NOTES

INTRODUCTION

THE COLLAPSE OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

1. The Imperial message of 1881 announced the beginnings of a program of social legislation under which the following measures were put into effect:

1883 Sickness-insurance law

1884 Industrial accident-insurance law

1889 Social-insurance law for invalids

1891 Workers health law (providing for Sunday rest, etc.)

2. Sohm, Kirchengeschichte im Grundriss. 20th ed., n.d. (1st ed., 1867), pp. 216-17.

3.  Eckart Kehr, ‘Das soziale System der Reaktion in Preussen unter dem Ministerium Puttkamer,’ in Die Gesellschaft, 1929 (11), pp. 253-74, esp. p. 269.

4.  Puttkamer to his father in May 1859. Cited by Kehr, op. cit. p. 254.

5.  An episode illustrates the kind of attempt made: Emperor Wilhelm I, in a letter written to Puttkamer on 11 September 1883 (Kehr, p. 256), protested a plan to celebrate Luther’s birthday with a public feast. The idea terrified him because it would have enabled the liberals to take part in the celebrations.

6.  Herbert Rosinski, The German Army, New York, 1939, p. 30.

7.  Alfred Vagts, A History of Militarism, New York, 1937, p. 201.

8.  Term coined by Carl Brinkmann, ‘Die Aristokratie im kapitalistischen Zeitalter,’ in Grundriss der Sozialökonomik, ix, 1, Tübingen, 1926, pp. 22-34.

9.  Eckart Kehr, ‘Zur Genesis des Kgl. preussischen Reserveoffiziers,’ in Die Gesellschaft, 1928 (II), p. 492.

10. Vagts, op. cit. p. 11.

11. Ibid. p. 171.

12. The Prussian minister of war to the General Staff, 20 January 1913. Quoted in Hans Herzfeld, Die deutsche Rüstungspolitik vor dem Weltkrieg, Bonn, 1923, p. 63.

13. Vagts, op. cit. p. 340.

14. Max Weber, Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Tübingen, 1924, pp. 471-507.

15. Mention must be made of the fact that the poor state of Prussian agriculture was due largely to the lack of rationalization in East German farming and to the excessively high prices charged by the estates, deliberately kept high in order to secure an adequate luxury consumption to the estate owners. This problem is very well discussed by Eckart Kehr, Schlachtflottenbau und Parteipolitik 1894-1901, Berlin, 1930, p. 250.

16. A. B. Lindsay, ‘The State in Recent Political Theory,’ in The Political Quarterly, 1914 (I), p. 136.

17. The best exposition of the pluralist theory, and an excellent selected bibliography, may be found in Francis W. Coker, Recent Political Thought, New York and London, 1934, pp. 497-520 The most trenchant criticism of the theory is made by W. Y. Elliott, The Pragmatic Revolt in Politics, New York, 1928.

18. Ernest Barker, Political Theory in England from Herbert Spencer to the Present Day, Everyman’s Library, 1915, pp. 175-83.

19. The statement was made by General Gröner at a trial. The case involved a libel action brought by a Social Democratic editor against a Nationalist publisher who reproached the Social Democrats for their ‘stab-in-the-back’ of the army during the war. The quotation is taken from Der Dolchstoss-prozess in München Oktober-November 1925, München, 1925, p. 223. The eminent German, now American, historian, Arthur Rosenberg, in his work, A History of the German Republic, trans. by Morrow and Sieveking, London, 1936, p. 50 and pp. 324-5, denies that Gröner’s statement is true. I cannot agree. Rosenberg has convincingly shown that Gröner erred when he testified that Ebert told him on 24 December 1918 that he was leaving Berlin and wanted to rest for three days. But this does not invalidate the rest of Gröner’s statement, which is confirmed by objective and subjective facts. A secret telephone line existed between Ebert’s and Hindenburg’s headquarters in Hanover (Rosenberg, op. cit. pp. 60, 61). Hindenburg wrote Ebert on 8 December 1918 a letter in which he practically confirmed the agreement. Moreover, Ebert never concealed his hatred of social revolution. He even objected to Scheidemann’s unauthorized proclamation of the Republic.

20. Otto Braun, Von Weimar zu Hitler, 2nd ed., New York, 1940, p. 5.

21. Thorstein Veblen, Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution, new ed., New York, 1939, p. 193.

22. Robert A. Brady, The Rationalization Movement in German Industry, Berkeley (Calif.), 1933, pp. 336-40.

23. Hilferding, ‘Die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie in der Republik,’ in Sozialdemokratischer Parteitag Kiel, Berlin, 1927, pp. 165-84.

24. Estimates are to be found in Kurt Mendelsohn, Kapitalistisches Wirtschaftschaos oder sozialistische Planwirtschaft, Berlin, 1932, p. 15, and Brady, op. cit. p. 139.

25. Estimates of subsidies paid to industry are given by Mendelsohn, op. cit. p. 55.

26. Excellent discussion by Hans Speier, ‘The Salaried Employee in Modern Society,’ in Social Research, 1934 (1), pp. 118-19.

27. Jahrbuch der deutschen Sozialdemokratie für das Jahr 1930, Berlin, 1930, p. 195.

28. William Ernest Hocking, ‘Ways of Thinking about Rights: A New Theory of the Relation between Law and Morals,’ in Law: A Century of Progress, New York, 1937, Vol. II, p. 261.

29. Excellent survey of republican justice: Philip Loewenfeld, Das Strafrecht als politische Waffe, Berlin, 1933.

30. Hitler und Kahr, Die bayerischen Napoleonsgrössen von 1923, ed. by the Landesvorstand der SPD in Bayern, 2 vols., Munich, 1928.

31.                             I. Statistics of political murders 1924 to 1931:

From E. J. Gumbel, Lasst Köpfe rollen, Berlin, 1931.

II. Statistics of political murders 1918 to 1922:

* Average per person.

From E. J. Gumbel, Vier Jahre politischer Mord, Berlin, 1922, pp. 73-81.

The Fehme murders totalled 17, of which 11 were committed in 1923; discharged or not prosecuted, 8; imprisoned hard labor, 3; imprisoned, 5. Compiled on the basis of E. J. Gumbel, Verräter verfallen der Fehme, Berlin, 1929, pp. 386-9.

32. The following statistics of crimes of treason to the nation are of great significance:

The criminality index is obtained by making equal to 1 the average criminality figure for the years 1893-1913, which is 0.0573.

Treason to the country committed through the press 1924-1927 (incomplete):

Information advanced against	360
Not prosecuted	45
Prosecuted	315
Nolle prosequitur	252
Pending	63
Sentenced	3

From E. J. Gumbel, ‘Landesverratstatistik,’ in Die Menschenrechte, Vol. III (1928), pp. 1-8.

33. Gustav Radbruch in Die Justiz, 1932 (6), p. 187; Loewenfeld, op. cit. p. 36.

34. Weber, ‘Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,’ in Grundriss der Sozialökonomik, Vol. III, I, Tübingen, 1921, p. 174.

35. Popitz, ‘Finanzausgleich,’ in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 4th ed., Jena, 1926, Vol. III, p. 1013.

36. Cf. the good survey by Frederick Mundell Watkins, The Failure of Constitutional Emergency Powers under the German Republic, Cambridge (Mass.), 1939.

37. Number of unemployed in thousands and the kind of support they received:

* Up to July 1930, there was no statistical separation of those on municipal poor relief and those who were unsupported.

From W. Woytinsky, in Internationales Handwörterbuch des Gewerkschaftswesens, Berlin, 1931, p. 1563, and brought up to 1932 by the author from Deutsche Wirtschaftskunde, Berlin, 1933, p. 295.

38. Fritz Tarnow, ‘Kapitalistische Wirtschaftsanarchie und Arbeiterklasse,’ in Sozialdemokratischer Parteitag in Leipzig, Berlin, 1931, p. 45.

39. At the ECCI Plenum, in Kommunistische Internationale, 1931, p. 79.

40. Hilferding, ‘Zwischen den Entscheidungen,’ in Die Gesellschaft, January 1933, p. 4.

41. Quoted by Matthew Josephson, The President Makers, New York, 1940, p. 376.

PART ONE

THE POLITICAL PATTERN OF NATIONAL SOCIALISM

I: THE TOTALITARIAN STATE

1.  Curzio Malaparte, Coup d’Etat, the Technique of Revolution, translated by Sylvia Saunders, New York, 1932.

2.  Carl Schmitt, Die geistesgeschichtliche Lage des modernen Parlamentarismus, 2nd ed., Munich and Leipzig, 1926.

3.  Hans Peter Ipsen, ‘Vom Begriff der Partei,’ in Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1940 (100), p. 490.

4.  Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Der Bedeutungswandel der Grundrechte,’ in Archiv für öffentliches Recht, 1932 (23), pp. 1-98.

5.  Franz Neumann, ‘Gegen ein Gesetz über Nachprüfung der Verfassungsmässigkeit von Reichsgesetzen,’ in Die Gesellschaft, 1929 (1), pp. 517-36.

6.  Carl Schmitt, Der Hüter der Verfassung, Tübingen, 1931.

7.  Carl Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen, new ed., Munich and Leipzig, 1932.

8.  Ibid. p. 17.

9.  Typical is the excellent little book by Otto Kirchheimer, Weimar und was dann?, Berlin, 1930.

10. Representative: Herman Heller, Rechtsstaat und Dikatur, Tübingen, 1930; also my own book: Koalitionsfreiheit und Reichsverfassung, Berlin, 1932.

11. Hans Kelsen has summed up his theory in Reine Rechtslehre, Leipzig and Vienna, 1934. English expositions are: Charles H. Wilson, ‘The Basis of Kelsen’s Theory of Law,’ in Politic a, 1934, pp. 54-82; and H. Lauterpacht, ‘Kelsen’s Pure Science of Law,’ in Modern Theories of Law, Oxford, 1933, pp. 105-38.

12. Hans Kelsen, Vom Wesen und Wert der Demokratie, 2nd ed., Tübingen, 1929, pp. 27, 28.

13. Ernst Forsthoff, Der totale Staat, Hamburg, 1933, p. 29.

14. Otto Koellreuter, Vom Sinn und Wesen der nationalen Revolution, Tübingen, 1933, pp. 11, 12; also, his Der deutsche Führerstaat, Tübingen, 1934; and his Volk und Staat in der Weltanschauung des Nationalsozialismus, Berlin, 1935.

15. Hans Gerber, Staatsrechtliche Grundlagen des neuen Reichs, Tübingen, 1933. p. 15.

16. Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Die Totalität des völkischen Staates,’ in Die Tat (1934), Vol. 26, pp. 30-41.

17. The statement was made on 8 November 1933, as quoted by F. Poetzsch-Heffter, C. H. Ule, and C. Dernedde, ‘Vom Deutschen Staatsleben,’ in the Jahrbuch des öffentlichen Rechts (1935), Vol. 22, p. 125.

18. Axel Friedrichs (ed.), Die nationalsozialistische Revolution 1933, Berlin, 1935. pp. 59-61.

19. Völkischer Beobachter, No. 185, 4 July 1933.

20. Ibid. 5 October 1933.

21. Dr. Frick, Der Neubau des Deutschen Reiches, Vortrag gehalten vor Offizieren der Reichswehr am 15 November 1934, Berlin (n.d.), p. 6.

22. Carl Schmitt, ‘Starker Staat und gesunde Wirtschaft,’ in Volk und Reich, 1933, pp. 81-94.

23. Published in Ernst Forsthoff (ed.) Deutsche Geschichte in Dokumenten seit 1918, 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1938, pp. 290-99.

24. Poetzsch-Heffter, op. cit. pp. 119-20.

25. Frick, op. cit. p. 7.

26. Life, 29 April 1940.

27. A good analysis of the problem of separate powers occurs in Charles H. Wilson, ‘The Separation of Powers under Democracy and Fascism,’ in the Political Science Quarterly (1937), Vol. 52, pp. 481-504.

28. Frick, op. cit. p. 7. The enabling act was originally to expire on 1 April 1937. It was twice extended and now applies until 10 May 1943.

29. On the subject of the Harzburg front, consult Frederick L. Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship, 2nd ed., New York, 1939, p. 149.

30. Franz Albrecht Medicus, Programm der Reichsregierung und Ermächtigungsgesetz, Berlin, 1933, p. 19.

31. Poetzsch-Heffter, op. cit. p. 63.

32. Huber, op. cit. p. 47.

33. The distinction has been propounded by Carl Schmitt in his Legalität und Legitimität, Munich and Leipzig, 1932.

34. Huber, op. cit. p. 97.

35. Erich Becker, ‘Die Rechtsstellung der deutschen Länder in der Gegenwart,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1937 (97), pp. 462-98, esp. p. 494.

36. Italics mine. See F. Poetzsch-Heffter, op. cit. pp. 53-4. The quotation is also interesting because it admits that the exercise of presidential power during the last years of the Weimar Republic had been unconstitutional.

37. Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Das deutsche Staatsoberhaupt,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1935 (95), pp. 202-29, esp. p. 204.

38. Carl Schmitt, Das Reichsstatthaltergesetz, Berlin, 1933.

II: THE REVOLT OF THE PARTY AND THE ‘MOVEMENT’ STATE

1.  Frederick L. Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship, 2nd ed., New York, 1939, p. 430.

2.  Reprinted in Alfred Rosenberg, Gestaltung der Idee. Blut und Ehre, Vol. II, Munich, 1936.

3.  Rosenberg, Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts, 9th ed., Munich, 1933, especially pp. 525-7.

4.  Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, Reynal and Hitchcock, New York, 1939, pp. 592, 594, 596, 122, 123. Although I have used this edition, I have changed a number of translations. The concept Volk must never be translated nation.

5.  E. Koch (editor), Nürnberg, 1934.

6.  Völkischer Beobachter, Munich ed., 8 September 1934 (No. 251).

7.  Carl Schmitt, Staat, Bewegung, Volk. Die Dreigliederung der politischen Einheit, Hamburg, 1933.

8.  Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Die Totalität des völkischen Staates,’ in Die Tat, 1934, pp. 30-42; also his ‘Das deutsche Staatsoberhaupt,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1935, p. 210; and many others.

9.  Die Reden Hitlers am Parteitag der Freiheit 1935, Munich, 1935, especially pp. 80, 81.

10. Otto Mayer, Deutsches Verwaltungrecht, 2nd ed., Vol. II, Munich and Leipzig, 1917, p. 591.

11. Anton Lingg, Die Verwaltung der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei, 2nd ed., Munich, 1940. Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Die Rechtsgestalt der NSDAP,’ in Deutsche Rechtswissenschaft, 1939, pp. 314-57; Gottfried Neesse, ‘Die Rechtsnatur der NSDAP,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1935, pp. 709-18; also his ‘Die verfassungsrechtliche Stellung der Einpartei,’ in the same, 1938, p. 692.

12. Heinrich Himmler, Die Schutzstaffel als antibolschewistische Kampf-Organisation, Munich, 1936, especially p. 21.

13. Juristische Wochenschrift, 1938, p. 3289, decision of 14 November 1938.

14. Verwaltungsblatt, 1939, No. 147.

15. Werner Best, ‘Die Schutzstaffeln der NSDAP und die Polizei,’ in the Deutsches Recht, 1939, p. 47.

16. Völkischer Beobachter, 3 July 1939, No. 183, 184.

17. Hans-Helmut Dietze, ‘Die verfassungsrechtliche Stellung der Hitler-Jugend,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1940 (100), pp. 113-56, especially pp. 132-7.

18. Soziale Praxis, 1939, p. 47.

19. Arnold Köttgen, ‘Vom deutschen Staatsleben,’ in the Jahrbuch des öffentlischen Rechts, 1937 (24); p. 58.

20. Lingg, op. cit. p. 113.

21. Prussian Court of Appeals (Stettin), 25 March 1936, in the Juristische Wochenschrift, 1937, p. 241; Prussian Court of Appeals (Kassel), 8 July 1936; especially, the Federal Supreme Court, 17 February 1939 in the Deutsches Recht, 1939, p. 1785. There is an extensive discussion of the problem in Lingg’s book, pp. 278-303. Compare also Ernst Fraenkel, The Dual State. A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship, New York, 1941, pp. 34-7, in which decisions of many kinds are discussed.

22. Lingg, op. cit. p. 303.

23. ‘Die Parteigerichtsbarkeit,’ in the Deutsches Recht, 1934, No. 4.

24. Dr. Frick, ‘Partei und Staat,’ in the Deutsche Verwaltung, 1934, Nos. 15 and 16.

25. Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, November 1938, No. 319, 320.

26. Ibid. p. 21.

27. Hans Peter Ipsen, ‘Vom Begriff der Partei,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1940 (100), pp. 309-36, and 477-510, especially p. 487.

28. Fritz Morstein Marx, Government in the Third Reich, 2nd ed., New York, 1937, pp. 67-8.

29. Mussolini, The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, trans. by J. Soames, London, 1933, pp. 21-2.

30. Sergio Panunzio, Allgemeine Theorie des faschistischen Staates, Berlin, 1934, p. 28.

31. Alfredo Rocco, La dottrina politica del Fascismo, Rome, 1925.

32. Giovanni Gentile, Che cosa é il fascismo, Firenze, 1924, p. 35.

33. V. Zangara, Il partito é’ lo Stato, Catania, 1935, p. 37. More recently, opposition has begun to arise to the acceptance or the traditional view of a state personality and to the subordination of party to state. See C. Costamagna, Storia e’ Dottrina del Fascismo, Turin, 1938, trans, into German under the title Faschismus, Entwicklung und Lehre, Berlin, 1939. As yet, I have been able to observe no practical consequences of the new opposition.

34. Editorial written by Mussolini on 6 April 1920 and quoted in A. Borgese, Goliath, New York, 1937, p. 224.

35. Ignazio Silone, Der Faschismus, Zurich, 1934, p. 73.

36. Erwin von Beckerath, Wesen und Werden des faschistischen Staates, Berlin, 1927, pp. 7-9.

37. There is an excellent analysis of the situation in agrarian Italy after the World War in Friedrich Vöchting, Die Romagna, Karlsruhe, 1927, p. 363 f., 418 f.

38. Silone, op. cit. p. 35.

39. L. T. Hobhouse, The Metaphysical Theory of the State, London, 1926.

40. We must make a distinction. There are some who maintain that Hegel is the greatest German political philosopher, but make no attempt to adapt his theory to National Socialism. These merely pay him a compliment and no more: for example, Hans Frank, president of the Academy of German Law, in his ‘Die Aufgaben des Rechts,’ in the Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht, 1938, p. 4. Others attempt to reconstruct Hegel’s theory and make it useful to National Socialism, as, for the best example, Karl Larenz, ‘Die Bedeutung der völkischen Sitte in Hegels Staatsphilosophie,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1938 (98), p. 110, where he says, ‘It is not the state in the ordinary meaning of the term that was Hegel’s most proper and original interest, but the community of life as a whole with a character and a most comprehensive activity of its own.’ Hegel would have shuddered at such a definition. Finally, the most influential political theorists reject the Hegelian political philosophy because it glorifies the state. Among these, we can mention Alfred Rosenberg, Mythus . . . , pp. 525-7; Otto Koellreuter, Volk und Staat in der Weltanschauung der Nationalsozialismus, Berlin, 1935, pp. 12-15; and above all, Carl Schmitt, Staat, Bewegung . . . , pp. 31-2, in which he says, ‘On this thirtieth of January [the day of Hitler’s appointment] . . . the Hegelian civil service state of the nineteenth century . . . gave way to another state structure. On this day, one can therefore say, Hegel died.’ Then follows the usual compliment to Hegel’s greatness.

41. Herbert Marcuse, Reason and Revolution. Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory, New York, 1941. I am in complete agreement with Dr. Marcuse’s analysis. As for Treitschke’s denunciation of the Teutonism of the Burschenschaften, see Heinrich von Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, 3rd ed., 1886, Vol. II, pp. 383-443.

42. Philosophy of Right, trans, by W. Dyde, London, 1896, pp. 289-97.

43. Max Weber, ‘Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,’ in Grundriss der Sozialökonomik, III, Tübingen, 1922.

44. Hans Gerth, ‘The Nazi Party: Its Leadership and Composition,’ in The American Journal of Sociology, 1940, No. XLV, pp. 517-41.

45. Lingg, op. cit. p. 83.

46. Franz Schwarz in a speech delivered 1 April 1939, as quoted by Lingg, op. cit. p. 17.

47. Oskar Redelsberger, ‘Von der NSDAP betreute Organisation—ein neues Rechtsgebilde,’ in the Deutsche Verwaltung, 1939, p. 132.

48. Gerth, op. cit. p. 522. Prior to the incorporation of Austria and the Sudetenland.

III: THE CHARISMATIC LEADER IN THE LEADERSHIP STATE

1.  C. A. Emge, Ideen zu einer Philosophie des Führertums, Berlin, 1936, p. 7.

2.  Otto Koellreuter, Der Deutsche Führerstaat, Tübingen, 1934.

3.  Ernst Rudolf Huber, ‘Das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs,’ in the Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 1935, (95), pp. 202-29, especially 207. Also Reinhard Höhn, ‘Der Führerbegriff im Staatsrecht,’ in the Deutsches Recht (1935), p. 298; and his ‘Führer oder Staatsperson,’ in the Deutsche Juristen-Zeitung (1935), p. 66. Dr. Frick, Der Neubau des Dritten Reichs, Berlin (n.d.). Fritz Morstein Marx, Government in the Third Reich, 2nd ed., New York, 1937. Karl Loewenstein, ‘Germany and Central Europe’ in Governments of Continental Europe, ed. James T. Shotwell, New York, 1940. Hans Gerth, ‘The Nazi Party: Its Leadership and Composition,’ op. cit.

4.  Arnold Röttgen, ‘Vom Deutschen Staatsleben,’ in the Jahrbuch für öffentliches Recht, op. cit.

5.  Gottfried Neesse, Führergewalt, Tübingen, 1940; also Ernst Rudolf Huber, Verfassung des Grossdeutschen Reichs, Hamburg, 1939, p. 69.

6.  ‘Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,’ op. cit. pp. 140-48.

7.  W. Tyndale, ‘Obedience of a Christian Man,’ published among the Doctrinal Treatises, ed. H. Walter (Parker Society), Cambridge, England, 1843, p. 178.

8.  From early Tudor pamphlets contained in Franklin le van Baumer, The Early Tudor Theory of Kingship, New Haven, 1940, p. 86.

9.  ‘Admonition to Peace: A Reply to the Twelve Articles of the Peasants in Swabia 1525,’ in Works of Martin Luther, Vol. IV, trans. by C. M. Jacobs, p. 240.

10. ‘Whether Soldiers, Too, Can Be Saved,’ 1526, Vol. V, p. 34.

11. ‘Aus der Heerpredigt.’

12. ‘Treatise on Good Works,’ 1520, trans, by W. A. Lambert, Vol. I, pp. 184-286, p. 250, and p. 271.

13. ‘An Open Letter Concerning the Hard Book against the Peasants,’ 1525, Vol. IV, p. 272.

14. ‘Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants,’ 1525, Vol. IV, p. 249

15. Institution; J. Bonnet’s edition of the Lettres Françaises de Calvin, 2 vols., Paris, 1854; also, Marc Edouard Chenevière, La Pensée Politique de Calvin, Geneva and Paris, n.d. (1937).

16. From the Catechism of 1557, cited by Chenevière, op. cit. p. 50.

17. ‘Confession à l’Empereur,’ 1562, cited ibid. p. 50.

18. Institution, 11, 2, 13.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid. 11, 2, 17; also 11, 2, 14.

22. Corpus Reformatorum, Vol. 33, p. 542, cited by Chenevière, op. cit. p. 59.

23. Institution, 11, 2, 15.

24. Corpus Reformatorum, Vol. 27, p. 409; cited by Chenevière, op. cit. p. 83.

25. Institution, Vol. 11, 2, 24.

26. Corpus Reformatorum, Vol. 27, p. 412; cited by Chenevière, op. cit. p. 118.

27. G. de Lagarde, Recherches sur l’esprit politique de la réforme, Paris, 1936, p. 227.

28. Bonnet, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 346.

29. Institution, iv, 14, 17.

30. This has been convincingly shown by Kurt Wolzendorff, Staatsrecht und Naturrecht in der Lehre vom Widerstandsrecht des Volkes gegen unrechtmässige Ausübung der Staatsgewalt, Breslau, 1916.

31. Institution, iv, 20, 30.

32. Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough; A. M. Hocart, Kingship, London, 1927, pp. 32-7.

33. W. O. E. Oesterly, The Evolution of the Messianic Idea, London, 1908, p. 41.

34. Lord Raglan, The Hero, a Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama, New York, 1937, pp. 268-76.

35. Hocart, op. cit. p. 7.

36. Julius Kaerst, Studien zur Entwicklung und theoretischen Begründung der Monarchie im Altertum, Munich and Leipzig, 1898, pp. 40, 41.

37. August Freiherr von Gapp, βaσιλει του θεου (The Kingdom of God), eine religionsgeschichtliche Studie zur vorchristlichen Eschatologie, Heidelberg, 1926, pp. 452-3.

38. Odes, 1, 2, 42.

39. Fritz Kern, Gottesgnadentum und Widerstandsrecht im früheren Mittelalter, Leipzig, 1914, p. 20.

40. The most important publication in the field is that of Marc Bloch, Les Rois Thaumaturges, étude sur le caractère surnaturel attribué à la puissance royale, particulièrement en France et en Angleterre, Strasbourg, 1924. A very important letter is reprinted on page 123, addressed by Pope Gregory VII to Archbishop Hermann of Metz. I quote it here in English translation: ‘Where among the emperors and kings does one find a man whose miracles can equal those of St. Martin, St. Anton, or St. Benoit, not to mention the Apostles or martyrs? Which emperor or king has resuscitated the dead, cured lepers, and given sight to the blind? Consider Emperor Constantine, of pious memory, Theodore and Honorius, Charles and Louis, all friends of justice, propagators of Christian religion, defenders of the church. The Holy Church praises and reveres them; it does not indicate that they have excelled through the glory of such miracles.’

41. Policraticus, ed. C. C. J. Webb, Oxford, 1909, Vol. I, p. 202 (3.10).

42. Bloch, op. cit. p. 129.

43. Ibid. p. 149.

44. Ibid. p. 377.

45. There is an interesting analysis in Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution, Oxford, 1939, especially pp. 469-75.

46. Oesterley, op. cit.

47. Cf. Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy, trans. by John W. Harvey, 3rd imp., London, 1925.

48. The early church reveals this quite clearly. The late Rudolph Sohm, the famous German legal historian (Kirchenrecht, 2 vols., Munich and Leipzig, 1923), based his studies in ecclesiastical law on the famous declaration that ‘ecclesiastical law is at variance with the essence of the Church’ (Vol. I, p. 1). According to Sohm, the early church organization was not legal but charismatic (Vol. I, p. 26), handed down by God. There was no abstract equality within it, only an ordering of superiority and inferiority, according to how God distributed his gifts (Vol. I, p. 27). The obedience required by the charisma was not based on formal laws, but was voluntary, born of the conviction that God willed it (Vol. I, p. 27; Vol. II, p. 178).

IV: THE RACIAL PEOPLE, THE SOURCE OF CHARISMA

1.  Ruth Benedict, Race: Science and Politics, New York, 1940, p. 11 f.

2.  Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, London, 1934, Vol. I, p. 245.

3.  Ralph Linton, The Study of Man, New York, 1936, p. 34.

4.  Benedict, op. cit. p. 241.

5.  Otto Bauer, Die Nationalitätenfrage und die Sozialdemokratie (Marx-Studien, Vol. II), Vienna, 1924, p. 114.

6.  Benjamin Disraeli, ‘Whigs and Whigism,’ in the Political Writings . . . , London, 1913, p. 343.

7.  The most careful analysis of the meanings of the different terms appears in F. J. Neumann, Volk und Nation, Leipzig, 1888. For a short but precise account, see Nationalism, a report by a group of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1939, pp. xvi-xx.

8.  Friedrich Hertz, ‘Wesen und Werden der Nation,’ in the Ergänzungsband der Jahrbücher für Soziologie, Karlsruhe, 1927, pp. 84-7.

9.  Social Contract (Everyman’s Library Edition), Book I, chapter 6.

10. Ibid. Book I, chapter 8.

11. Book I, chapter 3. For Rousseau’s influence on the theory of the nation, compare Nationalism, pp. 27-8.

12. It is only in this sense that we can agree with Professor Barker’s statement that ‘It is possible for nations to exist, and even to exist for centuries, in unreflective silence’ (see Ernest Barker, The National Character and the Factors of its Formation, London, 1917, p. 116). Until reflection has begun, we cart only speak of a people.

13. Carré de Malberg, Contribution à la théorie générale de l’Etat, 2 vols., Paris, 1920, Vol. II, p. 168.

14. Neumann, op. cit. p. 124.

15. Ernest Renan, Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? Paris, 1882, p. 217. On the political significance of Renan’s theory (reconquest of Alsace-Lorraine), see Hertz, op. cit. p. 56.

16. Fichte, Address to the German Nation, trans. by R. F. Jones and G. H. Turnbull, Chicago, 1922.

17. Friedrich Meinecke, Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat, 6th ed., Munich, 1922, p. 39.

18. Politik, 1, 280.

19. Our Country, New York, 1885, p. 179. Strong’s other works include Expansion, 1900, Our World, 1913. On this phase of American intellectual history, cf. Ralph Henry Gabriel, The Course of American Democratic Thought, New York, 1940, pp. 340-44.

20. Herder, Outlines of a Philosophy of History of Man, trans. by T. O. Churchill, London, 1800, p. 447. A good survey is given in Charles Callan Tansill, ‘Racial Theories from Herder to Hitler,’ in Thought, 1940, Vol. XV, pp. 453-68.

21. Philosophy of History, trans, by J. B. Robertson, London, 1888, pp. 310, 348; and Tansill, op. cit. pp. 456 f.

22. Politics, trans. by B. Dugdale and T. de Bille, New York, 1916, Vol. I, p. 50 f.

23. Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, 3rd ed., 1886, Vol. II, pp. 383-443.

24. Politics, Vol. I, p. 96.

25. Trans, by S. S. Lloyd, New York, 1909.

26. ‘Über den Wert und die Bedingungen einer Allianz swischen Grossbritannien und Deutschland’ (1846), in Friedrich List, Schriften, Reden, Briefe, Vol. III, Berlin, 1931, pp. 267-98.

27. Ibid. p. 283.

28. The reader will find an excellent analysis of Wagner’s theories and influence in Evelyn A. Clark, ‘Adolf Wagner: from National Economist to Nationalist Socialist,’ Political Science Quarterly, 1940, Vol. LV, pp. 398-411.

29. Adolph Wagner, Grundlegung der politischen Ökonomie, 3rd ed., Vol. I, Leipzig, 1892, p. 6.

30. Ibid. p. 47.

31. Preussische Jahrbücher, 1868, Vol. XXI, pp. 379-402.

32. Adolph Wagner, Elsass-Lothringen und ihre Wiedergewinnung für Deutschland, 2nd ed., Leipzig, 187, p. 2 f.

33. Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, trans. by John Lees, New York, 1912.

34. Trans, by A. Collins, New York, 1915.

35. William Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols., New York, 1935, Vol. II, p. 417.

36. Foundations, Vol. I, lxvi-lxviii.

37. Tansill, op. cit. p. 464.

38. Cosima Wagner und H. S. Chamberlain im Briefwechsel 1888-1908, Leipzig, 1934.

39. Ibid. p. 36.

40. Ibid. p. 604 f.; p. 642 contains an attack on Mommsen.

41. Ibid. p. 641.

42. König Ludwig II. und Richard Wagner im Briefwechsel, 4 vols., Karlsruhe, 1936, Vol. III, p. 236.

43. The quotations are taken from the research project ‘Antisemitism’ of the Institute of Social Research, published in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1940.

44. Cf. J. W, Parkes, The Jewish Problem in the Modern World (Home University Library), London, 1939, p. 60.

45. Clark, op. cit. p. 398 f. For the best survey of Anti-Semitic parties, Kurt Wawrzinek, Die Entstehung der deutschen Antisemitenparteien, Berlin, 1927, esp. pp. 18-30. The official National Socialist biography of Stoecker was written by Walter Frank (President of the Federal Institute for the History of New Germany), Hofprediger Adolf Stoecker, 2nd ed., Hamburg, 1935.

46. See chapter XI, pp. 419-50.

47. For information on National Socialism’s adoption of the Protocols, see Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 423 f. The Protocols were the subject of a trial in Berne, Switzerland, where a publisher was indicted for having printed them. The basis of the indictment was the Berne statute of 10 September 1915 making the distribution of ‘trash’ (Schund) punishable. The charge was dismissed because the Protocols were not deemed to come under the provisions of the statute. The trial, however, remains important because for the first time an impartial agency clearly stated on the basis of exhaustive evidence that the Protocols constitute a mixture of bold plagiarism, falsification, and absurdity. Cf. the report of Emil Raas and Georges Brunschwig, Vernichtung einer Fälschung. Der Prozess um die erfundenen ‘Weisen von Zion,’ Zürich, 1938.

48. A Statute to Protect the Hereditary Health of the German People (Ehegesundheitsge’setz), 18 October 1935.

49. Statute against Habitual Criminals, 24 November 1933; Statute to Prevent Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, 14 July 1933, as amended 26 June 1935 and 4 February 1936.

50. I cite a few decisions. (1) A forty-year-old peasant who had been working all his life under the direction of his parents was ordered sterilized for imbecility. ‘The peasant must be able to read and count correctly.’ 4 April 1939 (Jena), Deutsches Recht (1939), p. 1400. (2) Sterilization was ordered although the specialist could not discover whether the case of epilepsy under observation was more than transitory. 22 March 1939 (Jena), Deutsches Recht (1939), p. 1400. (3) Even a single appearance of schizophrenia suffices for sterilization to be ordered. 4 June 1940 (Jena), Deutsches Recht (1940), p. 2031. (4) Strong and complicated short-sightedness is equal to blindness. 15 June 1938 (Jena), Juristische Wochenschrift (1938), p. 2914. (5) A cataract, even if successfully operated upon, is cause for sterilization, since the cataract may return. This decision is highly praised. 8 March 1938 (Berlin), Juristische Wochenschrift (1938), p. 2913.

51. Now in his book Berlin Diary, New York, 1941, pp. 569-75. This report is supplemented by the article of Michael Straight in The New Republic of 5 May 1941, reproducing in photostat the attacks of the Vatican against mercy killings. Similar facts are reported by J. C. Harsch in the Christian Science Monitor of 13 March 1941.

52. On the decline of the Jewish population, see The American Jewish Year Book, New York, 1940, p. 600. This volume contains the best statistics available on the distribution of Jews.

53. Alfred Marcus, Die wirtschaftliche Krise der deutschen Juden, Berlin, 1930.

54. Race betrayal outside of Germany: Decision of the Great Penal Senate, 23 February 1938, recorded in the Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht (1938), p. 349. Decision of the Penal Senate, 9 February 1940, recorded in Deutsches Recht (1940), p. 790. Decision of the Landgericht, Aachen, 23 October 1939, recorded in Deutsche Justiz (1939), p. 372. Decision of the Landgericht, Hamburg, 29 April 1938, recorded in the Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht (1938), p. 569.

55. Eduard Kohlrausch, ‘Rasseverrat im Ausland,’ in the Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht (1938), pp. 335 and 569. For the opposite view, see Reichsgerichtsrat Dr. Schwarz (member of the federal supreme court), ‘Das Verbrechen der Rassenschande,’ in the Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht (1937), p. 459.

56. Decision of 28 March 1938 published in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1938), p. 1239. Decision of 21 March 1938, ibid. p. 1240.

57. Decision of 19 September 1938, ibid. p. 2952; Decision of the Great Penal Senate, 9 December 1936, reported in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1937), p. 160.

58. Decision of 28 November 1938, reported ibid. (1938), p. 228.

59. Decision of 5 January 1939, reported ibid. (1939) p. 340.

60. Decision of 14 October 1938, ibid. p. 34.

61. Federal supreme court in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1938), p. 1826; also Fraenkel, op. cit. p. 92.

62. Federal supreme labor court, ibid. (1937), p. 2310; Fraenkel, op. cit. p. 92,

63. Günter Keiser, ‘Der jüngste Konzentrationsprozess,’ in Die Wirtschaftskurve 1939 (18), p. 148.

64. Der Deutsche Volkwirt, 1938 (XII), No. 41.

65. For example, the Bavarian Administrative Tribunal, as revealed in an article written by Otto Rilk, ‘Judentum und Wirtschaft in der neuen deutschen Rechtsprechung,’ in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1938), p. 2533.

66. Federal supreme court in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1936), p. 333.

67. Federal supreme court in the Deutsches Recht (1939), p. 437.

68. Federal supreme court in the Juristische Wochenschrift (1937), pp. 2310, 2707.

69. A good survey of material relative to this interpretation may be found in an article by Kammergerichtsrat Dr. Höver (member of the Prussian supreme court), ‘Entjudungsfragen,’ in the Deutsches Recht (1941), p. 12. For decisions, see those of the Prussian supreme court reported in Deutsches Recht (1940), pp. 820, 459, and 42.

70. Prussian supreme court in the Deutsches Recht (1939), p. 2110.

71. Höver, op. cit. p. 13.

72. Die Rassengesetzgebung des Dritten Reiches, Munich, 1934.

73. Term of Jacques Maritain, Anti-Semitism, London, 1939, p. 27.

74. Harold D. Lasswell, ‘The Psychology of Hitlerism,’ in The Political Quarterly, 1933 (IV), pp. 373-84. p. 374 is an excellent analysis of Anti-Semitism, even if I cannot accept L.’s theory that Hitler plays the ‘maternal role for certain classes in German society’ (p. 379).

75. Lasswell, op. cit. p. 380.

76. Wilhelm Grau, Die Judenfrage als Aufgabe der neuen Geschichtsforschung, Hamburg, 1935.

77. Grau, Wilhelm von Humboldt und das Problem der Juden, Hamburg, 1935.

78. Walter Frank, Nationalismus und Demokratie im Frankreich der Dritten Republik, Hamburg, 1933.

79. Frank, Höre Israel! Harden, Rathenau und die moderne Judenfrage, Hamburg, 1939.

80. Das Judentum in der Rechtswissenschaft (9 pamphlets), Berlin, n.d.

81. Italian Anti-Semitism is merely a device, a matter of convenience, although the former party secretary, Farinacci, and Paolo Orano (Gli Ebrei in Italia, 1937) developed an Anti-Semitic doctrine. Cf. Martin Agronsky, ‘Racism in Italy,’ in Foreign Affairs, 1939 (17), pp. 391-401, and Israel Cohen, ‘Jews in Italy.’ in The Political Quarterly, 1939 (10), pp. 405-18.

82. Op. cit. chapter XIV.

83. Eastern and Southeastern Jews under German rule (July 1940):

* 88,951, according to a report from Bratislava. New York Times, 31 March 1941.

Source: ‘Statistics of Jews, 1940’ from The American Jewish Year Book, 5701, New York, 1940, pp. 589-632, especially p. 600.

84. Cf. Albert Weh (on the staff of the Generalgouvernement), ‘Das Recht des Generalgouvernements,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1940, pp. 1393-1403.

85. This is the main thesis of Maurice Samuel, The Great Hatred, New York, 1940.

86. Heinrich Härtle, Nietzsche und der Nationalsozialismus, Munich, 1937 (official), pp. 45-6.

87. All quotations are based on the edition of Oscar Levy, The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche, 18 vols., London, 1903-13. Genealogy of Morals, 407 d, Aphorism 765.

88. The Will to Power, Aphorism 765. Vol. 15, p. 212.

89. Ibid. Aphorism 215. Vol. 14, p. 178.

90. Twilight of the Idols, Aphorism 43. Vol. 16, p. 186.

91. Ibid. Aphorism 39. Vol. 16, p. 230.

92. The Will to Power, 150-51, Aphorism 209.

93. Cf. Crane Brinton, Nietzsche, Cambridge (Mass.), 1941, esp. pp. 172-243. Unfortunately Brimon does not treat the actual dissemination of N.’s ideas among the various groups of the German people and the transformation of his ideas during this process of popularization. This important task is still to be done. That Nietzsche does not at all fit in an authoritarian order has been admirably brought out by Alfred von Martin, Nietzsche und Burckhardt, Munich, 1941, esp. p. 33.

V: THE GROSSDEUTSCHE REICH

1.  From R. R. Kuczynski, Living Space and Population Problems (Pamphlets on World Affairs, No. 8), New York, 1939, pp. 4-5.

2.  Frankfurter Zeitung, 1 October 1939.

3.  Fritz Kern, Humana Civilitas, Leipzig, 1913, esp. p. 33.

4.  Excellent analysis of Stefan George: Paul Rosenfeld, ‘The Nazis and Stefan George,’ in The New Republic, 28 October 1940.

5.  Alfred Rosenberg, ‘Gegen Tarnung und Verfälschung,’ in Gestaltung der Idee. Blut und Ehre, 11. Band, Munich, 1936, pp. 15-19.

6.  Fedor Schneider, Rom und der Romgedanke im Mittelalter, München, 1926, p. 221.

7.  F. Wolters, Stefan George und die Blätter für die Kunst, Berlin, 1930.

8.  An excellent analysis of this aspect of George’s philosophy: Herbert Marcuse ‘Der Kampf gegen den Liberalismus in der totalitären Staatsauffassung,’ in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1934 (3), pp. 161-95, esp. p. 162.

9.  Das Dritte Reich, 3rd ed.; ed. by Hans Schwarz (first ed. 1922). Hamburg, 1931, p. 300; partial trans. by E. O. Lorimer, Germany’s Third Empire, New York, 1941.

10. Christoph Steding, Das Reich und die Krankheit der europäischen Kultur, Hamburg, 1938. Excellent review by Günther Stern in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1939 (VIII), pp. 464-8.

11. Stern, op. cit.

12. Heinrich Triepel, Die Hegemonie. Ein Buch von führenden Staaten, Stuttgart and Berlin, 1938.

13. Roger Diener, ‘Reichsproblem und Hegemonie,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 561-6.

14. Otto Haussleiter, ‘Rudolf Kjellens empirische Staatslehre und ihre Wurzeln in politischer Geographie und Staatenkunde,’ in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 1925, Vol. 54, p. 157.

15. Survey by Charles Kruczewski, ‘Germany’s Lebensraum,’ in The American Political Science Review, XXXIV, 1940, pp. 964-75.

16. Friedrich Ratzel, Anthropogeographie, Vol. I, 2nd ed., 1899, p. 21.

17. Op. cit. p. 33.

18. Der Lebensraum. Eine biographische Studie (Festgabe für A. Schäffle), Tübingen, 1911, p. 14.

19. Anthropogeographie, p. 211.

20. Ibid. p. 101.

21. Ibid. pp. 317-470, esp. p. 212.

22. Ibid. p. 12.

23. Politische Geographie, 2nd ed., Munich, 1903, p. 35.

24. Rudolf Kjellen, Die Grossmächte vor und nach dem Kriege, 22nd ed., ed. by K. Haushofer, 1930.

25. Der Staat als Lebensform, 4th ed., Berlin, 1924, p. 35.

26. Sir Halford MacKinder, ‘The Geographical Pivot in History,’ in Geographical Magazine, 1904, pp. 434-7.

27. Paul de Lagarde, Deutsche Schriften (new ed. by K. A. and P. Fischer under the title Schriften für des deutsche Volk), 2 vols., Munich, 1924.

28. Berlin, 1915; trans. by C. M. Meredith, London, 1916.

29. Survey of his writings in Kruczewski, op. cit.

30. K. Haushofer and K. Trempler, Deutschlands Weg an der Zeitenwende, Munich, 1932.

31. Zukunftsweg einer deutschen Aussenpolitik, Munich, 1927.

32. Ewald Banse, Germany Prepares for War, trans. by A. Harris, New York, 1934, p. 349.

33. Was der Deutsche vom Ausland wissen muss, Leipzig, 1934.

34. An excellent analysis is to be found in the paper by A. Whitney Griswold, ‘Paving the Way for Hitler,’ in The Atlantic, March 1941, pp. 314-21.

35. W. G. East, ‘The Nature of Political Geography,’ in Politica, 1937 (II), pp. 259-86.

36. D. V. Glass, Population. Policies and Movements in Europe, Oxford, 1940, pp. 458, 276, 278.

37. ‘Ansprache des Herrn Reichsminister des Innern Dr. Frick,’ in Schriftenreihe des Reichsausschusses für Volksgesundheitsdienst, Heft I, Berlin, 1933.

38. Dr. Stolzenburg, ‘Entwicklung der Kriminalität,’ in Deutsche Justiz, 1938, pp. 933-4, and Glass, op. cit. p. 285.

39. Glass, op. cit. p. 289.

40. R. R. Kuczynski, op. cit.

41. As reported by F. Thudichum, Über unzulängliche Beschränkungen des Rechts der Verehelichung, 1866, p. 66.

42. C. A. Weinhold, Von der Überbevölkerung in Mitteleuropa und deren Folgen auf die Staaten und ihre Civilisation, Halle, 1827.

43. Robert von Mohl, Polizeiwissenschaft nach den Grundsätzen des Rechtsstaats, Vol. I. 1832.

44. H. Luden, Über Sinn und Inhalt des Handbuchs der Weisheit, 1811; K. H. Rau, Lehrbuch der politischen Ökonomie, 1826.

45. Günther Kraaz, ‘Nationalsozialistisches Völkerrechtsdenken,’ in Reichs- und Preussisches Verwaltungsblatt, 1934 (55), p. 7. Also Ernst Wolgast, ‘Nationalsozialismus und internationales Recht,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1934, p. 196, where he says: ‘Also considerations of utility’ make it advisable to accept international law, which always binds the stronger power.

46. Ludwig Schecher, Deutsches Aussenstaatsrecht, Berlin, 1933. Cf. especially the excellent discussion of Eduard Bristier (pen-name of John H. Herz): Die Völkerrechtslehre des Nationalsozialismus, Zürich, 1938.

47. Manfred Langhans-Ratzeburg, Die grossen Mächte geojuristisch betrachtet, Berlin, 1931.

48. Compare Bristier, op. cit. pp. 73-7.

49. Nationalsozialismus und Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1934.

50. Thus Professor Viktor Bruns (who was under the Weimar Republic, and still is Director of the Institute for Foreign Public Law and International Law, Berlin), Völkerrecht und Politik, Berlin, 1934, p. 24.

51. Franz Neumann, ‘Types of Natural Law,’ in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1939 (VIII), pp. 338-61.

52. Carl Bilfinger, ‘Gleichheit und Gleichberechtigung der Staaten,’ in Nationalsozialistisches Handbuch für Recht und Gesetzgebung, 2nd ed., 1935, p. 100.

53. Bristier, op. cit. p. 83. Schmitt, op. cit. pp. 7, 8.

54. Heinrich Rogge, Hitlers Friedenspolitik und das Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1935, p. 10.

55. Lon L. Fuller, The Law in Quest of Itself, Chicago, 1940, p. 5.

56. Carl Schmitt, ‘Sowjet-Union und Genfer Völkerbund,’ in Völkerbund und Völkerrecht, 1934, 1935 (1), p. 263.

57. Carl J. Friedrich, ‘Democracy and Dissent,’ in Political Quarterly, 1939, pp. 571-82, attacked it quite recently.

58. Norbert Gürke, Volk und Völkerrecht, Tübingen, 1935, pp. 84, 99.

59. Bristier, op. cit. p. 134.

60. The New York Times, 28 March 1941. Compare the discussion by Philip C. Jessup, Neutrality, Vol. III, New York, 1936, p. 179.

61. Sir John Fisher-Williams, ‘Sanctions under the Covenant,’ and Arnold D. McNair, ‘Collective Security.’

62. Carl Schmitt, ‘Das neue Vae Neutris,’ in Völkerbund und Völkerrecht, 1937-8 (4), pp. 633-8; Die Wendung zum diskriminierenden Kriegsbegriff, Munich, 1938.

63. Carl Bilfinger, ‘Die Kriegserklärungen der Westmächte und der Kelloggpakt,’ in Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, 1940 (10), pp. 1-23.

64. Edwin Borchard and William Potter Lage, Neutrality for the United States, New Haven, 1937, p. 293.

65. Their letter: 21 September 1939.

66. H. A. Smith, ‘Grossbritannien und die belgische Neutralität,’ in Völkerbund und Völkerrecht, 1936-7 (3), pp. 513-18.

67. Dietrich Schindler (University of Zürich), ‘Die schweizerische Neutralität,’ pp. 413-44; and Edward Hambro, ‘Das Neutralitätsrecht der nordischen Staaten,’ in pp. 445-69, Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, 1938 (8).

68. Carl Bilfinger, ‘Englische Völkerrechtspolitik, ein Rückblick,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1941, pp. 225-8.

69. Carl Schmitt, ‘Raum und Grossraum im Völkerrecht,’ in Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht, 1940 (24), pp. 145-79, p. 145.

70. S. S. Brigadeführer Dr. Werner Best, ‘Rechtsbegriff und Völkerrecht,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 1345-8.

71. Schmitt, op. cit. p. 145.

72. Ibid. p. 147.

73. Carl Schmitt, Völkerrechtliche Grossraumordnung mit Interventionsverbot für raumfremde Mächte, Berlin, Vienna, 1939, pp. 12, 13. The later editions were not accessible to me.

74. Ibid. p. 43.

75. Carl Schmitt, ‘Der Reichsbegriff im Völkerrecht,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 341-4. Carl Schmitt, ‘Neutralität und Neutralisierung. Zu Christoph Steding . . .’ in Deutsche Rechtswissenschaft, 1939 (4), pp. 97-118.

76. Ulrich Scheuner, ‘Der Gedanke der Sicherheit Amerikas auf den Konferenzen von Panama und Habana und die Monroe-Doktrin,’ in Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht, 1940 (24), pp. 273-92, esp. p. 275.

77. Ibid. p. 276.

78. ‘Rights and Duties under International Law as affected by the U. S. Neutrality and the Resolution of Panama,’ in American Journal of International Law, 1940 (34), p. 248.

79. Schmitt, Völkerrechtliche Grossraumordung . . . , p. 23; Heinrich Triepel, Die Hegemonie, pp. 298-301.

80. In ‘Key,’ 1940 (11), p. 116.

81. Art. 21 of the League Covenant. Compare James T. Shotwell, War as an Instrument of National Policy, New York, 1929, p. 20; and André N. Mandelstam, L’interprétation du pacte Briand-Kellogg par les gouvernements et les parlements des Etats signataires, Paris, 1934 (pp. 32-95 on the Monroe Doctrine).

82. In Key, 1940 (11), p. 118.

83. Max Hildebert Böhm, ‘Minorities, national,’ in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. X, p. 521; and Oscar I. Janowsky, ‘The Treatment of Minorities,’ in International Conciliation, 1941, No. 369, pp. 287-94.

84. An important document summarizing the situation of minorities is the memorandum transmitted to the House of Commons by Lord Cranborne, the then Under Secretary of State, and Mr. William Strang, then of the League of Nations. It is published in The Congress of the European National Minorities, H. M. Stationary Office, London, 1937.

85. The ideological basis has been primarily developed by Max Hildebert Böhm, Das eigenständige Volk, Göttingen, 1932. The most ardent advocate is Werner Hasselblatt (counsel to the Union of German Folkish Groups in Europe). His contributions are: ‘Die politischen Elemente eines werdenden Volksgruppenrechts,’ in Jahrbuch der Akademie des Deutschen Rechts, 1938, Berlin and Munich, 1938, pp. 13-24; ‘Volkspolitische Wende in Europa,’ in Europäische Revue, 1939 (XV), pp. 28-34; ‘Die sudetendeutschen Anträge über Volksgruppenrecht,’ in Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht, 1937, pp. 353-61. Also: Herbert Kier, ‘Über die Gestaltung eines Volksgruppenrechts,’ in Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, 1937 (VII), pp. 497-500; G. A. Walz, ‘Grundlagen des Volksgruppenrechts,’ in Paul Ritterbusch (ed.), Politische Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1940; and Artgleichheit gegen Gleichartigkeit, Hamburg, 1938, pp. 44, 45.

86. Frederick L. Schuman, Europe on the Eve, New York, 1939, p. 384.

87. ‘Die sudetendeutschen Anträge . . . ,’ p. 353.

88. Ibid.

89. Schuman, op. cit. p. 387.

90. On the Hungarian-German and Rumanian-German minority treaties see Freiherr von Freytagh-Loringhoven, ‘Politik und Recht,’ in Europäische Revue, 1941 (XVII), p. 7.

91. Deutsches Recht, 1940, p. 1508.

92. The discussion is based on the following articles: Bälz (Ministerialrat, Prague), ‘Die deutsche Gerichtsbarkeit im Protektorate Böhmen-Mähren in Deutsches Recht, 1940, pp. 1401-3. Krieser (Oberregierungsrat, Prague), ‘Die deutsche Gerichtsbarkeit im Protektorate Böhmen-Mähren: Ausübung und Umfang,’ ibid. pp. 1745-54; Dr. Nüsslein (Erster Staatsanwalt, Prague), ‘Die deutsche Gerichtsbarkeit im Protektorate Böhmen-Mähren,’ Strafrechtspflege,’ ibid. pp. 2085-91.

93. Bälz, op. cit. p. 176.

94. 1. General: 14 April 1939. 2. Administration of penal justice: 14 April 1939, 18 September 1939. 3. Military justice: 8 May 1939. 4. Civil Justice: 14 April 1939, 3 May 1939, 5 September 1939, 20 March 1940. 5. The right of the protector to hand over cases to German courts: 4 April 1940. 6. Executive order of the federal minister of justice to establish branches of German courts outside their seats: 7 April 1939. (All decrees except No. 6 are published in the German Reichsgesetzblatt.)

95. Krieser, op. cit. p. 1745.

96. Freytagh-Loringhoven, op. cit.

97. Lawrence Preuss, ‘National Socialist Conceptions of International Law,’ in American Political Science Review, 1935 (29), p. 594; opposite view, Bristler, op. cit. p. 72.

98. Edwin M. Borchard, Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad, New York, 1919, p. 17; Quincey Wright, ‘Fundamental Problems of International Organization,’ in International Conciliation, 1941, No. 369, pp. 468-92, esp. p. 485.

99. Professor Quincey Wright, who has been kind enough to make these points in an exchange of letters, has also pointed to the experiences of the Civil War, which from the Northern point of view was a ‘war of rebellion’ and ‘not a War between the States’ as it is called in Southern circles.

100. Hans K. E. L. Keller, Das Recht der Völker, I. Abschied vom Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1938, p. 118.

101. Heinrich Rogge, Nationale Friedenspolitik, Berlin, 1934; Hitlers Friedenspolitik und das Völkerrecht, Berlin, 1935; Bristler, op. cit. p. 110.

102. Nationale Friedenspolitik, p. 657.

103. Die rassengesetzliche Rechtslehre, Grundlinien einer nationalsozialistischen Rechtspilosophie, 2nd ed., Munich, 1933.

104. Volk und Völkerrecht, Tübingen, 1935; Grundzüge des Völkerrechts, Berlin, 1936; ‘Der Staats- und Volksbegriff im Völkerrecht,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1934, p. 333.

105. Volk und Völkerrecht, p. 99.

106. ‘Rechtsbegriff und Völkerrecht,’ pp. 1345-8; ‘Rechtsbegriff und Gesetzgebung,’ p. 673; ‘Rechtsbegriff und Verfassung,’ p. 1207, in Deutsches Recht, 1939.

107. ‘Rechtsbegriff und Völkerrecht,’ p. 1347.

108. Das Selbstbestimmungsrecht Europas, Dresden, 1940; ‘Das neue Europa, seine Lebenseinheit und Rechtsordung,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1940, pp. 2081-4; Der Weg zur völkischen Wirtschaft und zur europäischen Grossraumwirtschaft, Dresden, 1938.

109. Rolf Fritzsche, Aufbau der Wirtschaft im Dritten Reich, Berlin, 1934, appendix.

110. ‘Das neue Europa . . .’

111. Ibid. p. 2082.

112. Gustave Dumas, ‘Documents from Occupied France,’ in Thought, 1941 (16), pp. 133-41.

113. Deutsches Recht, 1941, p. 34.

114. Ibid. 1940, p. 1820.

115. Norway Does Not Yield, introd. by Mrs. J. Borden Harriman, publ. by the American Friends of German Freedom, New York, 1941; Josef Terboven, ‘Neuordnung und Zusammenarbeit in Norwegen,’ in Europäische Revue (17), 1941, pp. 13-20.

116. Decree of the federal commissioner, 26 October 1940, Deutsches Recht, 1940, p. 2100.

117. Ibid. p. 1819.

118. Werner Best, ‘Die neue Gliederung und Verwaltung des emaligen polnischen Staatsgebiets,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 2089-90. Julius von Medeazza (deputy of the governor general in Berlin), ibid. 1941, pp. 565-6. Julius von Medeazza, ‘Ein Jahr Generalgouvernement,’ ibid. 1940, pp. 1793-1807. Albert Weh (director of the department legislation in the office of the governor general), ‘Das Recht des Generalgouvernements,’ ibid. pp. 1393-1403.

119. Weh, op. cit. p. 1394.

120. Deutsches Recht, 1941, p. 913.

121. Weh, op. cit. p. 1396.

122. Deutsches Recht, 1940, p. 1819.

123. In Europäische Revue (15), pp. 238-43, pp. 337-42. See also K. Vowinckel, in Zeitschrift für Geopolitik, 1940 (17), p. 596.

124. The main German literature on the problem is: A. Predöhl, ‘Die sogenannten Handelshemmnisse und der Neuaufbau der Weltwirtschaft,’ in Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 1940 (52), p. 193; Giselher Wirsing, Zwischeneuropa und die deutsche Zukunft, Jena, 1932; Ferdinand Fried, Wende der Weltwirtschaft, Leipzig, 1939; Ernst Wagemann, Der neue Balkan, Altes Land—junge Wirtschaft, Hamburg, 1939; Otto von Franges, ‘Jugoslawiens Interesse am Vierjahresplan,’ in Der Vierjahresplan, 1937 (1), 18; ‘Der Vierjahresplan und die Industrialisierung der südosteuropäischen Agrarstaaten,’ in Europäische Revue, 1939 (15), pp. 238; ‘Die Donaustaaten Südosteuropas und der deutsche Grosswirtschaftsraum,’ in Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 1941 (53), pp. 284-316; Bela Csikos-Nagy ‘Zur Neuordnung der europäischen Wirtschaft,’ in Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 1941 (53), pp. 126-35; and the studies of W. Daitz, see note 108 above.

125. Franges, ‘Die Donaustaaten . . . ,’ p. 515.

126. ‘Die wirtschaftliche Gestaltung des europäischen Grossraumes,’ in Bank-Archiv, 1941 (No. 3), p. 29.

127. Poland: see p. 180. In Belgium, 1941, 1 franc = 8 pfennig, 1 belga = 40 pfennig. Deutsches Recht, 1941, p. 1719. Denmark: Within four months, Germany succeeded in transforming a small German credit into a debt of 800,000,000 crowns. Only part of this debt is the cost of occupation. The largest part represents increased shipments of Danish goods to Germany. Cf. Henry Chalmers, ‘Impact of War upon Trade Policies of Foreign Countries,’ in International Reference Service (U. S. Department of Commerce), 1941 (1), No. 6.

128. W. Lepenies, ‘Das Devisenrecht in den besetzten Gebieten und im Generalgouvernement,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1941, pp. 89-91.

129. Kartell-Rundschau, 1940 (38), p. 41. See Louis Domeratzky, ‘The German Cartel as an Instrument of Economic Control of the European Continent,’ in Foreign Commerce Weekly, 1941 (3), No. 10.

130. i.e. the paper cartel in the Protectorate. Kartell-Rundschau, 1939 (37), p. 309.

131. Dresdner Bank acquires the Nordböhmische Kohlenwerksgesellschaft (mines) in Brüx: Kartell-Rundschau, 1939 (37), p. 255. The Allgemeine Deutsche Kreditanstalt (Bank), Leipzig, takes over the Länderbank, Prague: ibid. p. 259.

132. Sudetendeutsche Bergbau, A.-G.—a new combine. Kartell-Rundschau, 1940 (38), p. 351. Merger: Länderbank and Böhmische Escompte-Bank: ibid. p. 61. Concentration in the Bohemian iron industry: ibid. 1939 (37), p. 385.

133. Ibid. 1940 (38), p. 61.

134. Federal commissioner for the Unilever combine is Secretary of State Posse; see Frankfurter Zeitung, 2 July 1941.

135. Trustees are the big German combines; see page 277 of this book and Frankfurter Zeitung, 11 July 1941. On German banks in the New Order, see Bank-Archiv, 1941, No. 10, p. 214.

136. Julius von Medeazza, ‘Ein Jahr . . . ,’ p. 1776.

137. Deutsches Recht, 1940, p. 1874.

138. Ibid. p. 2100.

139. Terboven, op. cit. Foundation: 23 August 1940. The I. G. Farben participates, see Frankfurter Zeitung, 20 June 1941.

140. Terboven, op. cit.

141. Vortrag Adolf Hitlers vor westdeutschen Wirtschaftlern im Industrieklub zu Düsseldorf am 27. Januar 1932. 1st ed. Munich 1932, p. 13.

VI: THE THEORY OF RACIAL IMPERIALISM

1.  General Ludendorff, Der totale Krieg, Munich, p. 87.

2.  J. A. Hobson, Imperialism, London, 1938, p. XXI (introduction of 1938).

3.  Albert K. Weinberg, Manifest Destiny, Baltimore, 1935, p. 286.

4.  Jbid. p. 297.

5.  William L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism, 1890-1902, 2 vols., New York, 1935, Vol. II, p. 663.

6.  Discussed for the U. S. in Mr. Weinberg’s book; for England, cf. Langer, op. cit. Vol. I, pp. 67-100.

7.  New York Times, 14 February 1940.

8.  Time Magazine, 23 December 1940.

9.  New York Times, 4 February 1940.

10. Peter Aldag, Juden in England; Vol. I: Juden erobern England; Vol. II: Juden beherrschen England, Berlin, 1940.

11. Ibid. Vol. I, pp. 88-97.

12. Nibelungen-Verlag.

13. K. D. Schmidt (ed.), Die Bekenntnisse des Jahres 1933, Göttingen, 1934, p. 18.

14. Frankfurter Zeitung, 15 December 1940.

15. Ibid. 21 January 1941.

16. G. A. Borgese, Goliath. The March of Fascism, New York, 1937, pp. 248-9.

17. Il Nazionalismo italiano, Milano, 1914; La Vita nazionale (collected papers written in 1903, 1904), Siena, 1924. Discorsi Volitici, Firenze, 1923. Illuminating discussion: Ignazio Silone, Der Faschismus, Zürich, 1934, pp. 267-72; Erwin von Beckerath, Wesen und Werden des faschistischen Staates, Berlin, 1927, pp. 18, 28-34.

18. Il nazionalisimo, p. 34.

19. La vita, p. 123.

20. Max Ascoli, Georges Sorel, Paris, 1921, p. 34.

21. La vita, p. 30.

22. Discorsi, p. 422.

23. Gaudens Megaro, Mussolini in the Making, Boston, 1938, p. 235.

24. Megaro, op. cit. pp. 86, 160, 250.

25. Oeuvres de Donoso Cortès, Marquis de Valdegamas, 3rd ed., Lyon, 1877 (L’église et la révolution, 1848; Discours sur la dictature, 1849), Vol. I, pp. 352 and 337.

26. Oswald Spengler, Man and Technics, trans. by C. F. Atkinson, London, 1932, p. 43. The translation is the text from Hans Speier, ‘Germany in Danger. Concerning Oswald Spengler,’ in Social Research, 1934 (1), p. 233.

27. The Decline of the West, trans. by C. F. Atkinson, New York, 1939, Vol. I, p. 452.

28. William L. Langer, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 85.

29. Decline, Vol. II, p. 461.

30. Ibid. p. 463.

31. Preussentum und Sozialismus, Munich, 1920.

32. Ibid. p. 97.

33. Ibid. p. 98.

34. The Hour of Decision, trans, by C. F. Atkinson, New York, 1934, p. 145.

35. Neubau des Deutschen Reiches, Munich, 1924, p. 112.

36. Decline, Vol. II, p. 454.

37. Ibid. p. 311.

38. Dr. Speier has drawn attention to it. Op. cit.

39. Excellent catholic critique of his social philosophy: Goetz Briefs, Untergang des Abendlandes, Christentum und Sozialismus, Freiburg i. B., 1920. A survey of the Spengler discussion by theologians: Manfred Schroeter, Der Streit um Spengler, Munich, 1922, pp. 116-41.

40. Das Dritte Reich, 3rd ed., ed. by Hans Schwarz, Hamburg, 1931; Das ewige Reich, Vol. I, Die politischen Kräfte, Vol. II, Die geistigen Kräfte, Breslau, 1933 and 1934; Sozialismus und Aussenpolitik, Breslau, 1933.

41. Alfred Rosenberg, Gestaltung der Idee, Vol. I, 3rd ed., Munich, 1936, pp. 15-19.

42. On income from British investments overseas, see J. A. Hobson, op. cit. p. 375.

43. Sir Austen Chamberlain, Politics from Inside, New Haven, 1937.

44. Eckart Kehr, ‘Englandhass und Weltpolitik,’ in Zeitschrift für Politik, 1928 (7), pp. 500-26. ‘Deutsch-englisches Bündnisproblem der Jahrhundertwende,’ in Die Gesellschaft, 1928 (2), pp. 24-31.

45. Graf Westarp, Konservative Politik, Vol. I, 1904-14; Vol. II, 1914-18, Berlin, 1935.

46. Ibid. Vol. I, p. 168.

47. Ibid. Vol. II, p. 43.

48. Ibid. Vol. III, p. 50.

49. ‘Die Deutsche Flotte,’ in Gedichte, Zürich, 1844, p. 29.

50. Veit Valentin, Geschichte der Deutschen Revolution von 1848-9, Berlin, 1930, Vol. I, p. 268.

51. A History of Militarism, p. 208.

52. Ibid. p. 208; from Heyderhoff-Wentzke, Deutscher Liberalismus im Zeitalter Bismarcks, Vol. I, p. 71.

53. Franz von Liszt, Ein mitteleuropäischer Staatenverband, Leipzig, 1914, pp. 32-3. I owe this reference to Carl Becker, ‘The Old Disorder in Europe,’ in The Yale Review, 1941 (30), pp. 433-53, esp. p. 439.

54. Eckart Kehr, Schlachtflottenbau und Parteipolitik, 1894-1901, Berlin, 1930.

55. Felix Salomon (ed. Mommsen and Franz), Die deutschen Parteiprogramme, 4th ed., Leipzig, Vol. I, pp. 155-9.

56. Mildred Wertheimer, The Pan-German League, New York, 1924, p. 123.

57. Ibid. p. 133.

58. Ibid. p. 73.

59. Kehr, op. cit. pp. 307, 308.

60. Printed in Oscar Stillich, Die politischen Parteien in Deutschland, II. Der Liberalismus, Leipzig, 1911, p. 81.

61. William L. Langer, op. cit. Vol. II, p. 431. Alfred von Tirpitz, My Memoirs, 2 vols., New York, 1919, Vol. I, p. 77.

62. William L. Langer, op. cit. Vol. II, p. 436.

63. Kehr, op. cit. pp. 194-120.

64. Ibid. pp. 169, 170.

65. Ibid. p. 193.

66. Ibid. p. 205.

67. Ibid. p. 205.

68. Adolph Wagner, Vom Territorialstaat zur Weltmacht, Berlin, 1900.

69. Ernst von Halle, ‘Weltmachtpolitik und Sozialreform,’ in Volks- und Weltwirtschaft, Vol. II, pp. 229, 228, 204; and Kehr, op. cit. pp. 439, 440.

70. Kehr, op. cit. p. 101.

71. George Dunlap Crothers, The German Elections of 1907, New York, 1941.

72. Ibid. p. 105.

73. Election results: Crothers, op. cit. pp. 166 and 175.

74. Surveys of the various doctrines of imperialism in English: B. J. Houde, ‘Socialistic Theories of Imperialism prior to the Great War,’ in Journal of Political Economy, 1928 (36), pp. 569-691. E. M. Winslow, ‘Marxian, Liberal and Sociological Theories of Imperialism,’ in Journal of Political Economy, 1931 (39), pp. 713-58. William L. Langer, op. cit. Vol. I, pp. 96-9, contains a full and excellent bibliography. Crothers, op. cit. pp. 151-4, and 211-29 on the actual policy of the Social Democrats. Two excellent German studies must be mentioned: Kurt Mandelbaum, Die Erörterung innerhalb der Sozialdemokratie über das Problem des Imperialismus, Frankfurt a/M., 1930 (Dissertation); Alfred Meusel, ‘Der klassische Sozialismus’ in Die Wandlungen der Wirtschaft im kapitalistischen Zeitalter, ed. G. Briefs, Berlin, 1932, pp. 36-79.

75. Die Kolonialpolitik und der Zusammenbruch, Leipzig, 1907.

76. Writing under the pseudonym Karl Emil, ‘Der deutsche Imperialismus und die innere Politik,’ in Die Neue Zeit, 1907/8 (26), Vol. I, pp. 148-63.

77. Kehr, op. cit. pp. 306, 307.

78. R. Calwer, ‘Der 25. Januar,’ in Sozialistische Monatshefte, 1907 (11), pp. 101-7, 192-200. Max Schippel, Grundzüge der Handelspolitik, Berlin, Berne, 1902. ‘Die Handels- und Wirtschaftspolitik der Arbeiter,’ in Sozialistische Monatshefte, 1900 (4), p. 542. Ludwig Quessel, ‘Der Wert unserer Kolonien,’ in Sozialistische Monatshefte, 1912 (16), pp. 1124-31.

79. Die Vorausetzungen der Sozialdemokratie; ‘Die heutige Sozialdemokratie in Theorie und Praxis,’ in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 1907 (25).

80. Schippel, Grundzüge, pp. 336, 337.

81. Calwer, op. cit. pp. 101-7; 192-200, esp. p. 105.

82. Crothers, op. cit. pp. 214-20.

83. Cunow, Parteizusammenbruch?, Berlin, 1915.

84. Ibid. p. 14.

85. Lensch, Die deutsche Sozialdemokratie und der Weltkrieg, Berlin, 1915; Drei Jahre Weltrevolution, Berlin, 1917.

86. Meusel, op. cit. p. 62.

87. Winnig, Vom Proletariat zum Arbeitertum, Hamburg, 1930.

88. Nowack (ed.), Die Aufzeichnungen des Generals Max Hoffmann, Berlin, 1929, Vol. I, p. 366; and Ernst Fraenkel, ‘German-Russian Relations since 1918,’ in The Review of Politics, 1940 (2), pp. 34-62.

PART TWO

TOTALITARIAN MONOPOLISTIC ECONOMY

For names of periodicals and newspapers, etc., the following abbreviations are used in the notes to this chapter:

BA——	Bank-Archiv
DAZ——	Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung
DR——	Deutsches Recht
DV——	Der Deutsche Volkswirt
DZ——	Deutsche Bergwerkszeitung
FZ——	Frankfurter Zeitung
KR——	Kartell-Rundschau
SJ——	Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deütsche Reich
SP——	Soziale Praxis
VP——	Der Vierjahresplan
WK——	Die Wirtschaftskurve
WS——	Wirtschaft und Statistik
ZA——	Zeitschrift der Akademie für Deutsches Recht
ZS——	Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft

I have used the following collections of legislative materials: Posse-Land-fried-Syrup-Backe-Alpers (quoted Posse), Kommentar zur Reichsverteidigungsgesetzgebung, at present 4 vols., Munich, n.d.; Carl Mölders (ed.) (quoted Mölders), Das gesamte Recht des Vierjahresplanes, at present 2 vols., Berlin, n.d.; Die Anordnungen Zur Durchführung des Vierjahresplanes (quoted Anordnungen), at present 3 vols., Berlin, n.d.

I: AN ECONOMY WITHOUT ECONOMICS?

1.  Peter Drucker, The End of the Economic Man, New York, 1939. Frank Munk, The Economics of Force, New York, 1940. James Burnham, ‘The Theory of the’ Managerial Revolution,’ in Partisan Review, 1941 (May, June), pp. 181-97; The Managerial Revolution, New York, 1941. Dwight Macdonald, ‘The End of Capitalism in Germany,’ in Partisan Review, 1941 (May, June), pp. 198-220. Bruno R., La Bureaucratisation du Monde. Le Collectivisme Bureaucratique. Quo Vadis America, Paris, 1939. The last is the most important book of all those mentioned, written by a former Marxist. Also Frederick Pollock, ‘State Capitalism’ in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1941 (9), pp. 200-226.

2.  Ferdinand Fried, Das Ende des Kapitalismus, Jena, 1931.

3.  The Dynamics of War and Revolution, New York, 1940, p. 66.

4.  Quoted in Dwight Macdonald, op. cit. pp. 212, 213.

5.  Hilferding, op. cit. p. 212.

6.  Bukharin, Imperialism and World Economy, new ed., New York, 1929, and Macdonald, op. cit. p. 209.

7.  Ministerialrat Dr. Eberhart Barth, Wesen und Aufgaben der Organisation der gewerblichen Wirtschaft, Hamburg, 1939, p. 9.

8.  Feder, Das Programm der NSDAP, 116th-125th ed., Munich, 1937, pp. 20-21.

9.  Feder, Der deutsche Staat auf nationaler und sozialer Grundlage, 13th ed., Munich, 1933.

10. Feder, Das Programm . . . , p. 7.

11. Feder, Der deutsche Staat, p. 60.

12. For an excellent analysis of the prehistory of the estate idea, see Taylor Cole, ‘Corporative Organization of the Third Reich,’ in The Review of Politics, 1940 (2), pp. 438-62. Professor Cole omits, however, to mention the influence of Karl Mario (Winkelblech) and the discussion within the Social Democratic party in 1918 and 1919.

13. Max Frauendorfer, Der ständische Gedanke im Nationalsozialismus, 3rd ed., Munich, 1933.

14. Institut für Ständewesen, headed by Walter Heinrich. Cf. Cole, op. cit. p. 447.

15. Adam Müller, ‘Staatswirtschaftliche Verlegenheiten und Reform der Geldverhältnisse in Oesterreich,’ in Ausgewählte Abhandlungen (J. Baxa ed.), 2nd ed., Jena, 1931, p. 200; and Cole, op. cit. p. 439.

16. Karl Mario, Untersuchungen über die Organisation der Arbeit, Vol. I: Historische Einleitung in die Oekonomie, 1885; Vol. II: Geschichte und Kritik der ökonomischen Systeme, 1884, 2nd ed., Tübingen. Cf. the great biography, E. Biermann, Karl Georg Winkelblech (Karl Mario), 2 vols., Leipzig, 1909.

17. Published by Biermann, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 453-6.

18. Otto Fürst von Bismarck, Gedanken und Erinnerungen (Cotta ed.), 1898, Vol. I, pp. 15, 16.

19. Hugo Sinzheimer, Das Rätesystem, Frankfurt a. M., 1919.

20. Cole, op. cit. p. 444.

21. Othmar Spann, Der wahre Staat, 3rd ed., Jena, 1931.

22. Spann, Gesellschaftslehre, Leipzig, 1930, p. 98.

23. See the quotations in Walter Gehl (ed.), Der nationalsozialistische Staat, Breslau, 1933, pp. 116-27.

24. Wilhelm Keppler, ‘Grundsätze nationalsozialistischer Wirtschaftspolitik,’ in Wirtschaftspolitik im Dritten Reich, Munich, (n.d.), p. 3.

25. Köhler, ‘Politischer Sozialismus,’ op. cit. p. 7.

26. Rosenberg, Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts, 7th ed., Munich, 1933, pp. 695-6.

27. New York Times, 2 January 1935. Cole, op. cit. p. 450.

28. Barth, op. cit. p. 26, and the Federal Minister of Economics Dr. Schmitt in a speech before leading industrialists published in Axel Friedrichs (ed.), Die nationalsozialistische Revolution, Berlin, 1935, p. 207.

29. Barth, op. cit. p. 11.

30. i.e. Leonhard Miksch, ‘Brauchen wir noch Unternehmer?’ in WK, 1941 (20), pp. 5-14, esp. p. 7.

II: THE ORGANIZATION OF BUSINESS

1.  On Spitzenverbände, see the excellent contribution by Robert A. Brady, ‘Manufacturing Spitzenverbände,’ in Political Science Quarterly, 1941 (56), pp. 199-225.

2.  Franz Neumann, Tarifrecht, Berlin, 1931, pp. 20-30.

3.  The best survey of the National Socialist organizational forms is to be found in Robert A. Brady, The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism, New York, 1937. It is now partly outdated. My discussion is based primarily on Barth, op. cit., which, however, does not include the war organization which again has changed the picture. I have used many articles, statutes, decrees, and rulings, some of which I shall mention.

4.  For handicraft chambers: Act concerning the structure of German handicraft of 29 November 1933; first executive decree 5 January 1934.

5.  From Barth, op. cit. p. 107.

6.  Brady, The Spirit . . . p. 146.

7.  Posse, op. cit. Vol. II, sect. iv (Allgemeines-Bauwirtschaft), p. 1.

8.  Ibid. (Auftragsregelung-Eisen- u. Stahlbewirtschaftung), p. 1.

9.  Ibid. (Papier und Verpackungswesen).

10. Leonhard Miksch, ‘Bewirtschaftungskartelle,’ in WK, 1940 (19), pp. 24-32.

11. ‘Anordnung Nr. I’ of 8 January 1940, in Posse, op. cit. Vol. II, sect, iv (Papier etc.), p. 81.

12. ‘Anordnung Nr. 2’ of 4 September 1939, ibid. (Allgemeines-Spinnstoff’ Wirtschaft), p. 11.

III: THE MONOPOLISTIC ECONOMY

1.  The most important contribution in this field is Karl Renner, Die Rechtsinstitute des Privatrechts und ihre soziale Funktion, Tübingen, 1929 (1st ed. published under the pseudonym Josef Karner, 1904, in Vol. I of the Marx-Studien). I adapted these ideas to the German situation 1920-32 in my book Koalitionsfreiheit und Reichsverfassung, Berlin, 1932, and to National Socialism in my article ‘Der Funktionswandel des Gesetzes im Recht der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft,’ in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1937 (VI), pp. 542-96, trans. by the University of Chicago in Second Year Course in the Study of Contemporary Society, 8th ed., Chicago, 1939.

2.  Adam Smith, A Theory of Moral Sentiments. 6th ed., 1790, Vol. I, Part III, Ch. 3, p. 339; and Vol. I, Part II, sec. ii, Ch. 2.

3.  Adam Smith, Lectures on justice, Police, Revenue and Arms (Cannan ed.), Oxford, 1800, p. 177.

4.  Adam Smith, Wealth, Book IV, Ch. 8.

5.  Ibid. Book V, Ch. 1, p. iii, Art. I.

6.  Hegel, Philosophy of Right, trans. by Dyde, sec. 71.

7.  Reichswirtschaftsgerichtsrat Dr. W. Rittgen, ‘Berufsanforderungen im Rundfunkgrosshandel,’ in KR, 1940 (38), pp. 321-33.

8.  A. Kaumann, ‘Auswirkungen der An- und Aberkennungsrichtlinien,’ in Rundfunkhändler, 12 April 1939, p. 297.

9.  Decision of the federal economic tribunal of 12 July 1939, KR, 1940 (38),

10. (Claire Russell, ‘Die Praxis des Zwangskartellgesetzes,’ in ZS, 1937 (97), pp. 499-548, esp. p. 500.

11. KR, 1940 (38), p. 335.

12. KR, 1940 (38), p. 337 (Decree of 28 September 1940).

13. KR, 1940 (38), p. 82 (Decree of 27 January 1940).

14. KR, 1940 (38), p. 42.

15. In Preussische Jahrbücher, 1003 (110), p. 7.

16. DAZ, 27 November 1938.

17. DAZ, 2 November 1938.

18. Franz Böhm, Wettbewerb und Monopolkampf, Berlin, 1933, pp. X and 358.

19. FZ, 18 November 1938.

20. Leonhard Miksch, WK, 1936 (15), No. 4.

21. Barth, op. cit. p. 82.

22. Ibid. p. 75.

23. Ruling of 12 November 1936, KR, 1936 (34), pp. 753-60, and Barth, op. cit. p. 75.

24. DV, 1941, No. 22, p. 825.

25. Otto Suhr, ‘Umwälzungen in der Glasindustrie,’ in WK, 1940 (19), pp. 83-92.

26. Leonhard Miksch, ‘Bewirtschaftungskartelle,’ in WK, 1940 (19), pp. 24-32.

27. KR, 1940 (38), p. 95.

28. Karl Euling, Die Kartelle im oberschlesischen Steinkohlenbergbau, Jena, 1939.

29. In the Ruhr coal syndicate, 100,000 tons sale and 150,000 tons consumption secure one vote.

30. Günter Keiser, ‘Der jüngste Konzentrationsprozess,’ in WK, 1939 (18), pp. 136-56, 214-34; esp. p. 150.

31. Acquired the iron and steel work Thale; see KR, 1939 (37), p. 514.

32. Acquired Rawack and Grünfeld—now called A.-G. für Montaninteressen; see KR, 1939 (37), p. 514.

33. Acquired Wolff-Netter-Jacobi, see KR, 1938 (36), p. 179, and the Hahnsche Werke (capital 9,900,000 marks), KR, 1938 (36), p. 318.

34. DV, 1941 (15), No. 22, p. 820.

35. The account is based on the following sources: FZ, 30 March 1941, p. 15; FZ, 19 April 1941, p. 2; BA, 1941, No. 7, p. 151.

36. Borussia limited liability corp.; Deutsche Erdöl, A.-G.; Gewerkschaft Elwerath; Wintershall A.-G.; Preussische Bergwerks- und Hütten A.-G.; I. G. Farbenindustrie A.-G.; Braunkohle-Benzin A.-G.; Deutsche Bank; Dresdner Bank; Reichskreditgesellschaft; Berliner Handelsgesellschaft.

37. ‘Der Montanblock im Westen,’ in FZ, 11 July 1941. On the penetration of the German banks in the conquered territories, cf. ‘Die deutschen Banken in Kontinentaleuropa,’ in BA, 1941, No. 10, p. 214.

38. Cf. the excellent paper Technological Trends and Economic Structure under National Socialism,’ in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1941 (7), pp. 226-64, by Dr. A. R. L. Gurland, with whom I have discussed all the problems of this section of my book.

39. Such as: Krupp, Hoesch, Mannesmann, United Steel Trust, Flick, etc. Cf. Deutsche Montankonzerne, 1929 (Spezialarchiv der deutschen Wirtschaft), Berlin, 1929 (publication sponsored by the Dresdner Bank).

40. The connection between chemical industry and coal is discussed in detail in Die grossen Chemie-Konzerne Deutschlands (Spezialarchiv der deutschen Wirtschaft), Berlin, 1929.

41. FZ, 13 March 1941.

42. On coal output see Gurland, op. cit.; on gasoline and other oil production see General Loeb in VP, 1938, No. 2, and FZ, 18 April 1939.

43. According to Gurland, op. cit., the volume of buna production must be about one fourth or one third of the total German rubber requirements. See ‘Chemie-Bilanz 1938,’ in DZ, 1 January 1939.

44. On machine production, see Hans Ilau, ‘Der Maschinenhunger,’ in WK, 1939 (18), pp. 19-29.

45. Ibid. p. 24.

46. Otto Suhr, ‘Umwälzungen in der Glasindustrie,⁹ in WK, 1940 (19), p. 83.

47. On production of cellulose wool and rayon see Friedrich Sarow, ‘Zellwolle,’ in WK, 1938 (17), pp. 263-76; and Wochenbericht, Institut für Konjunkturforschung, 9 March 1939 and 15 March 1939. Cellulose wool production should be increased by 1939 to 200,000 and by 1940 to 275,000 tons. See FZ, 4 June 1939. Also: Friedrich Dorn, ‘Die Zellstoff- und Papierwirtschaft in und nach dem Kriege,’ in VP, 1940, No. 23, p. 1033.

48. On production of iron, steel and aluminum, see: Horst Wagenführ, ‘Kontrollierte N.E.-[non-ferrous] Metalle auf dem Weltmarkt,’ In KR, 1939 (37), p. 211.

49. SP, 1939 (48), p. 403.

50. VP, 1939 (3).

51. Handicraft statistics:

Source: VP, 1939 (3), p. 102g.

52. FZ, 9 January 1941.

53. Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, p. 69. Decree on prices and trade margins in the trade with automobiles and spare parts of 18 February, 17 April, 17 November 1937.

54. Erich Käsler, ‘Stillegung und Wiederaufleben,’ in DV, 1941 (15), No. 35/36, pp. 1254-9. For the soap industry, cf.: Decree of 6 October 1939 (Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, p. 413) and the ruling of the price commissar No. 115/39 of 28 October 1939 (Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, p. 414a) where the closing down of plants and their transformation into mere sales agencies is regulated.

55. Geiger, Die soziale Schichtung des deutschen Volkes, Stuttgart, 1932, p. 74.

56. Otto Ohlendorf, ‘Kriegswirtschaftliche Gegenwartsfragen im Handel,’ in VP, 1941 (5), pp. 513-15.

57. A. A. Berle and G. C. Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property, New York, 1935.

58. Rudolf Hilferding, Das Finanzkapital, Vienna, 1923, p. 112.

59. Rathenau, Vom Aktienwesen, Berlin, 1918.

60. Excellent remarks on the German corporation law by F. A. Mann, ‘The New German Company Law and its Background.’ in Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law, November 1937.

61. Excellent critique by Arthur Nussbaum (now at Columbia University), in Juristische Wochenschrift, 1932, p. 2585.

62. Hans Reichel, in Juristische Wochenschrift, 1930, p. 1459. Translation from Mann’s article. On the reactionary character of the institutionalist theory, see Neumann, op. cit. pp. 587-95.

63. Concentration of capital in joint stock corporations:

Source: WS, 1939, p. 237.

64. Keiser, op. cit. p. 154.

65. Ibid. p. 137.

66. From Freies Deutschland, 1939 (3), 27 July.

67. Keiser, op. cit. p. 215.

68. KR, 1939 (37), p. 448.

69. KR, 1938 (36), p. 116.

70. KR, 1938 (36), pp. 115, 234.

71. Keiser, op. cit. p. 142, and KR, 1938 (36), p. 114.

72. Keiser, op. cit. p. 147. Three plants in 1934 produced 83.3 per cent of all cigarettes. See KR, 1938 (36), p. 235. The cigarette industry is protected by a decree of the minister of economics, prohibiting the establishment of new plants, of 11 March 1938. See KR, 1938 (36), p. 285.

73. On bank statistics, see BA, 1941, No. 4, p. 90.

74. Wochenbericht, Institut für Konjunkturforschung, 1936 (9), p. 198.

75. Willy Neuling, ‘Wettbewerb, Monopol und Befehl in der heutigen Wirtschaft,’ in ZS, 1939 (99), pp. 279-318.

76. ‘Maschinenindustrie und Kriegspotential,’ in VP, 1941 (9), p. 512.

IV: THE COMMAND ECONOMY

1.  Excellent survey of the programs: Leo Grebler, ‘Work Creation Policy in Germany 1932-1935,’ in International Labour Review, 1937 (35), pp. 331-51 and 505-27.

2.  Good survey: Gerhard Mackenroth, ‘Deutsche Industriepolitik 1933,’ in Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 1934 (140), pp. 54-70 and 204-24.

3.  Grebler, op. cit. p. 518.

4.  The two basic works on the subject of public enterprises in republican Germany are: Walter Pahl and Kurt Mendelsohn (eds.), Handbuch der öffentlichen Wirtschaft, Berlin, 1930 (a publication of the Social Democratic union of transport and municipal workers); and Julius Landmann (ed.), Moderne Organisationsformem der öffentlichen Unternehmung, Part II, Deutsches Reich, Munich and Leipzig, 1931 (Schriften des Vereins für Sozialpolitik, Vol. 176). My account is based primarily on the first publication because it is more comprehensive and because I have collaborated in it.

5.  SJ, 1938, p. 525.

6.  On the Hermann Göring Works, there are two excellent articles by A. R. L. Gurland (written under the pen-name of R. Lang), in Freies Deutschland, 30 March and 6 April 1939. In English: Kurt Lachmann, ‘The Hermann Göring Works,’ in Social Research, 1941 (8), pp, 24-40.

7.  KR, 1939 (37), p. 513.

8.  DZ, 12 June 1938.

9.  DAZ, 2 March 1939.

10. DV, 1939, No. 23.

11. See FZ, 31 October 1937.

12. FZ, 18 January 1941.

13. SP, 1939 (48), p. 1070.

14. SP, 1941 (50), p. 215.

15. Mölders, Vol. II, pp. 5-12.

16. Ibid. pp. 17-173.

17. Ruling No. 60/39 of 29 June 1939. Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, pp. 20c-2of.

18. Posse, Vol. I, Kriegswirtschaftsverordnung, p. 1.

19. Mölders, p. 451. A very thorough survey is in the article by W. Schütz (in the office of the Federal Price Commissioner), ‘Neuregelung der Preisbindungen,’ in DV, 1941 (15), No. 17, pp. 656-60.

20. Op. cit. pp. 658, 659.

21. VP, 1941 (5), No. 9, p. 527.

22. Ministerial Director Flottmann, according to FZ, 17 January 1941.

23. Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, pp. 179, 180. Anordnungen, Vol. I, Sect. D, p. 10. The basic decree is of 27 October 1937.

24. Rulings of the price commissioner: No. 1/37 of 30 January 1937, Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, p. 19. No. 37/40 of 3 April 1940, ibid. p. 431.

25. Decree of 9 December 1937, ibid. p. 78a, and many others for almost any filament.

26. Decree of 29 April 1937 as amended 18 August 1937, 25 August 1938 and 4 July 1939, ibid. p. 119, with many executive decrees.

27. On procedure and principles, compare ruling No. 60/39 of 29 June 1939. ibid. p. 20c.

28. Ruling on ‘estimated’ prices: No. 137/40 of 8 November 1940, ibid. p. 20g.

29. Ibid. p. 2on.

30. (1) ‘Decree on the ascertaining of prices for governmental orders on the basis of the costs of production,’ 15 November 1938 (LSÖ); Anordnungen, Vol. I, groups A and B, p. 36. New codification: 11 March 1941, Mölders, Vol. II, p. 384a-f. (2) ‘Decree on the formation of prices for governmental orders,’ 15 November 1938 (RFO); ibid. p. 52.

31. Theodor Kuhr, ‘Der volkswirtschaftlich richtige Preis und die öffentlichen Aufträge,’ in Finanzarchiv, 1940 (8), pp. 70-94; cf. p. 88.

32. Indexes of wholesale prices, April 1939—April 1941:

Source: Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, 1934, p. 259; WS, 1941 (21), p. 182.

33. Indexes of cost of living, April 1933—April 1941:

* Food, rent, fuel, light, clothing, miscellaneous (no taxes and social insurance contribution included).

Sources: SJ, 1938, pp. 331-2. WS, 1941 (21), p. 182.

34. VP, 1939, No. 20, p. 1178.

35. Cf. the illuminating discussion of Gurland, op. cit.

36. Kuhr, op. cit.

37. A brief survey of this act: C. W. Guillebaud, The Economic Recovery of Germany, London, 1939, pp. 77, 78, 252-3.

38. Ibid. p. 77.

39. DR, 1941, p. 917.

40. For industry: 1 March 1941, Mölders, Vol. II, group 6, p. 5IV; and FZ, 15 March 1941. For trade: April 1941, FZ, 19 April 1941.

41. Mölders, op. cit. p. 52W.

42. VP, 1941 (5), p. 527.

43. FZ, 13 March 1941.

44. The discussion is based on the following publications: 1. E. W. Schmitt, ‘Das Gesicht der Aktie,’ in SP, 1941 (50), p. 501. 2. ‘Selbstfinanzierung und Kapitalmarkt,’ in BA, 1941, p. 174. 3. FZ of 28, 29 June, 5, 6, 13 July. 4. ‘Dividendenbegrenzung mit oder ohne Kapitalaufwertung,’ in BA, 1941, p. 149. 5. ‘Der Gewinn privat- und volkswirtschaftlich betrachtet,’ in SP, 1941 (50), p. 321. 6. ‘Germany’s Limitation on Dividends,’ in Foreign Commerce Weekly 1941 (4), 16 August 1941.

45. See the extensive discussion, ‘Dividendenbegrenzung mit oder ohne Kapitalaufwertung?’ BA, 1941, No. 7, pp. 149-51.

46. ‘Selbstfinanzierung und Kapitalmarkt,’ in BA, 1941, No. 8, p. 174.

47. Investigation of Concentration of Economic Power, Hearings, Part 9 (Savings and Investments), Washington, 1940.

48. WK, 1940 (19), pp. 219-22. The article (4) in BA (note 44 mentions the following figures: of the 852 shares quoted at the exchange, 336, that is. close to 40 per cent, distribute more than 6 per cent dividends.

49. Op. cit. (Note 46).

50. Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe, Abt. III, Vol. I, p. 239. Cf. the note by Hans Speier, ‘Marx und Engels über die Brechung der Zinsknechtschaft,’ in Die Gesellschaft, 1931, Vol. I, pp. 117-119.

51. Das Finanzkapital (Marx-Studien), reprint, Vienna, 1923, 1st ed., 1910, p. 282.

52. Quoted by Adolf Weber, Depositenbanken und Spekulationsbanken, Munich and Leipzig, 1915, p. 81.

53. Henryk Grossmann, Das Akkumuiations- und Zusammenbruchsgesetz des kapitalistischen Systems, Leipzig, 1929, pp. 574-9.

54. Short survey, Guilleband, op. cit. p. 94. Otto Christian Fischer (formerly of the Reichskreditgesellschaft, now of Merck, Finck & Company, leader of the national group banking), ‘Die Ausübung des Staatseinflusses im deutschen Kreditwesen,’ in ZA, 1938 (5), pp. 408-10.

55. A. Koch and W. Roeder (ed.), Das Recht der deutschen Bankwirtschaft, Berlin, 1938, pp. 14-28.

56. Excellent discussion in Poole, op. cit. pp. 129-38.

57. Jacob Viner, Dumping: A Problem in International Trade, Chicago, 1923, p. 94; and the excellent discussion by M. Gilbert and P. D. Dickens, Export Prices and Export Cartels (TNEC Monograph No. 6), Washington, D. C., 1940.

58. The most enraged advocate of autarky as a new philosophy was the Tat circle, especially its leader, Ferdinand Fried, Autarkie, Jena, 1932, who had already predicted the end of capitalism. Also Werner Sombart, Die Zukunft des Kapitalismus, Berlin, 1932, who believed Germany’s future to lie in re-agrarization. Against these distortions Herbert’ von Beckerath and Fritz Kern, Autarkie oder internationale Zusammenarbeit, Berlin, 1932. The contributions of the National Socialist party are not worth mentioning.

59. Fried, op. cit. p. 41.

60. Cleona Lewis, assisted by John C. McClelland, Nazi Europe and World Trade, Washington, 1941. Important is the table on p. 178:

61. See FZ, 13 June 1941, and Neue Züricher Zeitung (Handelsteil), 14 June 1941.

62. Albrecht Forstmann, Der Kampf um den Aussenhandel, Berlin, 1935.

63. Op. cit. p. 178.

64. A good survey: Charles Thomas Bonnell, German Control over International Economic Relations, 1930-1940, Urbana (Ill.), 1940, pp. 93-114. Excellent: Howard S. Ellis, Exchange Control in Central Europe, Cambridge (Mass.), 1941, pp. 191-269.

65. Die Reden Hitlers als Kanzler, 3rd ed., Munich, 1934, p. 21.

66. On statistics of German foreign trade from 1929 to May 1939, see Wochenbericht, Institut für Konjunkturforschung, 27 July 1939, p. 76; Bonnell, op. cit. p. 120, and Ellis, pp. 380-87.

67. See literature in Note 64 and the sound popular statement by Douglas Miller, You Can’t Do Business with Hitler, Boston, 1941, esp. Chs. 4, 5, 6, 7. Also, Hans Staudinger, The Future of the Totalitarian Barter Trade,’ in Social Research, 1940 (7), pp. 410-33. Thomas Balogh, ‘Foreign Exchange and Export Trade Policy,’ in Economic Journal, 1940 (50), p. 15. John C de Wilde, ‘Germany’s Controlled Economy,’ in Foreign Policy Reports, 1939 (14), 1 March 1939, esp. pp. 294-301. Excellent: Melchior Palyi, ‘Economic Foundations of the German Totalitarian State,’ in the American Journal of Sociology, 1941 (46), pp. 469-86. For the text of the report of the Wiggin Committee: International Conciliation, Pamphlet No. 280, May 1932.

68. Carl T. Schmidt, German Business Cycles, 1924-1933, New York, 1934, p. 87; and Bonnell, op. cit. p. 19.

69. Reparation payments from 1924-1932 = 11464 million marks. SJ, 1931, pp. 534-5; 1933, pp. 498-9.

70. James W. Angell, The Recovery of Germany, New Haven, 1929, p. 326; WK, 1938 (7), pp. 301-5; and Schmidt, op. cit. p. 78.

71. Decree of 1 August 1931, in force since 4 August 1931.

72. Bonnell, op. cit. pp. 42-4.

73. Paul Einzig, ‘Why Defend Nazi Trade Methods?’ The Banker, 1941, No. 184, May 1941.

74. Miller, op. cit. p. 73.

75. Staudinger, op. cit. p. 415.

76. Balogh, op. cit. p. 15.

77. Friedrich Sarow, ‘Verrechnungszentrum Berlin,’ in WK, 1940 (19), pp. 181-90.

78. Ibid. p. 188.

79. L. Hamburger, How Nazi Germany Has Mobilized and Controlled Labor, Washington, 1940 (Brookings Institution); C. W. Guillebaud, The Social Policy of Nazi Germany, Cambridge (England), 1941.

80. Employment statistics:

I. Workers and Salaried Employees in 1000

1929	17.870
1932	12.580
1937	18.370
1938 (August)	19.518
1941 (January) estimated	22.670

II. Hours Worked in Industry

1936 = 100

Sources: Halbjahrsberichte zur Wirtschaftslage (Institut für Konjunkturforschung). 1938/39 (13), p. 119. For 1941: WS, 1941 (21), p. 100; and Statistik des In- und Auslandes (Institut fur Konjunkturforschung), 1939/40 (14), p. 39.

81. WS, 1941 (21), p. 101.

82. ‘Die Reserve an weiblicher Arbeitskraft,’ in WK, 1941 (20), pp. 148-50.

83. Secretary of State Dr. Syrup, according to WK, 1940 (19), pp. 209-11. WS, 1941 (20), p. 101, mentions 820,000 foreign workers employed outside agriculture, 300,000 alone in building construction.

84. In agriculture, the following foreign workers are employed:

Polish (not war prisoners)	469,000
Other foreigners (during 1940):
Italians	47,000
Slovaks	32,000
Jugoslavs	4,400
Dutchmen	4,650
Hungarians	2,000
Others	2,000
War prisoners from the Polish and Western campaigns (Sept. 1940)	650,000
Former Polish war prisoners (end of 1940)	180,000
	1,391,050

WS, 1941 (21), p. 100. According to International Labour Review, 1941 (43), No. 5, p. 584, the number of Italians employed in Germany will soon reach 264,000.

Workers from Belgium: 83,000 (November 1941), see Neue Internationale Rund-Schauder Arbeit, 1941 (1), p. 201.

85. Posse, Vol. I, Part II, Dienstpflicht, pp. 3-66.

86. 1 September 1939; see Posse, Vol. I, Arbeitsplatzwechsel, pp. 1-4e.

87. First executive decree, see ibid. p. 14.

88. Posse, Vol. I, Notdienst.

89. Ibid. p. 5.

90. Decree of 1 September 1939, Posse, Vol. I, Arbeitsrecht, II, pp. 1, 2.

91. Third executive decree to the war wage decree, 2 December 1939; Posse, Vol. I, Kriegslöhne, II, pp. 23-30.

92. ‘Die Bergarbeiterfrage,’ WK, 1939 (18), pp. 303-9.

93. Mölders, op. cit. Vol. I, Group 4, pp. 31, 32.

94. Posse, Vol. I, Kriegslöhne, p. 1.

95. For an analysis, cf. Franz Neumann, European Trade Unionism and Politics (Preface by H. J. Laski), New York, 1936, pp. 43-9.

96. First executive decree to the war wage decree, 16 September 1939; Posse, op. cit. pp. 6-11.

97. Decree of 4 September 1939; ibid. pp. 12-14.

98. Second executive decree to the war wage decree, 12 October 1939; ibid. pp. 14-18a.

99. 4 February 1941; see DV, 1941 (15), No. 22, p. 822.

100. Ruling of the minister of labor, 16 November 1939; Posse, op. cit. p. 21.

101. Decree of 1 September 1939 of the ministerial council for the defense of the realm; see Posse, Vol. I, Arbeitsschutz, pp. 1-13.

102. 11 September 1939; ibid. pp. 12/13.

103. 1 September 1939; Posse, Vol. I, Arbeitslosenhilfe, II, pp. 1-74.

104. The system was again simplified and changed on 16 December 1940; see International Labour Review, 1941 (43), p. 586.

105. WK, 1938 (17), p. 292.

106. Posse, Vol. I, Kriegslöhne, p. 20.

107. Ibid. pp. 21, 22.

108. Posse, Vol. I, Arbeitsschutz, pp. 15-25.

109. i.e. for metal workers, where conditions have again been worsened. If the plant operates continuously 24 hours, the three-shift system has to be replaced by the two-shift system–that is, 12 hours a day and 72 hours a week. See International Labour Review, 1941 (43), No. 5, p. 585.

110. Decree 18 September 1939; Posse, Vol. I, Kurzarbeiterunterstützung, pp. 1-29.

111. See note 80, hours worked in industry.

I. Volume of Industrial Production

1928 = 100

Sources: Institut für Konjunkturforschung, Wochenbericht, 1939, No. 8, 22 February, and Statistik des In- und Auslandes, 1939/40 (14), No. 2.

II. Share of Production Goods in the Industrial Production, in Prices of 1928

	Per cent
1929	61
1932	47
1936	63
1938	65

Source: Institut für Konjunkturforschung, Vierteljahrshefte sur Wirtschaftsforschung, 1939/40, No. 1.

112. ‘Europas Menschenrnagnet,’ in WK, 1940 (19), pp. 209-11. Cf. for a more detailed analysis of this legislation Hamburger, op. cit. pp. 14-31.

113. National income in millions of marks:

* Since 1935: including the Saar. Estimates for 1939 run into the neighborhood of 90 billion marks.

Source: WS, 1939, No. 21/22, p. 705. According to the speech of the former Secretary of State Bnnkmann (DAZ, 2 November 1938), the share of taxes, tariffs, and contributions to social-insurance institutions in the national income rose from 11.3 per cent in 1913 to 22.2 per cent in 1925 to 30.6 per cent in 1932 to 33.5 per cent in 1937. See also the survey of the financial structure up to the middle of 1939 in Economic Conditions in Germany in the Middle of the Year 1939, presented by the Reichskreditgesellschaft. Berlin. 1939, pp. 42-59; and, critical: de Wilde, op. cit. pp. 301-3, and Thomas Balogh, ‘The Economic Background in Germany,’ in International Affairs, 1939 (18), p. 231.

114. Posse, Vol. II, Lederwirtschaft, IV, p. 3.

115. Ibid. pp. 11-13.

116. Posse, Vol. II, Seife und Waschmittel, p. 1.

117. For leather; i.e., Posse, Vol. II, Schuhhandel, Lederwirtschaft iv, p. 4.

118. Posse, Vol. II, Schuhausbesserung, p. 5.

119. FZ, 12 June 1941. The average productivity of a fully mechanized model mine is asserted to be 8.93 tons per man and shift, as against 2 tons in the Ruhr district, and 2.4 in Upper Silesia, non-mechanized.

120. Barth, op. cit. p. 12.

121. DV, 1941 (15), No. 27, pp. 995-6.

122. Modern Democracy, New Haven, 1941, p. 11.

123. See Life, 29 April 1940.

124. DV, 1940 (14), pp. 1712, 1713.

125. Neumann, op. cit. p. 35.

PART THREE

THE NEW SOCIETY

(For abbreviations, see pp. 499, 500)

I: THE RULING CLAN

1.  Lederer, State of the Masses. The Threat of the Classless Society, New York, 1940.

2.  This has been pointed out by Goetz Briefs in his criticism of Lederer’s book: see his ‘Intellectual Tragedy,’ in the Commonweal, 25 October 1940.

3.  Franz Neumann, European Trade Unionism and Politics (Preface by H. J. Laski), New York, 1936 (British edition, London, 1935).

4.  On population and occupational statistics for 1933 and 1939, see WS, 1940 (20), p. 336.

5.  Ministerialrat Franz Sommer, Das Reichsjustizministerium, Berlin, 1939, pp. 54-60.

6.  On the basis of a comparison between the Handbuch für das Deutsche Reich for 1931 and 1936 (Berlin). Later editions, if they exist, were not accessible to me.

7.  FZ, 5 January 1941.

8.  See note 23.

9.  Eberhard Barth, Wesen und Aufgaben der Organisation der gewerblichen Wirtschaft, Hamburg, 1939, pp. 7, 8.

10. Nationalsozialistisches Jahrbuch, 1939.

11. According to op. cit. 1938 and 1939.

12. According to Das Deutsche Führerlexikon, 1933-1934, Berlin, 1934; and Hans Gerth, ‘The Nazi Party: Its Leadership and Composition,’ in The American Journal of Sociology, 1940 (45), pp. 517-41, esp. p. 525.

13. Gerth, op. cit. p. 525.

14. An excellent analysis of this phenomenon, H. Herrigel, ‘Politik und Idealismus,’ in Kant-Studien, 1921 (26), pp. 52-73.

15. Morris Ginsberg, ‘Stammler’s Philosophy of Law,’ in Modern Theories of Law, London, 1933, p. 51.

16. Deutsches Beamtenjahrbuch, 1939, p. 171.

17. Ministerial director Dr. Schütze in Dr. Wilhelm Frick und sein Ministerium. Aus Anlass des 60. Geburtstages des Reichs- und Preussischen Innenministers, Munich, 1937, p. 48.

18. Ibid. pp. 54-6.

19. Ibid.

20. Trans, and introduction by James K. Pollock and Alfred V. Boerner, Jr., The German Civil Service Act, The Civil Service Assembly of the United States and Canada, 1938.

21. FZ, 12 January 1941.

22. I confess having been guilty of this interpretation too. See my op. cit.

23. The analysis is based upon the following publications: a. Die Organisation der gewerblichen Wirtschaft. Verzeichnis der Mitglieder der Reichswirtschaftskammer und deren Untergliederungen, ed. Reichswirtschaftskammer, Berlin, as of August 1939. This volume furnishes the names, b. Hermann Teschenmacher (ed.), Handbuch des Aufbaus der gewerblichen Wirtschaft, Vol. I, Leipzig, 1935; Vol. II, Leipzig, 1936; Vol. III. Leipzig, 1937. These volumes supply the biographical data. c. Handbuch der deutschen Aktiengesellschaften 1938 and 1939. These books furnish the data on the corporate affiliations of the personnel of the groups and chambers.

24. R. Walther Darré, Neuadel aus Blut und Boden, new ed. 1941. Darré, Ziel und Weg der nationalsozialistischen Agrarpolitik, Munich, 1934, p. 18.

25. SP, 1939 (48), p. 405.

26. On property relations in agriculture and forestry, see SJ, 1938, p. 85.

27. DV, 1941 (15), No. 20, p. 775.

28. WS, 1939, No. 5.

29. Figures from SJ, 1938, p. 90.

30. Net return on the hectar of cultivated land in marks:

Source: Max Sering, ‘Die agrarischen Grundlagen der Sozialverfassung,’ in Probleme des Deutschen Wirtschaftslebens, Berlin and Leipzig, 1937, p. 854.

31. In 1933, there were 5,337,900 independents (including leading salaried employees, leading civil servants), among them 2.188 million in agriculture and forestry. SJ, 1938, p. 27.

32. Decree 6 July 1938 and executive decree 20 March 1939.

33. There exists a large number of books dealing with National Socialist education. The latest is George Frederick Kneller, The Educational Philosophy of National Socialism, New Haven, 1941, who takes the National Socialist ideology quite seriously. Further: I. L. Kandel, The Making of Nazis, New York, 1936; H. L. Childs (trans.) The Nazi Primer, New York, 1938; for universities: E. Y. Hartshorne, The German Universities and National Socialism, Cambridge (Mass.), 1937. Kneller’s book contains a comprehensive bibliography.

34. Alfred Rosenberg, Der deutsche Ordensstaat, Munich, 1934, p. 11.

35. FZ, 26 June 1941.

36. Deutsche Hochschulstatistik Sommer-Semester 1931, as published by Svend Riemer, ‘Sozialer Aufstieg und Klassenschichtung,’ in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 1932 (67), pp. 531-60, esp. p. 553.

37. Cf. Hartshorne, op. cit. p. 86, where only ‘slight changes’ are reported.

38. Statistics up to 1937 in the article by Charlotte Luetkens, ‘Enrolments at German Universities since 1933,’ in The Sociological Review, 1939 (31), pp. 194-209. For 1938: SJ, 1938, p. 602.

39. Social composition of the party in 1933 and 1935 (per cent):

From Gerth, op. cit. p. 527.

40. Abel, Why Hitler Came into Power, New York, 1938, p. 5.

II: THE RULED CLASSES

1.  Excellent discussion: Clifford Kirkpatrick, Nazi Germany: Its Women and Family Life, Indianapolis, New York, 1938.

2.  Juristische Wochenschrift 1937, p. 3057 (Decision 21 August 1937).

3.  Op. cit. 1937, p. 2387.

4.  Cf. Neumann, op. cit. pp. 9-34. A reliable survey of German democratic labor relations is Nathan Reich, Labour Relations in Republican Germany, New York, 1938.

5.  On works councils, see C. W. Guillebaud, The Works Council. A German Experiment in Industrial Democracy, Cambridge (England), 1928.

6.  On arbitration: Frieda Wunderlich, Labor under German Democracy. Arbitration, 1918-1933, New York, 1940.

7.  Jahrbuch der deutschen Sozialdemokratie für das Jahr 1929, Berlin, 1929, p. 187.

8.  W. Pieck in Jahrbuch für Wirtschaft, Politik und Arbeiterbewegung, Hamburg, 1923, p. 649.

9.  The text of Dr. Ley’s order for the seizure of the trade unions is contained in Willy Müller, Das soziale Leben im neuen Deutschland, Berlin, 1938, p. 51.

10. Müller, op. cit. p. 78. A good survey of the development of the Labor Front is Taylor Cole’s paper, ‘The Evolution of the German Labor Front,’ in Political Science Quarterly, 1937 (52), pp. 532-58; also Robert A. Brady, The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism, New York, 1937, pp. 127-39.

11. Brady, op. cit. pp. 147-9. Müller, op. cit. p. 129 and pp. 135-40.

12. New York Times, 14 February 1940.

13. Fraenkel, op. cit. p. 194.

14. My account is based upon the following sources: Rohlfing and Schraut (ed.), Arbeitsgesetze der Gegenwart, Berlin, 1938. Hueck, Nipperdey, Dietz, Gesetz zur Ordnung der nationalen Arbeit, Munich, 1939, 3rd ed. (the leading commentary). Rolf Dietz, Gesetz zur Ordnung der nationalen Arbeit, Munich, 1936. Arthur Nikisch, Arbeitsrecht, 2 vols., Tübingen, 1936 and 1938. Gerhard Hachtmann, Die Wandlungen des industriellen Arbeitsverhältnisses, Bleichrode, 1936. Burchhardt and others, Zehn Jahre Arbeitsrecht, Berlin and Leipzig, 1937. Werner Mansfeld, Die Ordnung der nationalen Arbeit, 3rd ed., Munich, 1934. Deutsche Sozialpolitik, report of the German Labor Front, Berlin, 1937. Entwurf eines Gesetzes über das Arbeitsverhältnis (Akademie für Deutsches Recht), Hamburg, 1938. Fritz Meystre, Allgemeine Sozialpolitik, Munich, 1934. Fritz Seldte, Sozialpolitik im Dritten Reich (report of the minister of labor), Berlin, 1935. Wolfgang Siebert, Das Arbeitsverhältnis in der Ordnung der nationalen Arbeit, Hamburg, 1935. Wolfgang Siebert, ‘Grundfragen des Arbeitsverhältnisses im Lichte der neueren Rechtsprechung,’ in Juristische Wochenschrift, 1937, pp. 1103-11. Angela Meister, Die deutsche Industriearbeiterin, Jena, 1939. Jahrbuch, 1938 and 1939 (2 vols.), ed. by the institute for the Science of Labor of the German Labor Front, Berlin, 1938, 1939. Further, a number of articles and court decisions, some of which are mentioned, and the collection of legislative material mentioned on p. 500. There are two reliable English discussions of specific problems: Taylor Cole, ‘National Socialism and the German Labor Courts,’ in The Journal of Politics, 1941 (3), pp. 169-97. Nathan Albert Pelcovitz, ‘The Social Courts of Honor of Nazi Germany,’ in Political Science Quarterly, 1938 (53), pp. 350-71.

15. Meystre, p. 42.

16. Seldte, p. 31.

17. Section 1 of the Entwurf . . .

18. Mansfeld, p. 12.

19. Dietz, p. 5.

20. Cf. the analysis of this trend in Franz Neumann, Die politische und soziale Bedeutung der arbeitsgerichtlichen Rechtsprechung, Berlin, 1929, pp. 29-33.

21. Hueck, etc., note 17 to Section 1, and note 1 before Section 26.

22. Typical is the decision of the supreme labor court of 30 October 1940 (DR 1941, p. 893), which refuses to grant wages to a tuberculous for the first three days after his illness, arguing that the new National Socialist theory of plant community must not lead to a reinterpretation of Section 616 of the civil code, which provides for the duty of the employer to pay wages if the employee cannot work for ‘a relatively insignificant time.’ According to the court this provision cannot today be put aside.

23. Hueck, etc., notes 19-22 to Section 2; Nikisch, Vol. II, p. 78.

24. Hueck, etc., note 15 to Section 5.

25. W. Woytinsky in Internationales Handwörterbuch des Gewerkschaftswesens (Ludwig Heyde, ed.), Berlin 1930-2, p. 1590. For similar results in the metal industry see: Protokoll der 11. Konferenz des Reichsbeirats der Betriebsräte und Konzernvertreter der Metallindustrie, Berlin, 1932, p. 142.

26. On the ratio of Social Democratic and Communist votes to working class population see SJ, 1932, p. 542 and p. 18.

27. Hueck, etc., Note 1 a to Section 9.

28. Posse, Vol. I, Kriegswirtsschaftsverordnung, p. 2.

29. Ehrengerichtsordnung der gewerblichen Wirtschaft, of 20 January 1937. I have used the commentary by Rolf Dietz, Ehrengerichtsordnung der gewerblichen Wirtschaft, Munich, 1937.

30. Decision 17 January 1940, DR, 1940, p. 2125.

31. ‘Soziale Ehrengerichtsbarkeit 1939,’ SP, 1940 (49), pp. 458, 459.

32. They are reported by Taylor Cole, op. cit.

33. On the activity of labor law courts, see SJ, 1938, p. 617.

34. Jahrbuch 1938, Vol. I, p. 91.

35. Ibid. p. 99.

36. Müller, op. cit. p. 176.

37. SP, 1940 (49). p. 687.

38. Cf. Brady, op. cit. pp. 151, 152; 161, 162.

39. K. Arnhold, Der Betriebsingenieur als Menschenführer, Berlin, March 2, 1937, p. 3. See Brady, op. cit., p. 164. K. Arnhold, ‘Lehrling—einst und jetzt,’ in SP, 1937 (July 23).

40. Müller, op. cit. p. 175.

41. Werner Fritzsche, Das Arbeitsethos. Der Mensch und seine Arbeit, Bad Homburg v. d. H. (publication of the Siemens-Studien-Gesellschaft für praktische Psychologie), n.d. (apparently 1938), pp. 87, 88.

42. Op. cit. p. 96.

43. In 1938, the Strength Through Joy theaters were attended by 14 million, libraries numbered 5,260, sports were attended by 22.5 million, excursions were attended by 10 million. Source: SP, 1939 (48), p. 911.

44. Used literature: Werner Mansfeld, ‘Grundsätze der Lohngestaltung,’ VP, 1938 (2), pp. 520-22; Werner Mansfeld, ‘Leistungssteigerung und Sozialpolitik,’ VP 1939 (3), pp. 656-9; Jahrbuch 1939, p. 77; Dr. Sitzler, ‘Probleme der Lohngestaltung,’ in SP, 1941 (50), pp. 3-7; G. Horedt, ‘Zur Neufestaltung der Löhne,’ in SP, 1941 (50), pp. 259-63.

45. SP. 1941 (50), p. 251.

46. Federal Supreme Labor Court of 13 September 1939 in SP, 1940 (49), p. 372.

47. Posse, Vol. I, Kriegslöhne, p. 1.

48. SJ, 1938, p. 339, for 1938 WS, 1939 (19), p. 24.

49. SJ, 1938, p. 338. For wages of women see also: Meister, op. cit, pp. 93-100. The book complains about the discrimination against female work but is based entirely on hourly tariff wages and, therefore, without value.

50. The differentiation becomes also apparent from the statistics of the weekly contributions to the invalidity insurance, and the monthly contributions to the salaried employees insurance. See: Vierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reiches, 1937, p. 97; WS, 1938, p. 652; and Maxine Yaple Sweezy, ‘Distribution of Wealth and Income under the Nazis,’ in The Review of Economic Statistics, 1939 (21), pp. 178-84.

51. Sitzler, op. cit. p. 3.

52. Horedt, op. cit.

53. Sweezy, ‘Distribution of Wealth and Income under the Nazis,’ op. cit. pp. 178-84.

54. For the figures on number of employed workers and salaried employees, see p. 508. For figures on volume of production, see p. 510. For the remaining figures, see: WS, 1939, No. 8, and 1939, Nos. 21, and 22.

55. Janelle, L’Angleterre Catholique à la Veille du Schisme, Paris, 1935, p. 185. I owe this reference to the excellent book of Franklin le van Baumer, The Early Tudor Theory of Kingship, New Haven, 1940, p. 211.

56. Harold D. Lasswell, ‘The Study and Practice of Propaganda,’ in Propaganda and Promotional Activities: An Annotated Bibliography, Minneapolis, 1935, pp. 3-27, esp. p. 3.

57. Hadamovsky, Propaganda und nationale Macht, Oldenburg, 1933.

58. Cf. the excellent analysis of Edmund Taylor, The Strategy of Terror, Boston, 1940. Taylor’s book is an outstanding example of what an American reporter can do.

59. The Rape of the Masses, New York, 1940.

60. Mein Kampf, pp. 715 and 716, and Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom, New York, 1941, p. 223.

61. Clifford Kirkpatrick, Nazi Germany: Its Women and Family Life, Indianapolis, New York, 1938, p. 32.

62. Mayer, Rechtsnormen und Kulturnormen, Breslau, 1903, p. 27.

63. The following discussion follows closely my article, ‘Der Funktionswandel des Gesetzes im Recht der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft,’ in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1937 (6) pp. 542-96, trans. by Klaus Knorr and Edward Shils under the title, ‘The Change in the Function of Law in Modern Society,’ and published in Second Year Course in the Study of Contemporary Society, 8th ed., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill., 1939. An excellent and detailed analysis of the National Socialist legal system is Ernst Fraenkel, The Dual State, trans. by E. A. Shils, E. Lowenstein,. and K. Knorr, New York, 1941. I do not agree with the theoretical analysis of Fraenkel, as can readily be seen. The material and many discussions make the book valuable.

64. Social Contract (Everyman’s Library).

65. Montesquieu, L’esprit des lois, XI, 6.

66. Cohen, Law and the Social Order, New York, 1933, p. 112.

67. Max Weber, ‘Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft,’ op. cit. p. 166.

68. Welcker, Die letzten Gründe von Recht, Staat und Strafe, Giessen, 1812, p. 31.

69. ‘La liberté consiste à ne dépendre que des lois,’ in Pensées sur le gouvernement (ed. Garnier, Paris, 1877-85), XXIII, p. 526.

70. Decision of the Federal Supreme Court in Civil Matters. Official collection, Vol. 102, p. 161.

71. An excellent analysis by Otto Kirchheimer, Grenzen der Enteignung, Berlin, 1932.

72. Juristische Wochenschrift, 1924, p. 90.

73. Carl Schmitt, Fünf Leitsätze für die Rechtspraxis, Berlin, 1933 (Rule 4). Wolfgang Siebert, Vom Wesen des Rechtsmissbrauches, Berlin, 1935, p. 15. The view has been fully adopted by the courts: i.e. Decision of the Great Senate of the Federal Supreme Court of 13 March 1936 in Juristische Wochenschrift, 1936, p. 1281.

74. Hans Frank, ZA, 1936 (4), p. 290.

75. Karl Larenz, Rechtsperson und subjektives Recht, Berlin, 1936, p. 9.

76. Carl Schmitt, ‘Der Führer schützt das Recht,’ in Deutsche Juristenzeitung, 1934 (29), p. 945.

77. Universally accepted. See Schmitt, Über die drei Arten des rechtswissenschaftlichen Denkens, Hamburg, 1934.

78. Georges Renard, L’institution: fondement d’une renovation de Vordre social, Paris, 1931.

79. Op. cit. p. 178.

80. Reinhard Höhn, Die Wandlung im staatsrechtlichen Denken, Hamburg, 1934.

81. H. Lange, Liberalismus, Nationalsozialismus und bürgerliches Recht, Tübingen, 1933. F. Wieacker, Wandlungen der Eigentumsverfassung, Hamburg, 1935, p. 23.

82. Wieacker, op. cit. p. 126.

83. Schmitt, Ueber die . . . p. 57.

84. Siegfried Grundmann, ‘Die richterliche Nachprüfung von politischen Führungsakten nach geltendem deutschen Verfassungsrecht,’ in ZS, 1940 (100), pp. 511-44, p. 513.

85. I use the convenient book by Werner Spohr, Das Recht der Schutzhaft, Berlin, 1937, and my own book, Das gesamte Pressenotrecht, Berlin, 1933, prohibited by the secret state police on the day of its publication.

86. A number of such decisions are printed in Spohr’s book, pp. 67-111; also Fraenkel, op. cit. pp. 20-32.

87. See Spohr, op. cit. p. 16.

88. The best analysis of criminal law is by Otto Kirchheimer, ‘Criminal Law in National Socialist Germany,’ in Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, 1939 (8), pp. 444-63. On the penal policy of National Socialism: Otto Kirchheimer and Georg Rusche, Punishment and Social Structure, New York, 1939, pp. 177-82.

89. Roland Freister in Das kommende deutsche Strafrecht. Allgemeiner Teil, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1935, p. 26; and Kirchheimer, ‘Criminal Law, etc.,’ p. 444.

90. The main representatives are: Georg Dahm, Grundfragen der neuen Rechtswissenschaft, Hamburg, 1935; and Friedrich Schaffstein, Politische Strafrechtswissenschaft, Hamburg, 1934. The most active opponents are: Erich Schwinge and Leopold Zimmerl, Wesensschau und konkretes Ordnungsdenken im Strafrecht, Bonn, 1937; see my review in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1937 (6), pp. 706, 707.

91. Interesting decision of 9 September 1937 (Civil Matters), in ZA, 1938, p. 25: the obligation of a municipality to continue payments to a church community cannot be ended by invoking the principles of the party program.

92. Eduard Kern, ‘Die Selbstverwaltung der Gerichte,’ in ZA, 1939, pp. 47-50.

93. Kirchheimer, op. cit. p. 452.

94. McBoyle v. U. S. 283 U. S. 25; excellent analysis by Jerome Hall, ‘Nulla Poena sine Lege,’ Yale Law Journal, 1937 (47), pp. 165-93.

95. Karl Engert (vice president of the People’s Court, Berlin), ‘Stellung und Aufgaben des Volksgerichtshofes,’ in DR, 1939, p. 485. Also interesting: Lämmle (member of the People’s Court, Berlin), ‘Die Rechtsstellung der Volksgerichtshofs in der deutschen Rechtspflege,’ in Juristische Wochenschrift, 1938, pp. 2569-72.

96. Decision of 6 December 1939 in ZA, 1940, p. 48.

97. Survey by Edmund Mezger, ‘Kriegsstrafrecht und Kriegsstrafverfahrensrecht,’ in ZA, 1940, pp. 59-62.

98. Decision of 27 August 1940, ZA, 1940, p. 376.

99. Alfred Kayser, ‘Schärfster Kampf dem Gewaltverbrecher,’ in DR, 1940, p. 345.

100. 1 February 1940, DR, 1940, p. 441.

101. Georg Dahm, ‘Richtermacht und Gerichtsverfassung im Strafrecht,’ in ZS, 1941 (101), pp. 287-308, esp. p. 292.

BEHEMOTH

1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, Molesworth ed., Vol. III, Part II, ch. 21, p. 199. The following remarks on the political thought of National Socialism are based upon my unpublished manuscript, The Governance of the Rule of Law, written in 1936, available at the University of London, pp. 561.

2.  Burke, Works, Vol. III, p. 63.

3.  de Maistre, Oeuvres completes, Lyon, 1891-2, Vol. II, p. 167.

4.  Ibid. Vol. I, p. 367.

5.  Bonald, Mélanges Littéraires . . . Vol. II, Paris, 1854, p. 410.

6.  Ibid. ‘Pensées sur divers sujets,’ in Du Divorce, Paris, 1858, p. 360.

7.  Stahl, Uber die gegenwärtigen Parteien in Staat und Kirche, Berlin, 1883, p. 23.

8.  On Stahl cf.: Herbert Marcuse, Reason and Revolution, Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory, New York, 1941, pp. 360-73.

9.  Haller, Restauration der Staatswissenschaft, first published in 1816.

10. Philosophy of Right (transl. S. W. Dyde), London, 1896, sec. 258, Note (p. 244).

11. Note 8.

12. Diuturna, Milano, 1924, pp. 374-7 (‘Relativismo e Fascismo’). (The Diuturna are a selection of leading articles written by Mussolini and edited by V. Morello.)

13. Mussolini in the Making, Boston and New York, 1938.

14. Bertrand Russell, ‘The Revolt against Reason,’ in the Political Quarterly, 1935, p. 5. Max Horkheimer, ‘Zum Rationalismusstreit in der gegenwärtigen Philosophie,’ in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1934 (3), p. 1.

15. Dissertations and Discussions, 3rd ed., Vol. I, p. 332.

16. Ernst Krieck, Nationalpolitische Erziehung, 14th ed., Leipzig, 1933, p. 68.

17. This phenomenon has been observed by Carlton J. H. Hays, ‘The Novelty of Totalitarianism in the History of Western Civilization,’ in Symposium on the Totalitarian State (American Philosophical Society), Philadelphia, 1940, pp. 91-102.

18. Harold D. Lasswell, ‘The Garrison State,’ in The American Journal of Sociology, 1941. (46), pp. 455-68, esp. p. 462.

19. Compare the excellent analysis of Max Horkheimer, ‘Egoismus und Freiheitsbewegung,’ in Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 1936 (5), pp. 161-231.

20. Ernst Fraenkel, The Dual State, New York, 1941.

21. Höhn, Die Wandlung im staatsrechtlichen Denken, Hamburg, 1934.

22. Neesse, Führergewalt, Tübingen, 1940.

23. Roger Diener, ‘Reichsproblem und Hegemonie,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 551-66.

24. Neesse, op. cit. p. 54.

25. ‘Der Reichsbegriff im Völkerrecht,’ in Deutsches Recht, 1939, pp. 341-4.

26. Lasswell, op. cit.

27. Max Werner, Battle for the World, New York, 1941, p. 12; Tom Wintringham, New Ways of War, London, 1940.

28. Carl Dreher, ‘Why Hitler Wins,’ in Harper’s Magazine, October, 1940.

29. Shirer, Berlin Diary, New York, 1941.

30. Cf. the excellent analysis ‘War Aims in War Propaganda’ in Propaganda Analysis, 1941 (Vol. IV), No. 27, March 1941.