2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:1–7:16 Paul’s Defense of His Ministry as an Apostle. Paul’s ministry reflects the work of the Holy Spirit.
Amen is the Greek form of the Hebrew word meaning “to confirm.” The word is used throughout the Bible to affirm the truth of important statements (see 1:20). Paul often ends his letters with “Amen” (see Rom. 16:27), but here in 2 Corinthians he says it near the beginning of his letter.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:1 apostle of Christ Jesus. See note on Rom. 1:1. The Greek word for “apostle” comes from the verb “to send out.” It was used in the Greek OT for persons who had the authority of those who sent them (Ex. 3:10; Judg. 6:8; Jer. 1:7). saints. Literally, “holy” or “dedicated ones.” All who belong to God are saints (see 1 Cor. 3:16–17; 5:1–6:20; 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1). Corinth was 46 miles (74 km) west of Athens. A Roman colony, it was the most influential city of the province of Achaia.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:2 Grace. A wordplay on the normal Greek greeting. Whereas the Greeks said, “Hello” (Greek charein), the Christians said, “Grace” (Greek charis). peace. The profound well-being that comes from resting in God’s sovereignty and mercy (see note on John 14:27).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:3–11 Paul offers praise to God as he introduces the main themes to follow.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:3 God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. These titles describe Yahweh’s relationship to Jesus and Jesus’ relationship to his people.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:4 us . . . our. Most of the plural first-person pronouns in 2 Corinthians (“we,” “us,” “our”) seem to refer to Paul himself (see v. 8; 7:5–7). At times these plurals may also include Timothy (1:1), other ministry partners (vv. 19, 21), or Christians generally (5:1–10). In this verse, Paul probably uses the plural to indicate that he represents both the apostolic office and believers generally.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:5 Christ’s sufferings refers not to Jesus’ unique atonement for sin (Rom. 5:8–10) but to Paul’s sufferings in imitation of Christ. Paul endured these sufferings in faithfulness to God and for the sake of God’s people.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:6–7 it is for your comfort. The opponents maintained that Paul’s sufferings disqualified him as an apostle. Paul maintains that God uses his sufferings to strengthen other believers.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:8 Asia may refer back to Paul’s suffering in Ephesus (1 Cor. 15:32). That Paul was burdened and despaired in Asia points forward to 2 Cor. 4:8, 17 (see note on 4:17–18).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:10 Biblical hope is absolute confidence in God’s promises for the future (v. 10) based on his faithfulness in the past (v. 9).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:12–2:17 Paul offers a detailed defense of why he had changed his mind more than once about returning to Corinth. The process included: (1) an initial plan to visit Macedonia first, then Corinth (1 Cor. 16:5); (2) a subsequent plan to visit Corinth first, then Macedonia (2 Cor. 1:15); and finally (3) a decision to avoid “another painful visit” to Corinth, so that he went, by way of Troas, to Macedonia first (1:23; 2:1).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:14 The day of our Lord Jesus assigns to Jesus the divine and messianic role of judge that God the Father holds on “the day of the LORD” (e.g., Isa. 13:9; Joel 1–3; Zechariah 12–14; see 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Pet. 3:10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:15–16 first . . . on my way to Macedonia, and to come back to you from Macedonia . . . on my way to Judea. Originally, Paul had planned to travel from Ephesus through Macedonia to Corinth (see map) on his way back to Jerusalem (1 Cor. 16:5–9). In the meantime, he sent Timothy to visit the Corinthians (Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 16:10–11). When Timothy arrived in Corinth, he found the church in turmoil. When Paul learned of this he decided to go immediately to Corinth to resolve the issues, then travel on to Macedonia before returning to Corinth for a second visit on his way to Jerusalem. a second experience of grace. Some think this refers to a second opportunity to contribute to the collection for the believers in Jerusalem (see 2 Corinthians 8–9). Contributing to others’ needs is called “grace” because it is made possible by God’s grace in the lives of those who give (8:1, 4, 6–9, 19; 9:6–14). Others see this as a reference to the added blessings from God that would come from another visit by Paul.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:18–19 Paul can affirm that his word . . . was not Yes and No, but in him (Christ) it is always Yes because his change of plan was within God’s will.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:20 God’s promises find their fulfillment in Christ. Thus the OT Scriptures should be read as pointing to Christ (see the Overview of the Bible). Paul expresses his agreement—that is, his Amen. He confirms what God has done through Christ (through him) by preaching Christ (v. 19) and by behaving in a Christlike way toward the Corinthians. This included changing his plans in order to minister to them.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:21–22 To be anointed is to be set apart and gifted by God. This is symbolized in the OT by the pouring of olive oil as a sign of God’s rich provision. seal. A mark of ownership. See note on John 6:27. guarantee. A financial term referring to the first installment paid as a pledge to complete the purchase. The Spirit comes as God’s pledge to complete (“pay in full”) the final redemption of his people at the end of the age (see Rom. 8:11).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:23–2:4 Paul makes clear that just as his first change of plans was a Christlike act in accordance with the promises of God, so too his decision not to come but to send them a “tearful letter” was an expression of God’s love to them in Christ (2:3–4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 1:23 to spare you. Paul did not return immediately to Corinth. He wanted to spare them God’s punishment.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:1–2 painful visit. Paul’s visit turned out to be “painful” because of the church’s open rebellion against him (see vv. 5–8; 7:8–13; 11:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:4 Paul wrote a severe letter that called the Corinthians to repentance (see 7:8–9).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:5–11 The majority in Corinth had expressed their repentance by punishing the leader of the rebellion against Paul. Paul now calls them to follow his own Christlike example toward them by extending mercy to the offender, lest Satan have his way once again in the church.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:6 punishment. Mostly likely exclusion from the fellowship of the church (compare 1 Cor. 5:2, 5, 13).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:11 Satan’s designs are to destroy the mutual forgiveness, love, and unity that is to characterize God’s people (see 5:16–6:2).
| The Believer’s Apparent (Temporal) Defeat | The Believer’s Actual (Spiritual) Victory |
|---|---|
| For we were so utterly burdened beyond our strength that we despaired of life itself. Indeed, we felt that we had received the sentence of death (1:8–9). | He delivered us from such a deadly peril, and he will deliver us. On him we have set our hope that he will deliver us again (1:10). |
| When I came to Troas to preach the gospel of Christ . . . my spirit was not at rest . . . (2:12–13). | But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumphal procession . . . (2:14). |
| We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies (4:8–10). | Though our outer self is wasting away, our inner self is being renewed day by day. For this light momentary affliction is preparing for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison, as we look not to the things that are seen but to the things that are unseen (4:16–18). |
| A thorn was given me in the flesh, a messenger of Satan to harass me, to keep me from becoming conceited (12:7). | But [the Lord] said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness” (12:9). |
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:12–17 These verses explain some of Paul’s actions behind writing 2 Corinthians (vv. 12–13; see also 7:5–16). They also reintroduce the letter’s main theme (2:14–17).
| 2:16 | Who is sufficient for these things? |
| 3:5 | Not that we are sufficient in ourselves . . . |
| 3:5 | but our sufficiency is from God |
| 12:9 | “My grace is sufficient for you . . .” |
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:12–13 Paul came to Troas after leaving Ephesus for Macedonia, hoping to meet sooner with his coworker Titus. He had sent Titus to Corinth to present the “tearful letter” (vv. 3–4; see ch. 7). Despite a good response to the gospel in Troas (a door was opened for me in the Lord), when Titus failed to show up, Paul’s spirit was not at rest. He was concerned over the welfare of Titus and the church in Corinth (see 7:5–7; 11:28).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:14 leads us in triumphal procession. Most interpreters think this refers to the grand victory parades celebrated in Rome after great battles. Here God is portrayed as the sovereign victor. Christ is the general, leading the victory procession. Paul is “captured” by Christ but now joyfully follows him. This picture reflects an ongoing theme throughout 2 Corinthians: the contrast between the believer’s apparent defeat and his actual (spiritual) victory.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:15–16a aroma . . . fragrance. Some believe this refers to the incense spread along the streets during the triumphal procession (see note on v. 14). However, the terms used here are used often in the Greek OT to refer to the aroma of a sacrifice pleasing to God (e.g., Ex. 29:25). Christ is pictured as the primary sacrifice. Paul’s offering of his entire life to God (compare Rom. 12:1; Heb. 13:15–16) can then be seen as an extension of Christ’s death (see 2 Cor. 1:5). It is the aroma of Christ to God. from death to death . . . from life to life. Some dislike Paul’s life and message. This leads to their own condemnation. Others are attracted by the Christlike beauty seen in Paul and his message. Their acceptance of his message leads to their own eternal life.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 2:16b–17 Who is sufficient for these things? The implied answer clearly is “No one.” Our “sufficiency” comes only from God by means of his grace. Some of Paul’s opponents demanded payment for their ministries as if they were peddlers of God’s word (see 11:7–15; 12:13–16). In contrast, Paul’s commitment to support himself brought with him many hardships (see 1 Cor. 4:11–13; 15:10; 2 Cor. 6:5; 11:23).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:1–6 Paul makes it clear that, as an apostle, he was called to mediate the Spirit in fulfillment of the new covenant.
A new covenant. God wrote the first covenant, the law, on stone tablets (Ex. 24:12). The new covenant is “written” on hearts (2 Cor. 3:2–3; see Jer. 31:31–34; Ezek. 11:19). In other words, the Spirit changes believers’ hearts to enable them to obey God.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:1 Paul expects a negative answer to his two rhetorical questions, since his claim to be an apostle is not an empty boast (he does not commend himself). His claim of apostleship is supported by the Spirit and by his ministry of suffering. For the theme of “commendation” in 2 Corinthians, see notes on 4:2; 6:4; 10:12; 10:17–18.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:2–3 letter from Christ. By the Corinthians’ changed lives, Christ testifies to Paul’s true apostleship because he is the one who brought the gospel to them (delivered by us). on tablets of stone. See Ex. 24:12; Deut. 9:10. on tablets of human hearts. See Ezek. 11:19; 36:26.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:5 sufficiency is from God. Paul’s sufficiency as an apostle echoes the accounts of the callings of the OT prophets (see Judg. 6:11–24; Isa. 6:1–8; Jer. 1:4–10; Ezek. 1:1–3:11).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:6 ministers. Whereas “apostle” refers to Paul’s authoritative office, “minister” (or “servant”) refers to how he carries out his work. He can share this role with non-apostles (e.g., 4:1; 5:18; 1 Cor. 3:5). Here “minister” refers to Paul’s role of mediating the Spirit as promised in the new covenant (Jer. 31:33–34; Ezek. 36:25–27). the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life. Compare Rom. 2:29 and 7:6, the other two NT occurrences of this contrast. The letter kills since it announces God’s will without granting the power to keep it. This brings people under God’s judgment as covenant breakers. The Spirit alone gives life because only the Spirit can change the heart, enabling God’s people to keep his commands.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:7–9 Moses’ ministry is described as a ministry of death because Israel would not obey the law (see Ex. 32:9; 34:9) and so received condemnation (2 Cor. 3:9). The giving of the law was accompanied by so much glory that the Israelites could not gaze at Moses’ face. See Ex. 34:29–35.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:10–11 Now that the new covenant has come, the old covenant has come to have no glory at all, since God is no longer revealing himself through it. The glory of the new covenant also surpasses that of the old in that the new covenant is a permanent, everlasting covenant.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:12–18 If Paul’s ministry announces life, not death, then why are the majority of the Jews in Paul’s day still rejecting it? Does Israel’s rejection of Paul’s message call the gospel itself into question? Paul answers these questions in this next section.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:12 Paul’s confident expectation (his hope) is that God is pouring out the Spirit to change people’s hearts.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:13 Veil is the key concept in vv. 13–18. so that the Israelites might not gaze at the outcome of what was being brought to an end. This explains why Moses veiled his face (Ex. 34:33, 35). The most likely interpretation is that Moses put a veil over his face so the Israelites would not see that the glory was gradually fading. This fading signified the temporary nature of the old covenant.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:14–15 Despite Paul’s ministry, Israel’s minds, which were hardened in Moses’ day (Ex. 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9), remained so to this day. See also Deut. 29:4; Isa. 29:10. This is seen by the fact that that same veil remains unlifted in Paul’s day whenever Moses is read. Here Paul uses Moses’ veil as a symbol for the people’s hardened condition. This hardness kept most Jews in Paul’s day from recognizing that the law of Moses itself points to Jesus as the Messiah.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:17 the Lord is the Spirit. Paul seems to be saying that the Christian’s experience of the ministry of the Spirit under the new covenant (vv. 3–8) is parallel to Moses’ experience of God the Father under the old covenant. The Spirit (under the new covenant) sets one free from the veil of hard-heartedness (vv. 12–15). Paul regularly distinguishes Christ from the Holy Spirit in his writings. That is surely the case here, since later in this verse he speaks of the Spirit of the Lord. There is freedom most likely refers to the many kinds of freedom that come with salvation in Christ and with the presence of the Holy Spirit. These include freedom from condemnation, guilt, sin, death, the old covenant, and blindness to the gospel. It also includes access to the loving presence of God.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 3:18 with unveiled face, beholding the glory of the Lord. As a result of seeing the Lord through the ministry of the Spirit, the believer is being transformed (over time) into the same image of God that was distorted at the fall (see Gen. 1:26–27; 2 Cor. 5:17; also 1 John 3:2). The “image” of God includes every way in which humans are like God. This includes their moral character, their knowledge, their many God-given abilities, and their rule over creation (see Gen. 1:26–28).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:1–6:13 Paul explains why he does not become discouraged in his ministry, despite his many afflictions (4:1, 16; 5:6). He then goes on to discuss further the message and character of the new covenant ministry itself (5:11–6:13).
Treasure in jars of clay (4:7). Paul used this word picture to contrast believers’ knowledge of the gospel (“treasure”) with the hardships and weaknesses believers experience daily (see Ps. 30:12; Isa. 30:14).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:2 Paul is not motivated by money (2:17). He does not crave human approval (Gal. 1:10). Thus, Paul refused to tamper with God’s word by watering it down or changing it to suit what people want to hear (compare 2 Tim. 4:3). (The Greek word for “tamper” was also used to describe diluting wine.) Rather, Paul’s open statement of the truth shows that he does not proclaim a “secret” or hidden gospel.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:3–5 If our gospel is veiled refers to the hardened heart that makes it impossible for some to recognize Jesus as the Messiah (see 3:12–15). The god of this world refers to Satan. the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ. The gospel shows how Christ’s death on the cross makes it possible for God’s people to be in his presence. This gospel is both proclaimed and modeled by Paul (see 1 Cor. 2:1–5). See further the contrast between Paul’s attitudes and actions and those of his opponents (2 Cor. 11:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:6 Paul uses the creation of light in Gen. 1:3 to picture conversion as the dawning of the new creation in this fallen world. the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ. To know the glory of Christ (2 Cor. 4:4) is to encounter the life-transforming glory of God.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:7 treasure. A reference to the “knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Christ” (v. 6) as the content of the gospel (v. 4). jars of clay. A common metaphor in the ancient world for human weakness (see Ps. 31:12; Isa. 30:14). This verse restates the central thesis of 2 Corinthians as seen in 1:3–11 and 2:14–17: God triumphs amid human weakness (see 1 Cor. 1:27; 2 Cor. 12:5–9; 13:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:11–12 Paul’s suffering and endurance are intended to bring about resurrection life among the Corinthians as they learn to trust God during difficulty (see 1:6–7).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:13 the same spirit of faith. Most interpreters have understood “spirit” to refer not to the Holy Spirit but to the attitude of trust in spite of affliction that Paul shared with David (see Ps. 116:10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:16 Outer self . . . inner self describes the contrast between Paul’s life of suffering in this present evil age (his outer self) and the moral and spiritual transformation of his life into the image of God (his inner self; see 3:18). See Rom. 6:5–6; Eph. 3:16; 4:20–24; Col. 3:5–14.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 4:17–18 Earlier, Paul’s suffering was a burden too heavy to carry (1:8). Now it is a light momentary affliction in view of the eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison (see Rom. 8:18). Far from harming him permanently, the difficulty is preparing him to receive a great eternal reward. the things that are seen. Paul’s suffering and all the shortcomings of this present age. the things that are unseen. The full restoration of all things at the final resurrection.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:1 the tent that is our earthly home. Present human bodies, which will die. building from God . . . eternal in the heavens. The resurrection body that believers will receive on the last day (see 1 Thess. 4:13–18; Rev. 21:1–22:5).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:2–4 Paul longs for the resurrection (that is, being further clothed; see v. 1) in order to not be found naked or unclothed. This likely refers to the intermediate state in which believers’ spirits are with God but they do not yet have their resurrected bodies.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:5 the Spirit as a guarantee. The presence of the Spirit in Christians’ lives now is the down payment or guarantee that they will receive resurrection bodies when Jesus returns.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:6 at home . . . away. See note on v. 8.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:7 walk by faith, not by sight. Trusting in God’s promises (4:18–5:1).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:8 away from the body and at home with the Lord. Paul expects that, when he dies, his spirit will go immediately into Christ’s presence. He will remain in that state until the day of resurrection (compare Phil. 1:23; Heb. 12:23).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:9 we make it our aim to please him. See Eph. 5:10; Col. 3:20; Heb. 13:21; by contrast, Paul fears displeasing God; see 2 Cor. 5:11; also Eph. 4:30.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:10 the judgment seat of Christ. The “judgment seat” in the Roman courtroom was where the governor sat while giving verdicts. In the coming age, Christ will judge as God the Father’s representative. He will rule the kingdom that the Father has given him (see Rom. 14:10–12). so that each one may receive what is due for what he has done . . . whether good or evil. Present-day actions have eternal consequences.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:11–6:2 Paul offers one of his most extensive descriptions of the motivation (5:11–15), content (5:16–19), and call of the new covenant ministry.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:11 the fear of the Lord. See 7:1; see note on Acts 5:5.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:12 On Paul’s commending himself, see note on 4:2.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:13 if we are beside ourselves . . . if we are in our right mind. This possibly responds to some Corinthians calling Paul crazy. Paul’s motivation is to please Christ (v. 9), so his goal is to persuade others (v. 11b). It is not to urge others to seek exotic religious experiences.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:14–15 one has died for all, therefore all have died. By Christ’s death, the death penalty for sin (see Gen. 2:17) has been paid for all those who trust in him (see Rom. 3:21–26; 1 Cor. 15:3). the love of Christ controls us. See Titus 2:11–14.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:16 Regard no one according to the flesh, that is, according to worldly standards and values which claim that one’s present physical life is all that matters. Before Paul’s conversion, he regarded Christ according to the flesh. He considered Christ to be a false messiah whose suffering and death were punishment from God (see Deut. 21:23).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:17 The redemption of a people who live for Christ by living for others is the beginning of the new creation (see Isa. 43:18–19; 65:17–23; 66:22–23). This new creation also begins Israel’s final restoration from God’s judgment in the exile (see the context of Isa. 43:1–21; 65:17–25).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:18–20 reconciliation. These verses outline (1) the basis of Paul’s apostolic ministry of the new covenant (Paul’s own reconciliation to God through Christ); (2) its consequence (his ministry and message of reconciliation to the world for Christ); (3) its essential content (the forgiveness of sins because of Christ’s death); and (4) its call (on behalf of Christ, be reconciled to God). ambassadors for Christ. Paul is God’s prophetic minister of the new covenant (3:4–6). He announces God’s “peace treaty” (see Isa. 53:5) with those who will trust in Christ to free them from the penalty and power of sin (2 Cor. 5:14–15; see Rom. 5:11).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 5:21 This verse is one of the most important in all of Scripture for understanding the meaning of the atonement and justification. The one who knew no sin is Jesus Christ (v. 20), and he (God) made him (Christ) to be sin. God the Father made Christ to be viewed and treated as “sin” even though Christ himself never sinned (Heb. 4:15; see Gal. 3:13). For our sake. God viewed and treated “our” sin as if it belonged to Christ himself. Thus Christ “died for all” (2 Cor. 5:14) and became our substitute. Christ took the punishment that we deserved (1 Pet. 2:24). The background for this is Isaiah 53, the most lengthy and detailed OT prophecy of Christ’s death. It contains several parallels to 2 Cor. 5:21. so that in him we might become the righteousness of God. Just as God gave our sin and guilt to Christ (“he made him to be sin”) so God also gives Christ’s righteousness to all who believe in Christ. God now views and treats believers as having the legal status of “righteousness.” See further notes on Rom. 5:18; 10:3; 10:6–8; see also Isa. 53:11.
What does it mean to be “reconciled”? To be reconciled means to be reunited with someone from whom one has been alienated. Forgiveness can lead to restored fellowship. Sin leads to alienation from God, but through Christ we can be forgiven and reconciled to God. “Be reconciled to God” (5:20) is thus a wonderful invitation to the gospel (see also Rom. 5:11).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:1 The grace of God comes through the death of Christ (5:14–19). Those who turn back from Christ show that their initial, apparent acceptance of God’s grace was not real but in vain.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:2 By quoting Isa. 49:8, Paul identifies his apostolic ministry with Isaiah’s prophetic role. Both call Israel to repentance and perseverance in view of the coming day of redemption and judgment (salvation).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:3–13 Paul defends his ministry as an apostle by once again calling attention to his faithfulness amid the changing circumstances of his apostolic life. Paul’s ministry reflects God’s power in spite of human weakness.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:4 we commend ourselves in every way. Not only by victories but also by enduring hardship, Paul gives testimony to the truthfulness of his apostolic ministry. See note on 4:2.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:7 weapons of righteousness for the right hand and for the left. The spiritual weapons God provides (see Eph. 6:11). Paul may have in mind a weapon for offense (usually a sword, on the right; see Eph. 6:17), and one for defense (usually a shield, on the left; see Eph. 6:16).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:13 Paul calls those Corinthians still in rebellion against him his spiritual children (see 1 Cor. 4:14–15; 2 Cor. 12:14–15). He asks them to respond to him the way he has responded to them.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:14 Do not be unequally yoked with unbelievers. This command, which is Paul’s main point in 6:14–7:1, will be restated in different words at the end of the section (7:1). The Greek word can mean either “yoked” or crossbred (Lev. 19:19). In this context, it refers especially to those still rebelling against Paul.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:15 Belial. This name for Satan was used in Judaism in Paul’s day. It was often used to stress Satan as an opponent of God’s. This fits Paul’s concern with his opponents.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:16 idols. See note on Rom. 1:23. we are the temple of the living God. The word for temple refers to the Most Holy Place. There God’s presence was shown over the ark of the covenant. This equation of believers with the Most Holy Place (see also 1 Cor. 3:16) reflects the amazing reality of the new covenant: God dwells directly and immediately in the midst of his people. as God said. This one phrase introduces six OT quotations in 2 Cor. 6:16c–18. Taken together, these OT texts support the commands of v. 14 and 7:1. The first quotation combines Lev. 26:11–12 with Ezek. 37:27.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 6:17–18 Therefore. Paul explains what it means to be the new covenant people of God with three commands from Isa. 52:11 and three promises from Ezek. 20:34; 2 Sam. 7:14; and Isa. 43:6.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:1 The fear of God, that is, reverent obedience, is the only way to live wisely (Prov. 1:7, 29; 8:13).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:2–4 Paul resumes the exhortation from 6:11–13. The Corinthians are to side with Paul and reject the false teachers (see 6:14–7:1).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:5 Paul goes back to the topic from 2:13.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:6–9 Titus reported that the Corinthians had fully repented and had turned back to Paul, and therefore back to the gospel. This news comforted Paul.
Titus (7:6) was Paul’s coworker (8:23). He had the unenviable task of delivering a severe letter from Paul to the Corinthians. Thankfully, the majority of the Corinthians repented of the sins that had prompted Paul’s letter (7:7). Paul later wrote to Titus in Crete, where he was establishing churches.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:10 repentance. Regret for having lost God’s approval, which leads to a commitment to reverse one’s conduct and live for God (5:6–10, 15). worldly grief. Grief brought about by losing the world’s approval. This leads to trying to regain that approval, and this produces death, or divine judgment.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:11–12 The Corinthians’ response to the letter Paul wrote to them demonstrated that they belonged to God.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:13–14 Paul had boasted to Titus that the Corinthians were truly a work of the Spirit. Their response showed that he was correct.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 7:16 Paul is confident that the Corinthians will do what he asks.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:1–9:15 Paul’s Appeal to the Repentant Church Regarding the Collection. In view of 7:2–16, Paul encourages the church to complete the collection that they had begun earlier for the suffering believers in Jerusalem (see Rom. 15:25–32; 1 Cor. 16:1–4; Gal. 2:9–10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:1 the grace of God . . . given among the churches of Macedonia. A reference to the generosity of the churches in the region of Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (see Acts 16:9–17:15; 18:5; 19:21–22, 29; 20:1–4; 27:2). Paul calls the collection an act of “grace” because contributing to the needs of others is made possible by God’s gifts (2 Cor. 8:1, 4, 19; see also 8:9; 9:8).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:2–5 not as we expected. God’s grace was shown since the Macedonians gave even though they were poor. gave themselves first to the Lord. The Macedonians recommitted their lives. and then . . . to us. They offered money and any other personal help they could give Paul.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:7 faith . . . speech . . . knowledge. A reference to the Corinthians’ spiritual gifts (see 1 Cor. 1:5; 8:1–7; 12:8–10; 14:19).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:8–10 not as a command. Giving to the Lord’s work must be voluntary. was rich . . . became poor. A reference to Christ’s status as the eternal Son of God in heaven (John 1:1–3; Gal. 4:4; Phil. 2:6) and the humility of his life on earth, including his death (Phil. 2:7–8). He did these things so that believers might become rich (might have salvation and all its benefits).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:12 according to what a person has. Paul did not pressure people to give what they did not have or could not afford to give.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:13–14 fairness . . . fairness. Paul was asking that Corinth do its fair share in meeting the extreme needs of the Christians in Jerusalem. At the present time the Gentile believers can contribute financially, while the Jewish believers can contribute leadership and the ministry of the gospel (see Rom. 11:11–12, 25–26, 30–32).
Doing your fair share. In chs. 8–9, Paul asked the Corinthians to contribute money to his collection for poor Christians in Jerusalem. Paul did not expect them to give so much that they would be “burdened”; he only asked that they do their fair share (8:13–14).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:16 Once again, Paul’s thanks . . . to God begins a new section (compare 1:3; 2:14).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:18 The identity of the famous . . . brother is unknown.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:19–22 ministered by us. . . . administered by us. This same phrase appears in 3:3 to describe Paul’s new covenant ministry of the Spirit (“delivered by us”). This shows that the collection for the needy in Jerusalem was an essential part of the apostolic ministry of the gospel. so that no one should blame us. As Paul delivers the gift to Jerusalem, a team of men well known for their integrity will travel with him. Their presence will protect Paul from charges that he stole from the collection and also provide protection from robbers. See chart.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 8:23 the glory of Christ. The delegates’ love reflects Christ’s love for his people (v. 9). It results from their having encountered the glory of God through Christ (3:18; 4:4–6).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 9:6 sows bountifully. Paul expands a well-known proverb, “You reap what you sow” (e.g., Job 4:8; Gal. 6:7). God provides opportunities to give generously. Those who sow generously will also reap bountifully in terms of bearing fruit for God’s kingdom (2 Cor. 9:11).
More than simple charity. From the Jerusalem church, the good news about Christ had spread to the Gentile world. Paul’s collection (chs. 8–9) was an opportunity for Gentile believers to show gratitude to their Jewish brothers and sisters in Christ (see Rom. 15:27).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 9:7–8 God loves (“approves of”) a cheerful giver (see Deut. 15:10; Rom. 12:8).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 9:10 God will increase the harvest in terms of increasing your righteousness. Thus the quoted OT texts (Isa. 55:10; Hos. 10:12) refer specifically to the provision of God’s Word for the salvation of his people.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 9:15 The Corinthians’ gift reflects the inexpressible gift God has given believers in Christ (see 8:9; Rom. 8:32).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:1–13:10 Paul’s Appeal to the Rebellious Minority in Corinth. In the third major section of his letter, Paul directly appeals to those who are still rejecting his gospel and apostolic authority. During his third visit, Paul will be forced to judge those who have not repented (10:6; 12:20–21; 13:1–10).
Problems in Corinth. Paul’s second visit to Corinth was a painful one. The Corinthians had accepted false teachers, and they openly rebelled against Paul and the gospel. Grieved, he left and sent them a severe letter (now lost). Paul now warns them that during his third visit he will be forced to judge those who have not repented from their sins (10:2; 12:20–21; 13:10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:1–11 Paul responds to criticism of his humble appearance (vv. 1–6) and his refusal to use impressive public speaking techniques (vv. 7–11; see 1 Cor. 2:1–5).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:1 the meekness and gentleness of Christ. Christ’s willingness to allow time for repentance before he returns to judge (see 2 Pet. 3:8–10). I who am humble when . . . with you, but bold toward you when I am away. Paul probably quotes accusations made by his opponents (see 2 Cor. 10:10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:3–4 The weapons of Paul’s warfare are not physical but spiritual, such as prayer, the Word of God, faith, and the power of the Holy Spirit. By the Spirit Paul tears down the strongholds of wrong thinking and behavior in the lives of those who resist his authority.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:8 for building you up and not for destroying you. “Building up” the church is a common Pauline description of new covenant ministry (see Rom. 14:19; 15:2; 1 Cor. 3:9–14; 14:3–5).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:9–11 absent . . . present. See note on v. 1.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:12–18 Paul now turns to reestablishing his authority in Corinth by (1) defining the proper standard for apostolic authority and (2) demonstrating that his ministry actually meets that standard, while his opponents’ ministry does not.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:12 Paul’s opponents recommend one another by comparing their abilities, spiritual gifts, and experiences. These are irrelevant for establishing apostolic authority in a church.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:13–14 In contrast to his opponents, Paul does not boast beyond limits (that is, beyond the sphere of his God-given apostolic authority). His apostolic authority in Corinth (the area of influence God assigned to us) was based on God sending Paul to establish the church in Corinth (to reach . . . you). See 1 Cor. 4:15; 2 Cor. 3:1–3.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:15–16 lands beyond. Paul’s aim is to plant churches in areas where the gospel has never been proclaimed (see Rom. 10:14–17). These false teachers try to change the gospel in places where it has already been established (another’s area).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 10:17–18 Paul supports his boasting as an apostle (vv. 12–16) by citing Jer. 9:23–24 (compare 1 Cor. 1:31). Since all human abilities and achievements are gifts from God, the only true basis for boasting is to boast in the Lord, that is, boasting in what the Lord provides, not in one’s accomplishments. The Lord commends his people by working in and through their lives (see 2 Cor. 3:1; 4:2; 5:12; 6:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:2 As their “father” in the faith (see 1 Cor. 4:15; 2 Cor. 6:13; 12:14), Paul feels the same divine jealousy that God felt for Israel (Ex. 34:14). In Jewish culture, when a daughter was betrothed, her father guaranteed that he would present her as a pure virgin at her wedding (Deut. 22:13–24; see 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1). Here the “betrothal” was the Corinthians’ conversion through Paul’s ministry. The husband is Christ, and the “wedding day” is the day of Christ’s return (see 1:14; Eph. 5:27; Col. 1:22; Rev. 19:6–9). Paul’s picture of the church as engaged to Christ (compare Eph. 5:25–27; Rev. 19:7–8) carries on the OT view of Israel as committed to God.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:3 See Gen. 3:1–13.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:4 different gospel. The “gospel” of Paul’s opponents may have promised health and wealth but no suffering. This was contrary to Paul’s message and experiences (4:5; 5:14–15, 18–19).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:5–6 super-apostles. This is probably a sarcastic description of the false apostles troubling the Corinthian church (see vv. 4, 13–15; see also 12:11).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:7 Paul supported himself in Corinth. Thus he preached God’s gospel . . . free of charge for the sake of the Corinthians. This exalted the Corinthian believers but was a humbling experience for Paul. It required physical suffering as a result of his hard work and low pay. It also required accepting the disdain that the wealthy had for manual laborers (see 1 Cor. 4:11–13; 9:4–18; 15:10; 2 Cor. 11:23).
Preaching for free. Some traveling teachers in Paul’s day accepted money from their listeners, but Paul worked as a tentmaker to support himself (Acts 18:3; see 1 Cor. 9:4–18). Churches also supported his missions financially (2 Cor. 11:9).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:8–9a I robbed other churches is an example of hyperbole. Paul received financial help from Macedonia to preach the gospel in Corinth.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:9b–14 Paul refused to accept money from the Corinthians because he had to distinguish his ministry from that of the false apostles. They labored in Corinth out of greed (compare 2:17).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:9–10 Macedonia. Northern Greece, where Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea were located. Achaia. Southern Greece, where Corinth was located.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:13 false apostles. See 2 Pet. 2:1–3 and notes.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:15 On judgment that will correspond to one’s deeds, see 5:10; Rom. 2:6; Gal. 6:7–9; 2 Tim. 4:14.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:16–18 In his arrogance the fool boasts in himself, not in the Lord (see 10:17–18). He is condemned for this (see, e.g., Ps. 14:1; Prov. 9:13–18). Almost like a fool, Paul is about to boast a little in his own identity in order to make his point (see 2 Cor. 11:21b–23). Paul recognizes that he does so not as the Lord would (that is, not following a direct command from the Lord). He does so only because in Corinth many boast according to the flesh.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:20–21a strikes you in the face. A reference to the Jewish opponents insulting the Gentile Corinthians, probably by literally striking them (see John 18:22; Acts 23:2). All five actions listed in 2 Cor. 11:20 are signs of an arrogant attitude on the part of these false leaders.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:21b–23a Hebrews refers to Jewish ethnicity; Israelites refers to being God’s chosen people under the old covenant. Offspring of Abraham means being part of the new covenant people of God and a true descendant of Abraham (see Rom. 9:6–9; 11:1–6; Gal. 3:29). Because he is reluctant to speak of himself in this way, Paul downplays his qualifications. He says that he is speaking as a fool (2 Cor. 11:21b) and talking like a madman (v. 23a).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:24 forty lashes less one. The Jewish punishment of 39 lashes was given by the synagogue for false teaching, blasphemy, and serious lawbreaking. All of these charges could have been applied to Paul’s preaching of the gospel, especially to Gentiles (Acts 9:20; 13:5, 14–43; etc.; see note on Acts 5:40). It was the most severe beating allowed by Scripture (Deut. 25:1–3).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:25–26 beaten with rods. This was the Gentile punishment for disturbing the peace (Acts 16:22–23, 35–38; 22:25–29; 1 Thess. 2:2). Once, in Lystra, Paul was stoned (Acts 14:5–19). Three times I was shipwrecked. This would not include the shipwreck described in Acts 27, which occurred after Paul wrote this.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:28 anxiety for all the churches. See 2:12–13.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:30 God triumphs through human weakness, as he did through Christ’s crucifixion (1 Cor. 1:27; 2 Cor. 12:9; 13:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 11:32–33 Having to flee in a basket was a striking example of Paul’s “weakness” (v. 30).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:1–13 Because his opponents boast in their spiritual experiences as well as in their ethnic identity, Paul is also forced to boast, however foolishly, in his own visions and revelations (see 11:1, 16; 12:11). But then in vv. 7–10 he returns one last time to boasting in his weakness, revealing the presence of a “thorn in the flesh” as the appropriate means for glorifying God’s grace and power in his life and ministry. In vv. 9–10 he clearly states the principle behind this aspect of his self-commendation (1:3–11; 2:14–17; 4:7–12; 6:3–10; 11:23–33): Paul’s earthly weaknesses, not his revelations, are to be the platform for demonstrating the Lord’s power and grace.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:2–3 I know a man . . . this man. Paul’s hesitancy to boast of his visions is reflected in his use of the third person (as if it had happened to someone else). the third heaven (that is, the highest; see 1 Kings 8:27). This phrase reflects a distinction between (1) the atmosphere where birds can be seen to fly, (2) the higher area where the sun, moon, and stars can be seen, and (3) the unseen realm where God dwells (paradise). fourteen years ago. Sometime between A.D. 42–44, before his first missionary journey (Acts 9:29–30; 11:25–26). There is no other known record of this vision.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:7 a thorn was given me (by God, who is sovereign over all things) in the flesh, a messenger of Satan. The nature of this “thorn” or “messenger” is uncertain. The most frequently proposed possibilities include: (1) Paul’s inner psychological struggles (such as grief over his earlier persecution of the church, sorrow over Israel’s unbelief, or continuing temptations); (2) Paul’s opponents, who continued to persecute him (compare Num. 33:55 and Ezek. 28:24, where thorns refer to Israel’s enemies); (3) some kind of physical affliction (possibly poor eyesight, malaria, or severe migraine headaches); or (4) some kind of demonic harassment (“a messenger of Satan”). Most commentators prefer the third view, since “thorn in the flesh” would seem to suggest a physical condition.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:9–10 My grace is sufficient. Paul says that God’s grace “is sufficient” (in the present tense). This emphasizes the constant availability of God’s grace, for Paul and for every believer (see Rom. 8:31–39). my power is made perfect in weakness. Paul’s earthly weaknesses (not his revelations) were God’s way of demonstrating his power. This is the basis of Paul’s self-defense throughout 2 Corinthians.
| Verse | Weakness | Power (or Strength) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Cor. 1:25 | the weakness of God | is stronger than men |
| 1 Cor. 1:27 | God chose what is weak | to shame the strong |
| 1 Cor. 2:3, 5 | in weakness and in fear | but in the power of God |
| 1 Cor. 15:43 | sown in weakness | raised in power |
| 2 Cor. 12:9 | I will boast . . . of my weaknesses | so that the power of Christ may rest upon me |
| 2 Cor. 13:3 | not weak in dealing with you | but . . . powerful among you |
| 2 Cor. 13:4 | he was crucified in weakness | but lives by the power of God |
| 2 Cor. 13:4 | we also are weak in him | but . . . live with him by the power of God |
| 2 Cor. 13:9 | we are glad when we are weak | and you are strong |
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:11 super-apostles. See note on 11:5–6. even though I am nothing. Paul was the “least of the apostles,” having persecuted the church (1 Cor. 15:8–9). He owes everything to the grace and call of God in his life (1 Cor. 15:10; 2 Cor. 3:4–6).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:12 the signs of a true apostle . . . among you with utmost patience. Refers to the work of the Spirit through Paul’s ministry. This work is seen in the conversion and gifting of the Corinthians (3:1–3). It is also seen in Paul’s Christlike behavior (6:4; 10:1–12:10). with signs and wonders and mighty works. A threefold description of miraculous acts that accompanied and proved an apostle’s ministry (see Rom. 15:18–19; Gal. 3:1–5). These terms tie God’s saving work under the new covenant to the signs and wonders at the exodus. This shows the unity within redemptive history (e.g., Ex. 3:20; 7:3; 10:1–2; Deut. 4:34; Ps. 105:27–36; see the Overview of the Bible).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:13 With playful irony, Paul says that the only wrong he did the Corinthians was not asking them for money (see 11:9b–14 for the reason).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:14–13:10 In final preparation for his third visit (12:14; 13:1), Paul commends his apostleship one last time (12:14–21) and challenges the rebellious to test the genuineness of their professed faith (13:1–10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:14–15 for the third time I am ready to come to you. On his first visit Paul planted the church at Corinth (Acts 18:1–18). His second visit was the “painful visit” (see 2 Cor. 2:1 and note on 2:1–2).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:16–18 crafty . . . deceit . . . take advantage. Paul rejects the idea that he used the collection to take money from the Corinthians. There is no evidence for such a charge.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:20 find you not as I wish. That is, still unrepentant, rebellious, and continuing in their sinful lifestyles. All of these would indicate that they are not genuine believers (see 13:5). find me not as you wish. If the Corinthians do not repent, Paul will have to exercise God’s judgment. He cannot wait patiently for their repentance as in the past (see 1:23–2:4).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 12:21 God may humble Paul before the Corinthians by using Paul as an instrument of their judgment. This will mean Paul may have to mourn over the rebellious.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:1 the third time. See note on 12:14–15. evidence of two or three witnesses. The legal requirement for accepting evidence at a trial (Deut. 19:15).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:2 not spare. Paul did not specify what form the discipline would take. Perhaps he did not know exactly, but it certainly would not be pleasant (see Acts 5:1–11; 13:8–11; 1 Cor. 5:4–5).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:3–4 Following the pattern of Christ’s own weakness (1:5; 8:9; Phil. 2:7–8), Paul too has been weak for the sake of God’s people. This showed them God’s Spirit and glory through his own sufferings (2 Cor. 1:3–11; 2:14–16a; 4:7–15; 6:3–10; 11:23–33; 12:7–10). But also like Christ, Paul will exercise the power of God in judging the Corinthians’ behavior and beliefs (see 1 Cor. 5:12–13; 6:1–3).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:5 The test to see if Christ is in the Corinthians will be their response to Paul and his call to repent. God’s message and the messenger are one (5:18–6:2).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:7–9 Paul desires the Corinthians’ restoration even at this late hour.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:11–14 Closing Greetings. Paul highlights the important themes he has covered. As in 1 Corinthians (see 1 Cor. 16:13–14), he also summarizes the central conclusions of this letter with five commands.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:11 Brothers here is a generic reference to both men and women (see esv Preface: Translation Principles and Style). Paul also speaks of the Corinthians as “brothers” in the first two sections of the letter. There he primarily addressed those who were repentant (see 1:8 and 8:1). In chs. 10–13, Paul does not address those who are rebellious as “brothers.” Now, in closing the letter, Paul again uses this loving expression to address the entire church. This indicates his hope that they truly will be “brothers and sisters” in Christ as a result of their right response to his letter (13:6–10).
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:12–13 Greet. . . . All the saints greet. These two greetings stress the unity of the church, local and universal. with a holy kiss. Usually reserved for special reunions among family members or formal greetings. An entire group practicing this public kiss was unique to the early church. It signified their mutual acceptance as a family. See note on 1 Cor. 16:20.
2 CORINTHIANS—NOTE ON 13:14 This is the only Trinitarian benediction in Paul’s letters. It stresses that grace, love, and fellowship with one another come from God in Christ through the Spirit. you all. A final emphasis on the unity of the reconciled church, brought about by God himself, one of the main goals of Paul’s letter (1:7; 5:18–6:2; 7:2–4; 12:19).