–25 and 3:21–5:21). Now matches the “now” in 7:6. Christ began a new era of redemptive history for those who are “now” in right standing before God because of Christ. No condemnation echoes 5:1 (“Therefore . . . we have peace with God”). There is “no condemnation” for the Christian because Jesus has paid the penalty for sin through his death on the cross (8:2–3).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:2 Sin has no dominant power in believers’ lives. This work of the Holy Spirit is evidence that believers are in Christ. Law in both instances means “principle.”
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:3 The law (here, the Mosaic law) could not solve humanity’s problem because sin uses the law for its own purposes (see ch. 7). God sent his Son as a sacrifice for sin (a sin offering). Jesus paid the full penalty for sin by his sacrifice (condemned sin). in the likeness of sinful flesh. Jesus became fully human, even though he was sinless. In the flesh refers to Christ’s body.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:4 righteous requirement of the law . . . fulfilled. This could mean the requirement is fulfilled in the new life that Christians live on the basis of Christ’s work. It could also mean Christ’s death paid the full penalty of the law.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:6 To set the mind on the flesh means to constantly desire the things that express fallen, sinful human nature.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:8 Because unbelievers (those who are in the flesh) are captured by sin and unable to do what God commands, they fail to please God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:9 Paul alternates between the Spirit of God and the Spirit of Christ here, showing that Christ and God share the same status.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:10 The previous verse speaks of the Spirit’s indwelling, but here Paul describes Christ’s dwelling in Christians. This does not mean that there is no difference between Christ and the Spirit. It does suggest that Christ and the Spirit are both fully God, and they work together. The presence of the Spirit within believers testifies to the new life they enjoy because Christ’s righteousness is now theirs.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:13 God and believers each have a role in sanctification. It must occur by the Spirit and his power, but you put to death shows that one must take an active role in battling sinful habits.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:15 Christians are no longer slaves to sin. They are adopted as sons into God’s family. The Spirit assures them that God is their father. sons. See note on Gal. 3:26. Abba is Aramaic for Father. Paul’s use of the term likely comes from Jesus’ addressing God in this way (Mark 14:36).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:17 A willingness to follow Christ in suffering is another sign of being God’s children.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:18–39 Paul began this major section of the letter (5:1–8:39) by emphasizing the final hope of believers (5:1–11), and now he concludes with the same emphasis.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:18 The ultimate glory that Christians will receive is so great that the sufferings of this present time are insignificant in comparison (see 2 Cor. 4:17). Believers look forward to the resurrection of the body (1 Thess. 4:13–18) and to the new heaven and new earth (Rev. 21:1–22:5; see Isa. 65:17).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:20–21 When Adam sinned, the created world was also subjected to futility. One thinks of the thorns and thistles that accompany work on the land (Gen. 3:17–19) and the pain in childbirth for women (Gen. 3:16). The original creation (Genesis 1–2) did not have these things. On the last day, creation will be freed from the effects of sin. It will be far more beautiful, productive, and easy to live in than one can ever imagine.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:22 Again creation is personified (see v. 19). It longs for the day when salvation will be completed.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:23 Christians already have the firstfruits of the Spirit. But they still await the day of their final adoption, when their bodies, fully redeemed, are raised from the dead.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:26 Groanings too deep for words (see v. 23) refers to the believers’ sense of the Spirit’s intercession for them before God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:28 Good in this context means being like Christ (v. 29), enjoying closer fellowship with God, bearing good fruit for the kingdom, and final glorification (v. 30). It does not mean earthly pleasures.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:29 God has always been doing good for his people. foreknew. In the OT, the word “know” emphasizes God’s special choice of his people (e.g., Gen. 18:19). See Rom. 11:2, where “foreknew” contrasts with “rejected,” emphasizing God’s choosing his people. God also predestined (that is, predetermined) that those whom he chose beforehand would become like Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:30 Those predestined by God are also called to faith through the gospel (see 2 Thess. 2:14) and justified (declared to be right in God’s sight). Not all who are invited to believe are actually justified. Thus the “calling” here must refer to an effective call that creates the faith necessary for justification (Rom. 5:1). All those who are justified will also be glorified (receive resurrection bodies) on the last day. Paul speaks of glorification as if it were already completed, since God will certainly finish the good work he started (see Phil. 1:6).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:33 Satan, their enemies, or even their own consciences may bring charges against God’s elect. But God declares them justified.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:34 Who is to condemn? The question in v. 33 is repeated. Christians will never be condemned, for (1) Christ died for them and paid the full penalty for their sin; (2) he was raised, showing that his death removed sin; (3) he now is seated at God’s right hand (Ps. 110:1); and (4) he intercedes for his people on the basis of his shed blood.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 8:38–39 rulers, powers. Probably angelic and demonic authorities.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:1–11:36 God’s Righteousness to Israel and to the Gentiles. Paul has made it clear that God’s saving promises have been fulfilled for the Gentiles. He now asks whether the promises God made to ethnic Israel will be fulfilled. If his promises to the Jews remain unfulfilled, how can Gentile Christians be sure that he will fulfill for them all the great promises in ch. 8? Paul answers that God is faithful to his saving promises to Israel (9:6) and that he will ultimately save his people (11:26).
Paul’s love for God and his compassion for those who do not know Christ are clear (see 9:1–5; 10:1, 14–15). Believers’ experience of God’s grace should motivate them to share the Good News with others all over the world and to pray that they will believe.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:1–29 God’s saving promises to Israel are irrevocable since they are based upon his word of promise and his electing grace.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:1–3 Paul suffers great anguish because his Jewish kinsmen are unsaved (see also 10:1). Indeed, if it were possible, Paul might almost choose to be accursed (to suffer punishment in hell) so that his fellow Jews would be saved (see Moses in Ex. 32:30–32).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:4 Israel had great privileges. The Israelites became God’s adopted people when God saved them from Egypt. Glory here probably refers to the glory of God in the tabernacle and temple. Israel received the covenants in which the Lord promised to save them. God gave his people his law at Mount Sinai. He directed their worship in the Mosaic law, and he gave them his saving promises.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:5 The patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) come from Israel. Most important, Jesus the Christ is a man from the Jewish people. He is also fully God, and to be praised as such.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:6–7 Though many Jews have failed to believe, God’s promise to them has not failed. It was never true that all of the physical children of Abraham were part of the people of God. Genesis 21:12 teaches that the line of promise is traced through Isaac, not Ishmael.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:9–10 The promise (Gen. 18:10, 14) was not given to Hagar (Genesis 16), but specifically to Sarah and her offspring. The birth of Esau and Jacob is further evidence that God did not promise that every person of Jewish descent would be saved. They had the same parents, yet God chose Jacob and not Esau.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:11–13 God did not choose Jacob on the basis of anything in Jacob or Esau’s life. He did so to fulfill his purpose of election. For the OT background to “election,” see Gen. 18:10; Ex. 33:19; Mal. 1:2–3. See also Eph. 1:3–6.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:14–16 God is just in choosing one over the other because no one deserves to be saved (see 3:23). The salvation of anyone at all is due to God’s mercy alone, as the words taken from Ex. 33:19 affirm.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:17 Paul quotes Ex. 9:16 to show that God is sovereign over evil as well as good. Even the wrath of man praises God (Ps. 76:10). For example, God installed Pharaoh as ruler and hardened his heart so that God’s own saving power and glorious name would be spread throughout the whole world.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:19 who can resist his will? If salvation ultimately depends upon God, and he either has mercy on or hardens whomever he pleases, then how can he charge anyone with guilt?
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:20–21 Paul does not resolve the problem presented in v. 19 on the basis of human free will. Rather, he insists that human beings should not rebelliously question God’s ways. Like a potter (see Jer. 18:1–6), God has the right to do what he wishes with his creation. The honorable and dishonorable vessels represent those who are saved and those who are not saved. Paul affirms that humans are guilty for their sin, but he offers no explanation as to how this fits with divine sovereignty. He insists that God controls all that happens (see Eph. 1:11). God does not sin, and he is not morally responsible for sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:22–23 The salvation of any person is due to the marvelous grace and love of God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:25–26 Paul quotes Hos. 2:23 and 1:10 to illustrate God’s amazing grace. Those who are not my people . . . will be called “sons of the living God.” In calling the Gentiles to salvation, God calls sinful people to himself. He did the same with Israel.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:27–29 Isaiah 10:22–23 notes that only some of Israel would be saved. Most of Israel was judged. Only a remnant experienced salvation. Indeed, as Isa. 1:9 says, Israel deserved to be wiped out like Sodom and Gomorrah, but God had mercy and spared some.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:30–11:10 God’s sovereignty is compatible with human responsibility. Israel should have believed the gospel and trusted in Christ, but the majority refused to do so. Still, God’s saving promises will be fulfilled.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:32 Following the law to try to establish righteousness led Israel to stumble over the stone (Christ). If obeying the law can save them, they see no need to believe in Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 9:33 stumbling. See Isa. 28:16. Those who trust in Christ will not experience shame on the day of judgment.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:2 The Jews’ zeal and sincerity does not lead them to salvation. Many sincere “religious” people are wrong in their beliefs.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:3 On the contrast between the two ways to righteousness, see Gal. 3:7–14.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:4 End probably includes the idea of both goal and completion. The Mosaic law has reached its goal in Christ. Now the old covenant has ended. Since Christ is the goal and end of the law, righteousness belongs to all who trust in Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:5 Paul quotes Lev. 18:5 regarding the righteousness that is based on the law. All those who keep the law will have life. But as Paul has already shown, all people violate the law (Rom. 1:18–3:20).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:6–8 Paul quotes Deut. 30:12–14 to show the contrast between the righteousness based on faith and the righteousness that comes from the law. There is no need to travel to heaven to bring Christ to earth, for God has already sent him into the world. Nor should anyone think they must bring Christ up from the realm of the dead, for God has raised Christ from the dead. What God requires is not superhuman works but faith in the gospel.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:9–10 if you confess with your mouth. Such confession gives outward evidence of inward faith, and often confirms that faith to the speaker. That God raised him from the dead implies a belief in all truth connected with the resurrection. This includes Jesus’ sin-bearing death, followed by his resurrection that showed God’s approval of his work (see note on 4:25). with the heart one believes. Saving faith is deep trust in Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:11 Paul again cites Isa. 28:16 (compare Rom. 9:33) to emphasize that trusting in Christ (rather than good works) is the way to salvation. Shame here is the humiliation that those judged on the last day will experience when they are sent to hell.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:14–15 How then? With a series of rhetorical questions, Paul considers the chain of events necessary for a person to be saved. The logic of these verses is clear: (1) People will call on Jesus to save them only if they believe he can do so; (2) belief in Christ cannot exist without knowledge about him; (3) one hears about Christ only when someone proclaims the saving message; and (4) the message about Christ will not be proclaimed unless someone is sent by God to do so. Paul was so urgent about spreading the gospel to the ends of the earth because he believed that the only way to be saved was to hear and believe in the gospel. (Paul is not talking here about OT believers or infants; see note on 2 Sam. 12:23). beautiful . . . feet. See Isa. 52:7.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:16 Isaiah (Isa. 53:1) prophesies that not all will believe. In the context of Romans 9–11, Paul is thinking especially of unbelieving Jews.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:17 One can come to faith only through hearing the word of Christ, that is, the good news about Jesus Christ as the crucified and risen Savior.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:18–19 They who have heard the message probably refers to the Jewish people (see vv. 1, 19–20). Paul applies Ps. 19:4 to the proclamation of the gospel to emphasize that the Jews have heard the good news because the gospel has gone even to the ends of the world (that is, to the Gentiles). Israel should have understood from the prophecy of Deut. 32:21 that the Gentiles would believe.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 10:20–21 Isaiah 65:1 has been fulfilled. Gentiles who did not seek after God have now experienced God’s saving promises. Israel, on the other hand, has fulfilled the words of Isa. 65:2. They have rebelled and disobeyed the gospel message.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:1 The majority of Israel failed to believe. Does this mean that God has rejected his people? Paul presents himself as an example of the remnant that has been preserved. This remnant shows that God is not finished with Israel. He will fulfill his promises to his people.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:2 foreknew. See note on 8:29.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:3–5 God assured Elijah that he had preserved a remnant who still followed him (1 Kings 19:18). As in Paul’s day and today, a remnant of Jews believe in Christ because of God’s electing grace (see Rom. 9:27–29).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:7–10 Paul links Isa. 29:10 and Deut. 29:4 to clarify that God has hardened Israel so that they would not see or hear. Paul then prays for judgment (Ps. 69:22–23) upon the Jews of his day who have rejected Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:11–32 God’s saving righteousness is seen in the salvation of Israel at the end of history, and in his saving plan for both Jews and Gentiles.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:12 World means Gentiles here. Paul argues from the lesser to the greater. If Israel’s sin brought salvation to the Gentiles, then the blessing will be even greater when all Israel is saved (see v. 15).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:15 If the rejection of the majority of Israel has meant that many Gentiles (the world) have been reconciled to God through Christ, then surely the acceptance of the Jews—their future coming to Christ in large numbers—will bring about the final resurrection (life from the dead) and the end of history.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:16 Two illustrations teach the same truth. The firstfruits and the root probably refer to the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) and the saving promises given to them. If the firstfruits and root are dedicated to God, so too are the whole lump (of dough) and the branches (that is, the Jewish people as a whole). As Paul has already explained in chs. 9–10, however, not every Jewish person will be saved.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:17 The people of God are portrayed here as an olive tree (see Jer. 11:16–19; Hos. 14:6–7). When Paul says some branches were removed, he probably has in mind the majority of the Jews of his day. Gentiles are the wild shoots grafted into the olive tree that now share in the root (the promises made to the patriarchs).
A wild olive branch? Farmers don’t usually graft a wild plant onto a cultivated one, but Paul says that is just what God has done in grafting the wild olive branch of the Gentile world onto the cultivated olive tree of his people Israel (11:11–24). He has done this so that all people everywhere, no matter what earthly family they come from, can become a part of his family.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:18–20 Gentile believers are warned against arrogance toward the Jews who were removed (v. 17). It is God’s saving promises (the root), not their own goodness, that saved them. This should provoke fear and awe, not pride.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:21 Whether Jew or Gentile, God will not spare anyone who does not continue to believe.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:22–24 The Gentile readers must contemplate both God’s kindness and his severity toward them and the Jews who have not believed. They must continue in faith. Otherwise, they too will be judged as unbelievers. Paul argues from the lesser to the greater. If God grafted Gentiles, who are the wild branches, into the olive tree, then surely he will graft back into the olive tree Jews, who are the natural branches (see v. 17).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:25 Mystery in this case is something previously hidden that is now revealed.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:26 in this way all Israel will be saved. It seems most likely that this salvation of the Jewish people is in the future. This interpretation fits with the promises of God’s future work in vv. 12 and 15, and the future salvation of ethnic Israel at the end of history agrees with the character of this passage. God is faithful to fulfill his saving promises to his people (9:6). “All Israel” refers to a very large number, at least the majority of Jews. The Deliverer coming from Zion probably refers to Christ (see 1 Thess. 1:10), suggesting that these Jews will be saved near or at Christ’s second coming.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:28 for your sake. Israel’s unbelief has benefited the Gentiles. This is the period of history in which Gentiles are being saved, while most of Israel remains in unbelief. But God’s promise to their forefathers Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob will be fulfilled in the future.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:29 Israel will be saved because God always keeps his promises. As used here, gifts means the unique blessings given to Israel which Paul mentioned at the beginning of this long section (9:4–5). Calling refers here to calling to salvation (see 8:30; 9:11, 24).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:30–31 God saved the Gentiles when one would have expected only the Jews to be saved. In the future he will amaze all by saving the Jews. It will be clear that everyone’s salvation is by mercy alone (see note on 9:14–16). The final now in the text means that the promise of Jewish salvation could be fulfilled at any time.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:32 The word all here refers to Jews and Gentiles. God’s mercy is available to all, but not all will accept it.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 11:34–35 Paul quotes Isa. 40:13 and Job 41:11 to highlight that all good things are gifts from God (1 Cor. 4:7).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:1–15:13 God’s Righteousness in Everyday Life. The gift of God’s saving righteousness leads to a new life. Paul explains some practical results of God’s saving mercy.
| Romans 12:6–8 | 1 Corinthians 12:7–10 | 1 Corinthians 12:28 | Ephesians 4:11 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Having gifts that differ according to the grace given to us | To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good | God has appointed in the church | And he gave |
| apostles | the apostles | ||
| prophecy | prophecy | prophets | the prophets |
| the evangelists | |||
| ability to distinguish between spirits | |||
| utterance of wisdom | |||
| teaching | utterance of knowledge | teachers | the shepherds and teachers |
| exhorting | |||
| working of miracles | miracles | ||
| gifts of healing | gifts of healing | ||
| service | helping | ||
| leading | administrating | ||
| various kinds of tongues | various kinds of tongues | ||
| interpretation of tongues | |||
| giving | |||
| faith | |||
| mercy |
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:1 Therefore points back to the entire argument in 1:18–11:36. mercies of God. Sacrificial language from the OT is used to describe the new life of Christians. Bodies refers to the whole person. Both body and soul belong to God. Christians are a living sacrifice. They enjoy new life with Christ (6:4). “Living” also means that they will not be put to death as OT animal sacrifices were. Spiritual worship means offering one’s whole life to God (see Heb. 13:15–16).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:2 The present evil age still tempts Christians, so they must resist its pressure. Their minds are made new (contrast 1:28), so that they are able to “discern” or understand God’s will. By testing you may discern translates a Greek word that means finding out the worth of something by testing it.
What does “discern” mean? To discern something means to understand it. For Christians, discernment involves the use of wisdom and the Holy Spirit’s guidance to figure out how to apply biblical principles to the concrete issues of life (12:2; see also Eph. 5:10).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:4–5 The diversity and unity of the church is compared to the human body. (See also 1 Corinthians 12 and Eph. 4:4, 12–16.)
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:6 On the gift of prophecy, see notes on Acts 21:4; 21:10–11; 1 Cor. 12:10; Eph. 2:20; 1 Thess. 5:20–21; and other notes on 1 Corinthians 12–14. in proportion to our faith. Those with the gift of prophecy should speak only when they are confident that the Holy Spirit is truly revealing something to them.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:7–8 Christians should use the gifts God has given them, whether in serving others, teaching God’s Word, or in exhortation and encouragement.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:9 The rest of the chapter describes the life that pleases God. Not surprisingly, love heads the list (see note on John 13:34–35).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:13 Hospitality was very important for early Christians, because most of them could not afford to pay for lodging when traveling.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:14 Bless . . . do not curse. These words reflect the teaching of Jesus (Matt. 5:44).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:17–19 Repay no one evil. . . . Vengeance is mine. This alludes to Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 5:39).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 12:20–21 burning coals. See Prov. 25:21–22. Most interpreters think Paul is teaching that Christians must do good to people so that the others will feel ashamed and repent. That sense is possible. But in the OT the concept of “burning coals” always represents punishment (see Ps. 11:6). Thus another interpretation is that Paul is repeating the thought of Rom. 12:19: Christians are to do good to wrongdoers, whom God will punish on the last day if they refuse to repent. Overcoming evil with good includes acts of kindness toward evildoers. It may sometimes include the “good” (13:4) of the civil government stopping evil through the use of force (military or police). See 13:3–4. See note on Prov. 25:21–22.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:1–7 Christians are to be subject to (which generally means to obey, see 1 Pet. 3:5–6) the government because it has been put in place by God. Several other passages show that God approves of Christians disobeying government, but only when obedience to government would mean disobeying God (see Ex. 1:17, 21; Est. 4:16; Dan. 3:12–18; Acts 5:29; Heb. 11:23).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:1 Sometimes God gives good authorities as a blessing, and sometimes he allows evil rulers as a means of trial or judgment (2 Chron. 25:20; 32:24–25). On God’s rule over earthly authorities, see Ps. 75:7 and Dan. 2:21.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:3 rulers are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. Civil government in general is a great blessing from God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:4 Governing authorities are God’s servants, for they carry out his wrath on evildoers, and they do so for your good. Even though Christians must not take personal revenge (12:17–20), it is right for them to turn punishment over to the civil authorities, who have the responsibility to punish evil. Sword most likely refers to capital punishment (see Gen. 9:6).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:5 Christians should obey civil authorities to avoid God’s wrath (coming through those authorities, v. 4) and because their conscience tells them to submit to the government (see note on vv. 1–7).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:8 Verses 8–10 focus on the Christian’s relationship to the Mosaic law. Owe no one anything does not prohibit all borrowing. It means that one should always “pay what is owed” (see v. 7), fulfilling whatever agreements have been made.
Should Christians always pay their taxes? Paul says that paying taxes is one way in which Christians show honor to the authorities God has placed over them (13:1–7). Christians should obey their government unless doing so means disobeying the Lord (Acts 5:29).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:9 Paul cites several OT commandments regarding responsibility to others. All of these are summarized in the call to love your neighbor as yourself (Lev. 19:18).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:11–12 The final verses of this section (12:3–13:14) call Christians to action, given the shortness of the time before Jesus returns.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 13:14 The metaphor of putting on clothing implies imitating Christ’s character and living in close fellowship with him. This requires denying the flesh and refusing to gratify its desires.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:1–15:13 Paul addresses a specific dispute, probably over whether Christians need to follow Jewish food laws. He agrees with the “strong” (who did not feel compelled to follow those laws), but he encourages them not to despise or offend the “weak.”
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:1 As for the one who is weak. The strong are tempted to argue with those weaker in faith.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:2 The strong believe all foods are allowed. The weak eat only vegetables, probably to avoid eating unclean foods (see Dan. 1:8, 10, 12, 16).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:4 This verse is likely directed to the weak. They are not to pass judgment on the strong, who answer to their own master (the Lord).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:5 The weak thought some days were more important than others. Given the Jewish background (see v. 14), the day is the Sabbath. The strong think every day is the same. Both views are fine. Each person must follow his own conscience. Unlike the other nine commandments in Ex. 20:1–17, the Sabbath commandment seems to have been part of the “ceremonial laws” of the Mosaic covenant. Like the laws about sacrifices and diet, sabbath observance is not binding on new covenant believers (see also Gal. 4:10; Col. 2:16–17). However, regular times of worship are commanded for Christians (Heb. 10:24–25; see Acts 20:7).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:10–12 The strong should not despise the weak. The weak should not judge the strong. Everyone will stand before God, who will judge all on the last day. The future day of judgment is prophesied in Isa. 45:23. Every person will give an account of his life to God at the judgment.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:14 Christians are no longer under the old covenant, so Paul rejects the view that some foods are unclean (see Leviticus 11; Deuteronomy 14). Still, if anyone thinks certain foods are unclean, then that person should avoid them.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:15–17 For the sake of the weak, the strong should refrain from eating certain foods. They must be careful not to destroy the faith of a brother or sister. Lack of love for the weak contradicts Christ’s love. God’s kingdom centers on the gifts of righteousness, peace, and joy granted by the Holy Spirit. Bodily appetites are secondary in importance.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:20–21 Paul urges the strong not to destroy God’s work in the weak by eating food that will offend them.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:22 The strong are likely addressed here. The faith that you have means their faith that they may eat anything (see vv. 1–2, 23). They are not asked to change their convictions, but they should not behave in a way that injures the faith of others and so brings judgment on themselves.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 14:23 No one should eat unclean food if he has doubts about the rightness of the activity. Indeed, anything believers do apart from faith is sin.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:1–3 Christ is the supreme example of strengthening others and living for the glory of God. Paul quotes Ps. 69:9 to make this point.
Paul had not visited Rome when he wrote this letter, but he sent personal greetings to more than 25 individually named men and women plus households (16:3–15). He obviously cared deeply for his Christian brothers and sisters and appreciated their work for Christ.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:4 for our instruction . . . encouragement. All the words of the OT are the words of God. They teach believers how to live in a way that pleases God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:8 circumcised. The Jews. In fulfilling God’s saving promises to the Jews, God shows truthfulness and faithfulness to his word.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:9–12 Paul cites verses from 2 Sam. 22:50 (or Ps. 18:49); Deut. 32:43; Ps. 117:1; and Isa. 11:10. The OT clearly emphasizes the inclusion of the Gentiles into the people of God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:14–16:23 The Extension of God’s Righteousness through Paul’s Mission. Paul focuses on his calling as the apostle to the Gentiles, adding some greetings and final instructions.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:14 Instruct often means warning against wrong conduct (compare 1 Cor. 4:14; 1 Thess. 5:12, 14; 2 Thess. 3:15).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:16 Gentile converts are the offering Paul presents to God.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:19 By the power of signs and wonders refers to the miracles God did through Paul during his ministry. Miracles pointed to the power of God (see Acts 5:12; 2 Cor. 12:12; Heb. 2:4). Paul has fulfilled his charge to preach the gospel among the Gentiles from Jerusalem to Illyricum (roughly the area that is now Albania and was formerly Yugoslavia). Churches have been planted in key places. From there Paul’s coworkers will bring the gospel to more remote areas (e.g., Epaphras in Colossae, Col. 1:7).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:20–21 Paul’s aim was to preach the gospel where no churches existed, fulfilling Isa. 52:15.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:22–24 Paul had been stopped from coming to Rome because he had not completed his work of planting churches in unreached eastern parts of the Roman Empire (v. 22), but now he feels that his work in the east has come to an end (vv. 23–24). He hopes to see the Roman church. He wants them to be his base of support for his mission to Spain. No visit of Paul to Spain is recorded in the NT. It is possible that he went there after the events recorded in Acts 28:30–31.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:25 He cannot visit Rome immediately. Paul’s next task is to travel to Jerusalem to bring the money he had collected for the poor saints there (see 1 Cor. 16:1–4; 2 Corinthians 8–9).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:26 Macedonia and Achaia are roughly equivalent to northern and southern Greece today, including such cities as Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:27 they were pleased. The Gentiles enjoy the spiritual blessings of the Jewish people. They should happily assist them financially.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 15:31 delivered from the unbelievers. Paul did go to Rome, even if it was not in the way he anticipated (see Acts 22–28).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:1–23 Paul warmly greets those he knows in Rome. He is able to say something specific about almost every person greeted.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:1 Phoebe probably brought this epistle to the Romans. servant. The Greek word can mean either “servant” (13:4; 15:8; 1 Cor. 3:5; 1 Tim. 4:6) or “deacon” (referring to a church office; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:8, 12). Cenchreae. See note on Acts 18:18.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:2 Paul asks the church to assist Phoebe since she has helped so many. Phoebe served as a patron, probably offering financial assistance and hospitality to other believers.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:3 Prisca and Aquila. See 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19. Prisca is called Priscilla in Acts 18:2–3, 18, 26.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:4 Perhaps Prisca and Aquila risked their lives when Paul was in danger in Ephesus (Acts 19:23–41; 1 Cor. 15:32; 2 Cor. 1:8–11).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:5 the church in their house. See note on 1 Cor. 16:19. Apparently a church met in the home of Prisca and Aquila. Asia here refers to a province in what is modern-day Turkey.
Aquila and his wife, Priscilla (also called Prisca), were close friends and coworkers with the apostle Paul. Forced from Rome by the emperor Claudius, they fled to Corinth (18:1–2). Like Paul, who stayed in their home, they were tentmakers by trade. On his way back to Antioch, Paul left Priscilla and Aquila in Ephesus to establish the church in that city. There the godly couple taught the Christian way “more accurately” to a gifted Alexandrian disciple named Apollos (18:26). They were eventually able to return to Rome, where the church met in their home (Rom. 16:3–5). Paul’s deep love and respect for Aquila and Priscilla is obvious in his letter to the Romans, where he declares that the couple “risked their necks” for his life (Rom. 16:3). (Romans 16:3–5)
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:7 Andronicus and Junia were probably a husband-and-wife ministry team. Most scholars now think that Junia was a woman, though some have argued that a man named Junias is in view (the spelling would be the same in Greek). The verse seems to be saying that Andronicus and Junia were well known to the apostles, not that Junia was herself an apostle. This passage also reveals that the couple was Jewish, had been imprisoned, and had become Christians before Paul.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:8–10 The people greeted in these verses are not mentioned elsewhere in the NT. The family of Aristobulus probably refers to the slaves in Aristobulus’s household. Some think Aristobulus is the grandson of Herod the Great (c. 73–4 B.C.) and the brother of Herod Agrippa I (10 B.C.–A.D. 44).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:11 The family of Narcissus refers to the slaves in Narcissus’s household. Some scholars think Narcissus was the wealthy freedman who served the emperor Claudius (A.D. 41–54). Nero’s mother, Agrippina, forced Narcissus to kill himself when Nero became emperor (A.D. 54).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:13 Rufus. Possibly the son of Simon of Cyrene (Mark 15:21). Apparently Rufus’s mother ministered significantly to Paul.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:16 Christians greeted one another with a holy kiss to show their warm affection (see note on 1 Cor. 16:20; also 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26; 1 Pet. 5:14).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:20 This is an allusion to Gen. 3:15.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:21 Those who are with Paul greet the Romans. Timothy is probably Paul’s most beloved coworker in ministry. Lucius is unknown. Jason is likely the same person named in Acts 17:5–7, 9. Sosipater is probably the same person as Sopater from Berea (Acts 20:4).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:22 Tertius functioned as Paul’s secretary for the letter. It was common for those writing letters in the first century to dictate to a secretary, but the content of the letter is clearly Paul’s.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:23 Gaius here is the Gaius of 1 Cor. 1:14. This supports the idea that the letter was written from Corinth. He was a man of some wealth, for he provided a place for the entire church to meet. It is difficult to know if Erastus is the person mentioned in Acts 19:22 and 2 Tim. 4:20.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:25–27 Final Summary of the Gospel of God’s Righteousness. Many of the themes in the introduction reappear in the conclusion.
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:26 prophetic writings. The OT Scriptures (see 1:2).
ROMANS—NOTE ON 16:27 glory forevermore. God’s glory is to be the theme of Christians’ lives and the joy of their hearts.
| Book | Author | Date | Recipients | Place of Writing |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| James | James | 40–45 | Jewish Christians in or near Palestine | Jerusalem? |
| Galatians | Paul | 48 | South Galatian churches | Syrian Antioch |
| 1 Thessalonians | Paul | 49–51 | Church in Thessalonica | Corinth |
| 2 Thessalonians | Paul | 49–51 | Church in Thessalonica | Corinth |
| 1 Corinthians | Paul | 53–55 | Church in Corinth | Ephesus |
| 2 Corinthians | Paul | 55–56 | Church in Corinth | Macedonia |
| Romans | Paul | 57 | Church in Rome | Corinth |
| Philippians | Paul | 62 | Church in Philippi | Rome |
| Colossians | Paul | 62 | Church in Colossae | Rome |
| Philemon | Paul | 62 | Philemon | Rome |
| Ephesians | Paul | 62 | Churches in Asia Minor (circular letter?) | Rome |
| 1 Timothy | Paul | 62–64 | Timothy | Macedonia? |
| Titus | Paul | 62–64 | Titus | Nicopolis |
| 1 Peter | Peter | 62–63 | Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor | Rome |
| 2 Peter | Peter | 64–67 | Churches in Roman provinces in Asia Minor? | Rome |
| 2 Timothy | Paul | 64–67 | Timothy | Rome |
| Jude | Jude | Mid–60s | Jewish Christians in Egypt? Asia Minor? Antioch? | Unknown |
| Hebrews | Unknown | 60–70 | Jewish Christians in Rome or in or near Palestine | Unknown |
| 1 John | John | 85–95 | Churches near Ephesus? | Ephesus |
| 2 John | John | 85–95 | Church or churches near Ephesus | Ephesus |
| 3 John | John | 85–95 | Gaius | Ephesus |