1. Lively, A House Unlocked,113ff.; Lively, Oleander, Jacaranda, 28, 31.
2. Kipling, “The Glory of the Garden,” in Complete Verse, 735–36.
3. Quest-Ritson, English Garden Abroad, preface (n.p.).
1. Lutgendorf, “All in the (Raghu) Family,” 224; Knighton, Elihu Jan’s Story; Goody, Culture of Flowers, 339ff.
2. Russell, Prince of Wales’s Tour, 116, 120, 518; Dufferin, Our Viceregal Life, 2:18; Wilson, Letters from India, 414; Lawrence, Indian Embers, 171–72. Cf. Postans, Western India, 1:109.
3. Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, 1:121, 126–27, 138–39; Goody, 181.
4. E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 1:126–27; cf. Parkes, Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 43.
5. Srinivas, Landscapes of Urban Memory,142.
6. Cuthell, My Garden,135; Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 232–36.
7. Goody, 332–34, 342; Desmond, European Discovery, 25; Arthur, Mission to Mysore, 91; Parkes [Parks], Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 126–27; Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 177, 231–32, chap. 11; D. Lentz, “Botanical Symbolism,” 52. For a comprehensive study of the lotus in Indian culture, see Malhotra, Lotus. Malhotra shows how the lotus has been adopted by all the major religions in India, including Christianity in Goa and Kerala, but the book’s forewords also underscore the politicization of the symbol. Most recently, the Bahai Temple, completed in 1986, takes the form of a lotus blossom. The brilliant animated film by Nina Paley, Sita Sings the Blues (2008), provides a gentle spoof of the ubiquity of the lotus motif in Indian life.
8. Desmond, 25; Goody, 327ff.
9. Goody, 327ff.
10. Tulsidas, Rámáyana of Tulsi Dás, chaupái 231.
11. Sinha, Landscapes in India, 58ff.
12. Ali, Courtly Culture and Political Life, passim, quotations on 77, 147–48, 236.
13. Forbes, 2:231–32; Dyson, Various Universe, 184; Husain, Scent in the Islamic Garden, 180–81.
14. Babur, Baburnama, 335; Grover, Islamic Architecture, 122–23; Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 235.
15. Heber, Narrative of a Journey, 3:234–35.
16. Villiers-Stuart, “Horticultural Club Lecture on Indian Garden Craft,” 337; Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 255ff.; Babur, 344ff., 363ff.; Forbes, 1:152–53; Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, 1:568.
17. Wilson, 32; Marquess of Hastings, quoted in Dyson, 338; Forbes, 2:230; cf. E. C. Archer, Tours in Upper India, 1:204; Parkes, 275; Nugent, Journal, 1:317–18; Dyson, 81, 338, 341. See Dyson, 110–11, for an overview of European reactions to Indian music and dancing, and her Appendix B for selections from journals and memoirs on the subject.
18. Parkes [Parks], Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 110, 254–55, 317–18; Knighton, 18, 23–24; Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 234; Bowe, “Indian Gardening Tradition,” 194.
19. Desmond, 24–25; Uglow, Little History of British Gardening, 24, 34ff.; Scott-James and Lancaster, Pleasure Garden, 18, 20; Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, “General Prologue,” line 668; Goody, chap. 8 passim. Cf. Hamlet, 4.5.145: “There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance . . .”
20. Quoted in F. Jekyll, Gertrude Jekyll, 141; Forbes, 1:332; William Hodges, quoted in Archer and Lightbown, India Observed, 77; T. Bacon, Orientalist, 62; Dyson, 89; Elwood, Narrative of a Journey, 1:387.
21. Havell, “Indian Gardens,” 213; Elwood, 1:369; Kindersley quoted in Dyson, 63; Forbes, 1:60; Shields, Birds of Passage, 216; Graham, Journal, 21–22. Cf. Maitland, Letters from Madras, 25.
22. Jekyll quoted in Jennifer Potter, review of David E. Cooper, A Philosophy of Gardens, Times Literary Supplement, 22 and 29 Dec. 2006, 35.
23. Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 234. Cf. Endersby, Imperial Nature, 304–5.
24. P. Coats, Flowers in History, 266; Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class, 133–35.
25. Harrison, Gardens, x.
CHAPTER 1. FROM GARDEN HOUSE TO BUNGALOW,
NABOBS TO HEAVEN-BORN
1. Babur, Baburnama, 364.
2. Ibid., 353.
3. For a wide-ranging and readable history of the Company, see Keay, Honourable Company.
4. Ibid., 96; Koch, “Influence of the Jesuit Missions” and Koch, “Jahangir and the Angels”; Dye, “Artists for the Emperor,” 109ff. Hawkins’s embassy was also accompanied by two musicians, Lancelot Canning, a virginal player (and distant kinsman of a later viceroy), and Robert Trully, a cornetist. The latter was enthusiastically received, converted to Islam, and performed at courts throughout India. Virginals were, alas, too chaste for Mughal tastes and Canning is said to have “dyed of conceit.”
5. The quotation is from Gleig, Memoirs, 1:25.
6. Keay, Honourable Company, 394–95; Keay, India Discovered, 19.
7. Tipu’s fame abroad was such that he served as a bogeyman to frighten a generation of English children into good behavior; he has been immortalized in a mechanical tiger devouring a red-coated British soldier, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
8. Judd, Lion and the Tiger, 33; Keay, Honourable Company, 363, 397; Philip Mason, introduction to Beames, Memoirs of a Bengal Civilian, iii.
9. G. O. Trevelyan, Competition Wallah, 113.
10. Beames, 252; Judith Brown, “India,” 423–27.
11. Quoted without identification in Sharp, Good-bye India, 3.
12. “The Song of the Cities,” in Complete Verse, 174.
13. Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 156; Spear, Nabobs, 5.
14. Forbes, Oriental Memoirs, 2:479–80.
15. E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 1:186.
16. G. C. Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches, 1:8.
17. Eden, Up the Country, 122; Emily Eden in H. Brown, Sahibs, 37; Bence-Jones, Palaces, 138.
18. Shields, Birds of Passage, 127.
19. Keay, Honourable Company, 170.
20. In Fisher, Visions of Mughal India, 118–19.
21. Lawson, Memories of Madras, 241.
22. Ibid., 264; Maitland, Letters from Madras, 17; Mrs. Bowring, in L. B. Bowring, Eastern Experiences, 368.
23. Neild, “Colonial Urbanism”; Hare, Story of Two Noble Lives, 2:38.
24. Love, Vestiges of Old Madras, 1:281ff., 420, 553n2.
25. Charles Lockyer, quoted in Spear, 4–5.
26. Ibid., 17; Love, 1:476, 2:614, 617; Lawson, 240.
27. Dyson, Various Universe, 134; Thomas Williamson, East India Vade Mecum, 1:137–38; Morris, Stones of Empire, 49–50; Valentia, Voyages and Travels, 1:337; Neild, 224ff.; Lewandowski, Migration and Ethnicity, 50.
28. I. Butler, Viceroy’s Wife, 126–27.
29. Valentia, 1:336. Cf. Maria Graham’s similar comment: Lawson, 264.
30. Steevens, In India, 292.
31. E. Roberts, 2:220; Fay, Original Letters, 170. Cf. Lawson, 294, 295; and Orlich, Travels in India, 2:216–17.
32. Dyson, 133.
33. Hare, 2:37.
34. Hickey, Memoirs, 108, 110; Valentia, 1:337.
35. Bence-Jones, 28.
36. Ibid., 28–30; Love, 2:462, 3:525–26; Jasanoff, Edge of Empire, 190ff.; Nilsson, European Architecture in India, 107–8, 121; Lawson, 136; Shields, 186, 302, and passim.
37. R. Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 331ff.
38. “Raj Bhavan, Chennai,” www.tnrajbhavan.gov.in/History-Chennai.htm.
39. Gleig, Sir Thomas Munro, 2:296–97, 300–302.
40. Dufferin, Our Viceregal Life, 2:94.
41. Lord Irwin to Lord Halifax, quoted in A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development, 167.
42. Dalrymple, White Mughals, xxxviii, 90–93, 218, 255–62; Bence-Jones, 82.
43. Kipling, “Madras,” Complete Verse, 174.
44. Dalrymple, White Mughals; Ghosh, Sex and the Family, introduction; Judith Brown, “India,” 425–26. It has been estimated that there were only eighty-five European women and children in Madras in 1771; Colley, Ordeal of Elizabeth Marsh, 164.
45. Graham, Journal, 133, 136.
46. Kling, Partner in Empire, 46–47. Cf. Duncan, Simple Adventures, 164.
47. Dufferin, 1:13; cf. Bence-Jones, 32.
48. E. Roberts, 1:56–57.
49. Quoted in Hilton Brown, Sahibs, 73.
50. Forbes, 1:476–77.
51. Quoted in Hilton Brown, Sahibs, 74.
52. Parkes [Parks], Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 212, 245.
53. D. Arnold, Tropics and the Traveling Gaze, 60.
54. Ibid., 123.
55. Pott, Old Bungalows, 14–16; Lady Amherst, Journal, 18 Aug. 1827.
56. On the bungalow and British communities in India generally, see esp. A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development; A. D. King, Bungalow, chap. 1; Davies, Splendours of the Raj; Edwardes, Bound to Exile; D. Kincaid, British Social Life; Morris, Stones of Empire; G. O. Trevelyan, Competition Wallah, 34–35; and Pott, passim.
57. Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 75.
58. Davies, 77, 104.
59. Lear, Indian Journal, 71–72.
60. Orlich, 2:85–86, 119, 126; Taylor, Visit to India, 108; E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 1:37–38; Cuthell, My Garden, 86; Hooker, Himalayan Journals, 64; D. Arnold, 62; Woodrow, Hints on Gardening, preface; Churchill quoted in Sassoon, Siegfried’s Journey, 119.
61. Diver, Englishwoman in India, 69–70; [C. Lang], English Bride in India, 84.
62. Gilmour, Ruling Caste, 173; R. Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 232, 405–6.
63. Dufferin, 2:227. Cf. E. A. King, Diary of a Civilian’s Wife, 1:95; Gordon Cumming, In the Himalayas, 229–30; Sharp, 17; Cuthell, 71; Edwardes, 153.
64. Pogson, Indian Gardening, 18ff.; Temple-Wright, Flowers and Gardens in India, 11–12; Harler, Garden in the Plains, 3, 145.
65. See, in addition to Woodrow, Pogson, Temple-Wright, and Harler: Speede, New Indian Gardener; Firminger, Manual of Gardening; Grindal, Everyday Gardening in India; Percy-Lancaster, Gardening in India; D. Kincaid, 161. Quotation from Harler, 16–17.
66. Cuthell, 11.
67. Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 56.
68. Grindal, 129. He did allow that pots had their uses in flower shows and in hill stations where there was so little land for gardens (130–31).
69. Steel and Gardiner, Complete Indian Housekeeper, 129, 146.
70. Eden, Up the Country.
71. Roche, Childhood in India, 39.
72. Wilson, Letters from India, 135.
73. I. Butler, 82. Cf. Dufferin, 2:217; R. Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 103; MacMillan, Women of the Raj, 88; Steevens, In India.
74. Harler, 220, 275.
75. Godden and Godden, Two Under the Indian Sun, 115.
76. Stanley, “Gardening in India.”
77. E. Roberts, 2:33; Orlich, 2:44; Lear, 48; Allen, Plain Tales, 77; Duncan, Simple Adventures, 165; Monica Campbell-Martin quoted in MacMillan, 153.
78. I. Macfarlane, Daughters of the Empire, xxxv, 137, 232; Barr, Dust in the Balance, 127.
79. Cuthell, 12, 14ff., 23, 25, 69–70, 219, and passim.
80. Ibid., 5; E. Roberts, 2:134.
81. E. Roberts, 1:107–9; E. C. Archer, Tours in Upper India, 2:114–15.
82. R. Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 7; Stanley, 392.
83. Dufferin, 1:19; Grindal, 4–5; Temple-Wright, 8–9.
84. Forbes, 1:476; Quest-Ritson, English Garden Abroad, 15.
85. Cuthell, 11.
86. Percy-Lancaster, 20–21; Grindal, 4–5, 57ff.; Harler, 203; Temple-Wright, 3, 8–9, 11–12.
87. Steel and Gardiner, 142.
88. Keay, Honourable Company, 76.
89. Tindall, City of Gold, 87; Pal and Dehejia, From Merchants to Emperors, 198; Sidhwa, introduction to City of Sin and Splendour, xii; Mehta, “A House Divided,” 118, and Khanna, “I Went Back,” 110–11; Bence-Jones, 173.
90. Quraeshi, Lahore, 31–33.
91. Tindall, 200.
92. E. A. King, 1:266, 267.
93. D. Kincaid, 245; D. Arnold, 123; Godden and Godden, 20–21.
94. Steevens, 255.
95. D. Kincaid, 270.
96. Taylor, 124.
97. Valentia, 1:81.
98. Tytler, Englishwoman in India, 82.
99. Parks, Wanderings, 313; Villiers-Stuart, 171. In the house, furniture legs were set in pots of water and indigo used to ward ants off of textiles.
100. Allen, Kipling Sahib, 84.
101. Steel, Garden of Fidelity, 189–90; Wilson, 6; Barr, 58; Elwood, Narrative of a Journey, 1:383, 385–86; Harler, 8.
102. MacMillan, 151.
103. Steel, Garden of Fidelity, 73, 108–9
104. Stanley; Godden and Godden, 21; Cuthell, passim.
105. E.g., Harler, 4.
106. Ibid., 17–18.
107. Forbes, 1:477–79, 2:207; Dyson, 182–98.
108. E. Roberts, 2:124–35.
109. Parks, Wanderings of a Pilgrim, 1:57, 308–19; Dyson, 294–95. Dalrymple’s edition abridges this section of the journal. He also prefers to spell her surname “Parkes.” In the notes I have used “Parks” when referring to the Wanderings, “Parkes” when referring to Dalrymple’s edition.
110. Lady Amherst, Journal, 30 Sept. 1827, 2 Dec. 1827. For Lady Canning, see chapter 2.
111. Desmond, European Discovery, 296–97; Dyson, 186; Lawson, Private Life of Warren Hastings, 146–47, 166; Gleig, Memoirs, 3:362–63.
112. M. Archer, Early Views of India, 230–34; Desmond, European Discovery, 296–97.
113. Cuthell, 204; Forbes, 1:21; Parks, Wanderings, 1:318; Maitland, 27; Steevens, 253; cf. T. Bacon, Orientalist, 62.
114. Steel, On the Face of the Waters, 15, 22–23, 25, 27, 52, 57.
115. Graham, 174; Maitland, 47, 58, and passim; Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 88; Morris, Farewell the Trumpets, 401; MacMillan, 13; Scott-James and Lancaster, Pleasure Garden, 9; Elwood, 1:365; Cuthell, 119, 135; I. Macfarlane, 66, 69; Edwardes, 69.
116. Deborah Dring, quoted in Allen, Plain Tales, 88–89; A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development, 142; BBC, The Lost World of the Raj (three-part documentary series, 2007).
117. Dyson, 250–51, and passim; Fenton, Journal, 37–38, 50; Lear, Indian Journal, 37; Sharp, Good-bye India, 15.
118. Lear, Indian Journal, 43, 61–69, 98, 105, 107, 134, 145, and passim. Cf. J. Lang, Wanderings in India, 286, for another traveler “in search of the picturesque.”
119. Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan, 45. Roberts quoted in Dyson, 114; Arthur, Mission to Mysore, 56, 185; Kipling, “In Springtime,” in Complete Verse, 77.
CHAPTER 2. CA LCUTTA AND THE GARDENS
OF BARRACKPORE
1. Ironically, the chain reaction that led to the large-scale uprising had begun in the Barrackpore cantonment with Mangal Pandey’s attack on his British commander.
2. Desmond, European Discovery, 52.
3. Cotton, Calcutta,Old and New, 7. It was also said that after his wife’s death Charnock sacrificed a cock annually at her mausoleum; Sharp, Good-bye India, 208.
4. In P. T. Nair, Calcutta in the Eighteenth Century, 4.
5. Ibid., 5.
6. Desmond, 52.
7. P. T. Nair, 220.
8. E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 2:205.
9. Cotton, 72.
10. Desmond, 52.
11. Cotton, 73, 255.
12. Spear, Nabobs, 42.
13. Huggins, Sketches in India, 4.
14. P. T. Nair, 191.
15. Edwardes, Warren Hastings, 53, 144; D. Kincaid, British Social Life, 110.
16. Quoted in Cotton, 278.
17. Ibid., 80–81.
18. Kindersley in P. T. nair, 145.
19. Valentia, Voyages and Travels, 1:192.
20. G. O. Trevelyan, Competition Wallah, 169.
21. Moorhouse, India Britannica, 4.
22. Mitchell, quoted ibid., 99.
23. Twining quoted ibid., 276.
24. Fenton, Journal, 198; J. Roberts, “English Gardens in India,” 118–19.
25. Gibbes, Hartly House, 59–60, quotation from the poet Isaac Bickerstaff. Hartly House is fiction, but Gibbes’s son had served (and died) in India, and she was well briefed on Anglo-Indian life in Calcutta.
26. Heber, 1:23.
27. Eden, Letters from India, 2:87.
28. Desmond, 273.
29. Hare, Story of Two Noble Lives, 2:375; Russell, Diary, 1:198.
30. Lear, Indian Journal, 51.
31. They would also fall prey to English racial bias: in the early twentieth century certain parts of the garden were off-limits to Indians. Chaudhuri, Autobiography of an Unknown Indian, 384.
32. Steevens, In India, 66–71.
33. Moorhouse, Calcutta, 150. And to top it off, as William Russell, a Times correspondent covering the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, noted approvingly, one could count on a “glorious tub” at day’s end in the Bengal Club; Russell, Diary, 1:99.
34. Heber, 3:238.
35. Eden, Letters from India, 2:89.
36. Ibid., 1:205–6.
37. In Chaudhury and Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta: People and Empire, 133–34; Hare, 2:375; Valentia, 1:36.
38. Desmond, 273–74.
39. E. Roberts, 1:19.
40. Cotton, 20.
41. Sophia Goldborne [Phebe Gibbes], quoted in Dutta, Calcutta, 51.
42. Heber, 3:235.
43. E. Roberts, 2:217–18; Eden, Letters from India, 1:215–16, 234; Kling, Partner in Empire, 46–47; Dutta, 90–94; Orlich, Travels in India, 2:186.
44. Tagore, My Reminiscences, 16–17.
45. According to Chaudhuri, the garden Tagore describes was typical of city gardens of Calcutta’s élite in the early decades of the twentieth century (395).
46. Moorhouse, Calcutta, 6–7; Maya Jasanoff, Edge of Empire, 316–18.
47. R. Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 196; Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 148; Hermann Kisch, Young Victorian, 159, 205–6. A tigress escaped from the menagerie, swam across the Hughli to the Botanical Garden, mauled an employee, and then went into hiding in the dense undergrowth. It was finally discovered and shot.
48. Kipling, Wee Willie Winkie, City of the Dreadful Night, American Notes, 252–55.
49. E. Arnold, India Revisited, 244.
50. Heber, 1:23.
51. Steevens, 67.
52. Dutta, 66.
53. Curzon, British Government in India, 1:235.
54. Russell, 1:100.
55. Hare, 2:51.
56. Steevens, 69. Russell had noticed this trend as early as 1860 (1:189).
57. Cotton, 220.
58. Ibid., 196.
59. Ibid., 264; Duncan, Simple Adventures, 257.
60. E. Arnold, 251.
61. Duncan, 308.
62. Cotton, 196.
63. Steevens, 67.
64. Curzon, 2:11.
65. Ronaldshay, Life of Lord Curzon, 2:258.
66. Curzon, 1:91.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid., 1:60.
69. Ibid., 1:64.
70. Valentia, 1:191–92.
71. Heber, 3:238.
72. Allen, Glimpse, 24.
73. Lutyens, Lyttons in India, 31; Bence-Jones, Palaces, 142.
74. Curzon, 1:81; quotation from Lady Canning in Hare, 2:74.
75. Graham, Journal, 136.
76. Curzon, 1:73.
77. Ibid., 1:85.
78. Ibid.
79. Emily Eden, quoted ibid., 1:84.
80. Losty, Calcutta, 95–99, figs. 55, 56, 57.
81. Eden, Letters from India, 2:137.
82. Hare, 2:65–66.
83. Steevens, 67.
84. E. Roberts, 2:107.
85. Curzon, 1:84.
86. Ibid., 1:73, 81; Chaudhuri, 278; E. Arnold, 245; Curzon, 1:84–88.
87. “Tea not being known to Manu, was non-caste: Hindus and Muslims could sit together at a table here and sip tea which they could not do together anywhere else. By some curious convention the food as well as the tea seemed to be exempt from caste protocol.” Spear and Spear, India Remembered, 43–44.
88. Curzon, 1:85.
89. Ibid., 1:141; Edwardes, 182; Tobin, “English Garden Conversation Piece.” I think Tobin misinterprets the painting, however, by failing to recognize Hastings’s very individual relationship to the Indian landscape.
90. Curzon, 1:139–45. Hastings House was said to be one of the few haunted houses in India.
91. Ibid., 1:77.
92. Ibid., 1:8, 2:4–16.
93. Graham, 142, 144; Pope, “Epistle IV,” 138–39; Colchester quoted in Curzon, 2:18; “Naufragus,” quoted in Curzon, 2:12; Graham, quoted in Curzon, 2:10.
94. Eden, Letters from India, 1:95.
95. Cotton, 208.
96. Heber’s sketch depicts Lady Amherst taking her morning airing. He identifies the large tree in the center as a peepal sacred to Siva but with an evil spirit believed to be lurking under every leaf. In the foreground left is an aloe, on the right a cotton tree whose flowers resemble roses when in bloom. In the background is a banyan to the right of a stand of bamboo. Heber, 3:287–88; Curzon, 2:1; Lady Amherst, Journal, 1823–24, 1:147.
97. E. Roberts, 2:205–8.
98. Curzon, 2:41–42.
99. Lady Amherst, Journal, 2 Dec. 1827; Desmond, 273.
100. E. Roberts, 2:205–10. Oddly enough, Roberts insists that elsewhere it was “infra dig” to take any exercise on foot, although this is contradicted by many other sources.
101. Desmond, 272.
102. Lady Amherst, Journal, 2 Dec. 1827; cf. ibid., 9 Feb. 1827.
103. Barr, Memsahibs, 10–11; Eden, 1:70, 2:52. Eden was aided by John Gibson, a gardener sent out by the Duke of Devonshire to gather exotics from the Himalayas. While waiting for the monsoon to end, Gibson helped lay out the garden at Barrackpore; see A. Coats, Quest for Plants, 154.
104. Tytler, Englishwoman in India, 14–15.
105. Hare, 2:60–63; Heber, 3:229.
106. Hare, 2:16–17, 2:63, 2:99; letter to Queen Victoria, quoted in Allen, Glimpse, 17; It is ironic that Lady Canning relied on an abundance of imported chintz to give Barrackpore the feel of an “English country-house” when chintz was originally an Indian textile, subsequently produced industrially in England.
107. Hare, 2:124, 2:289–90; www.highcliffecastle.co.uk.
108. Hare, 2:121.
109. Ibid., 3:54, 2:289, 3:55, 3:54.
110. Ibid., 2:121.
111. Ibid., 2:488.
112. Ibid., 2:431.
113. Quoted in Allen, Glimpse, 102.
114. Hare, 2:80.
115. Allen, Glimpse, 118; Surtees, Charlotte Canning, 265–66.
116. Allen, Glimpse, 39, 155–56.
117. Quoted in Allen, Glimpse, 156; Hare, 3:64 (Lord Canning to Viscount Sydney.
118. 15 Sept. 1861, quoted in Allen, Glimpse, 156, 158.
119. Quoted in Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 180.
120. Ibid., 161.
121. G. O. Trevelyan, Competition Wallah, 190. After Charlotte’s death, her friend Emily Bayley, with whom she had passed some of her happiest days at Barrackpore, prepared a leather-bound memorial volume, now deposited in the British Library. It includes flowers removed from Lady Canning’s grave as well as press notices of her death and funeral, photographs, letters, sketches, and a fold-out map of her travels in India.
122. Lutyens, 90.
123. Dufferin, Our Viceregal Life, 1:23, 28–29.
124. Goradia, Lord Curzon, 146–47.
125. Curzon, 2:35–36.
126. Steevens, 68.
127. Curzon, 2:45.
128. Ibid., 2:42.
CHAPTER 3. OVER THE HILLS AND FAR AWAY
1. Quoted without attribution in Cuthell, My Garden, 251.
2. Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 247.
3. Gordon Cumming, In the Himalayas, vi.
4. Parkes [Parks], Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 119–20.
5. Heber, Narrative of a Journey, 2:98; Postans, Western India, 1:13; Tindall, City of Gold, 116.
6. Kipling, Kim, 52.
7. Quoted in Archer and Lightbown, India Observed, 108.
8. Kennedy, Magic Mountains, chap. 2 passim, 118. See also D. Arnold, Colonizing the Body.
9. MacMillan, Women of the Raj, 182.
10. Parkes, 327.
11. E. C. Archer, Tours in Upper India, 1:210.
12. Hooker, Himalayan Journals, 81.
13. Parkes, 328.
14. Westlake, Introduction to the Hill Stations, 64.
15. Kanwar, Imperial Simla, 71. Val Prinsep, commissioned to paint the Durbar of 1877, complained that the Order of Precedence made no mention of artists, leaving him in social limbo; see Buck, Simla Past and Present, 168.
16. Wright, Hill Stations, 249.
17. Sinha, Landscapes in India, 3; Bhasin, Simla, 2.
18. Wright, 112, 115.
19. Stewart, Places in Between, 161.
20. Kipling, Kim, 279.
21. Jahangir, Jahangirnama, 332; V. S. Naipaul, Area of Darkness, 97.
22. Crowe et al., Gardens of Mughal India, 74–120; Bernier, 275.
23. Moore, Lalla Rookh, 299.
24. Quoted in Steel, Garden of Fidelity, 95.
25. Morris, Stones of Empire, 54.
26. Quoted in Pubby, Simla Then and Now, 15.
27. The changing responses to mountains in the English literary, theological, and philosophical traditions are explored in great detail in M. H. Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory.
28. Lady Amherst, Journal, 31 Mar. 1827.
29. Parkes, 328. As Wordsworth suggested in his Guide to the Lakes, travelers had come to anticipate the experience of the sublime; see M. H. Nicolson, 372.
30. Quoted in Dyson, Various Universe, 152.
31. E. C. Archer, 1:244–45.
32. Kennedy, 46–47; Parkes, 327–28; Lady Amherst, Journal, vol. 6 passim; Dufferin, Our Viceregal Life, 2:30; Lear quoted in Dehejia, Impossible Picturesqueness, 24
33. Eden, Up the Country, 125, 127.
34. Quoted in Pubby, 20–21.
35. Lutyens, Lyttons in India, 42.
36. Lady Amherst, Journal, 1 Apr. 1827; Eden, 31, 38, 248; Westlake, 22.
37. Bernier, 359–60.
38. Pubby, 42; Lutyens, 48; Tunzelmann, Indian Summer, 161–62.
39. Kennedy, 14; Kanwar, 40.
40. Eden, xv–xvi, 248; Westlake, 21–22.
41. Cuthell, 284; Gilmour, Ruling Caste, 227.
42. Archer quoted in Bhasin, 27.
43. Spear, Twilight of the Mughuls, 167–68.
44. A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development, 167. Cf. E. C. Archer, 1:207–8, 336.
45. G. C. Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches, 1:229–30; J. Lang, Wanderings in India, 302; Skinner, Excursions in India, 1:217, 315; Hooker, 74. As a trained scientist, Hooker noted, however, that even the familiar flowers differed from their English cousins and were accompanied by various tropical growths.
46. Eden, Up the Country, 164.
47. Hooker, 328, 365; Waddell, Among the Himalayas, 18. Cf. I. Butler, Viceroy’s Wife, 41.
48. Parkes, 327, 330, 339. Cf. E. A. King, Diary of a Civilian’s Wife, 2:57.
49. Gordon Cumming, In the Himalayas, 312–13. Cf. Eden, Up the Country, 125.
50. Hare, Story of Two Noble Lives, 3:106, 110–11; Lear, Indian Journal, 122–23, 133.
51. Lloyd, Narrative of a Journey, 146, 192.
52. Harrop, Thacker’s New Guide, 164–65.
53. Eden, Up the Country, 129, 139, 164–65.
54. Dufferin, 1:168, 171–72, 181–82.
55. Mason, Guardians, 194–95.
56. D. Kincaid, British Social Life, 235.
57. Buck, 23–24.
58. Kaye, Sun in the Morning, 26. Cf. Gordon Cumming, 300.
59. E. A. King, 57–58.
60. Duncan, Other Side of the Latch, 8, 44.
61. Ibid., passim; quotations 7–8, 46, 92–93, 168, 176, 97, 199. Lady Anne Wilson and her husband had the good fortune to occupy Duncan’s house and garden just a few years later; see Wilson, Letters from India, 320–21.
62. Duncan, 230–31.
63. Buck, 14.
64. Eden, 169; Kennedy, 93. Elsewhere Eden puts the European population at only 105 (294).
65. Buck, 54–55, 91; Morris, Stones of Empire, 54; Harrop, 34. The ballroom was decorated in eastern Moorish style by Lockwood Kipling, father of Rudyard.
66. Buck, 117–18; Edwardes, 178; Keay, India: A History, 457–58.
67. Eden, Up the Country, 128–29, 180.
68. Bhasin, Simla, 36, 55; Bhasin, Viceregal Lodge, 11; Lutyens, 38–39.
69. Dufferin, 1:131
70. Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 143; Halifax, Fullness of Days, 129.
71. Bhasin, Viceregal Lodge, 14–15; Dufferin, 2:179. To this day, women are conspicuous as laborers at building sites.
72. Dufferin, 2:288, 297.
73. Allen, Kipling Sahib, 268–69.
74. Dufferin, 2:294–96.
75. Bhasin, Simla, 56; Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 143.
76. Bence-Jones, Palaces, 142. Quotation from Audrey Harris in Bhasin, Simla, 58.
77. Bhasin, Simla, 57.
78. Bence-Jones, Palaces, 188–89.
79. Buck, 48, 53; Barr and Desmond, Simla, 39.
80. Hardinge, Indian Years, 28; Harrop, 50.
81. I. Butler, 41–42; Kanwar, 225, 234; Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan, 265–66.
82. Buck, 48, 174; Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 244; Bhasin, Simla, 59–60, 183; I. Butler, 41.
83. Bence-Jones, Palaces, 142–43; Wilson, 322–33; Sharp, Good-bye India, 134.
84. Wilson, 323; Buck, 63–64, 181–82; quoted in A. Hodges, Lord Kitchener, 175–76. Kitchener’s mansion was destroyed to make room for a hotel. This later burned down, but in 2000 a new luxury hotel opened, claiming to remain “true to the spirit of the original bungalow in its external aspect” and building methods; see www.oberoihotels.com/oberoi_wildflowerhall/travel_guide/discover.asp.
85. Dufferin, 1:189–90; Bhasin, Simla, 75, 185; Buck, 176; Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 181; Bence-Jones, Palaces, 142–43.
86. Allen, Glimpse, 38–39, 155–61.
87. Gordon Cumming, 484, 505, 515.
88. I. Butler, 28.
89. Hardinge, 26; Gordon-Cumming, 484.
90. Dehejia, 38.
91. Parks, 331, 338.
92. Dufferin, 2:154–55.
93. Kennedy, 126–27; the BBC documentary Lost World of the Raj, part 3; Bond and Saili, Mussoorie and Landour, 29.
94. Waddell, Among the Himalayas, 41.
95. Dufferin, 1:131.
96. The quotation is from Burton, Goa and the Blue Mountains, 277. Ooty is now officially known as Udhagamandalam.
97. Ibid., 353.
98. Quoted in H. Brown, Sahibs, 27.
99. Panter-Downes, Ooty Preserved, 74–75; Gleig, Sir Thomas Munro, 2:305. Panter-Downes and Price, Ootacamund, provide the most extensive histories of Ootacamund, but see also Baikie, Observations on the Neilgherries, for an exhaustive early account, and Burton for a more jaundiced view. For an illustration of the Strobilanthes callosa by an Indian botanical artist, see Noltie, Dapuri Drawings, pl. 59. The plant has also been labeled Strobilanthus kunthiansus.
100. Baikie, 5; Burton, 283.
101. Baikie, 72–73; Price, 123; Hare, 2:437.
102. Panter-Downes, 31.
103. Price, 42, 44, 75, 258–59; Pal and Dehejia, From Merchants to Emperors, 188.
104. Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 16.
105. Baikie, 121–22; Hare, 2:448; Price, 79, 84, 496; Molony, “Indian Hill Station,” 627–38; Panter-Downes, 79.
106. Price, 102–3, 112–19, 130–33, 327–28, 303–4; Surtees, Charlotte Canning, 260; Panter-Downes, 31, 62, 73–74, 108; Kenny, “Climate, Race, and Imperial Authority,” 704–5.
107. Surtees, 257–60; Hare, 2:442; Allen, 99–100.
108. Campbell, Old Forest Ranger, 70.
109. Lear, 193–97; Dehejia, 45–47, 105.
110. Molony, 639.
111. Gleig, 2:306.
112. Price, 68–69, 126, 253, 475–76; quotation, 495–96.
113. Burton, 277–78; Price, 68–69.
114. Burton, 201.
115. Ibid., 278.
116. Kennedy, chap. 3 passim.
117. Ibid., 175.
118. Mitchell, Indian Hill Station, 127–28; Price, 521; Panter-Downes, 107–8; Bond and Saili, 22; Wright, 26–27.
119. Wilson, Letters from India, 50.
120. Lawrence, Indian Embers, 290.
121. Pubby, 7, 88.
122. Eden, 293–94.
123. The quotation is from Kipling, “The Return,” Complete Verse, 482: “If England was what England seems, / An’ not the England of our dreams, / But only putty, brass, an’ paint, / ’Ow quick we’d drop ’er! But she ain’t.”
124. Morris, “Hill Stations,” 51; Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 315.
125. Kesevan, Looking Through Glass, 274.
126. Lloyd, 141.
127. Duncan, 258.
128. Scott, Towers of Silence, 207, 283, and passim.
129. Dharma vira, foreword to Hasan, Bangalore Through the Centuries, vii; Randhawa et al., Famous Gardens of India, 1; Bowring, Eastern Experiences, 9.
130. Shields, Birds of Passage, 142–43; Michaud, History of Mysore, 19; Arthur, Mission to Mysore, 140.
131. Buchanan, Journey from Madras.
132. Shields, 147.
133. Davies, Splendours of the Raj, 107–8; Pott, Old Bungalows,; Jayapal, Bangalore, 59ff.; Lear, Indian Journal, 176; cf. Hare, 2: 427. Both Davies and Pott include illustrations. Pott also discusses a number of individual houses, with interviews with their present owners.
134. Maitland, 138–39, 142.
135. I. Butler, 124; Pott, 48 and passim; Jayapal, 58; Davies, 106ff.; Lakshmi Reddy Bloom, personal communication, 29 May 2010.
136. Srinivas, Landscapes of Urban Memory, 57; Hasan, 214; Bowring, 9.
137. Jayapal, 184–85, 189ff.; www.indtravel.com/bang/places.html.
138. See http://nitpu3.nic.in/rajbhavan/thebuilding/gardens/htm; http://nitpu3.nic.in/rajbhavan/thebuilding/gardens/htm.
139. Quoted in Bhatt, Resorts of the Raj, 83.
140. J. Nair, Promise of the Metropolis, 61; Bowe, “Indian Gardening Tradition,” n40.
141. Bowring, 451; cf. 14, 371.
142. Cuthell, 75; Parks, 358–61; Mir Taqi Mir, quoted in Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 65: “What matters it, O breeze, / If now has come the spring / When I have lost them both / The garden and my nest?” Eden quoted in H. Brown, Sahibs, 241.
143. Beames, Memoirs of a Bengal Civilian, 225–28.
144. John N. Hawkins to Arthur Hawkins, 28 Aug. 1929, and photographs from 1922 and 1934. I am grateful to Arthur Hawkins’s grandson for sharing these with me.
145. Most of these houses and gardens have long since fallen to the jackhammer or been put to other uses, but a glimpse of how they once looked can be had on a website created by “Ron, the Bangalore Walla” and devoted to Richmond Town quarter. www.geocities.com/Athens/olympus/5024/roads.htm; Pott, passim.
1. Jayapal, Bangalore, 26, 174–75; Buchanan, Journey from Madras 1:46–47.
2. Dalrymple, White Mughals, 60.
3. Bowring, Eastern Experiences, 56. Lady Henrietta Clive thought the paintings “most viley done . . . without the least regard to perspective,” but it was probably the reality of Baillie’s defeat that most offended her; see Birds of Passage, 181.
4. E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 2:223.
5. Michaud, History of Mysore, 83. See also Jasanoff, Edge of Empire, 158ff.
6. On Haidar Ali, Tipu Sultan, and the Lal Bagh, see, in addition to Jayapal and Michaud, randhawa et al., Famous Gardens of India, 2ff.; Forrest, Tiger of Mysore, 101, 255; Hasan, Bangalore Through the Centuries, 212; Drayton, Nature’s Government, 46; M. D. L. T., History of Hyder Shah, 48, 74.
7. Desmond, Kew, xiii; Shields, 180–81.
8. Lear, Indian Journal, 177.
9. On the history of botanical gardens, see, in addition, to Drayton, Desmond, Kew; Desmond, European Discovery of the Indian Flora; Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion; McCracken, Gardens of Empire; and Carlton and Carlton, Significance of Gardening in British India, chap. 4.
10. Drayton, 14–19; Philip H. Oswald, review of Charlie Jarvis, Order out of Chaos: Linnaean Plant Names and their Types, Times Literary Supplement, 14 Mar. 2008, 24. Classification criteria are still being refined: see Geldhill, Names of Plants. Some biologists are turning away from binomial nomenclature entirely, using DNA barcoding instead; Elizabeth Farnsworth, personal communication, 15 Oct. 2008. See also “DNA Barcoding All Our flora and fauna,” Telegraph (UK), 21 oct. 2006.
11. McCracken, viii, 2; Drayton, 72–74.
12. Desmond, Kew, 32ff.; Drayton, 42–43.
13. Desmond, Kew, chap. 6; Drayton, 67.
14. Desmond, Kew, chap. 6, quotation on 98; Drayton, 94–95. The Bounty’s mutinous crew threw the breadfruit trees into the sea, but Bligh was able to make a successful transfer of the plants a few years later; see McCracken, 102.
15. Darwin, Botanic Garden, part I, canto IV, line 561.
16. Drayton, 49–50, 108, 115.
17. Desmond, Kew, 101, 145.
18. Ibid., quotation on 141; Drayton, chap 5.
19. Desmond, Kew, 132, 141ff.; Drayton, 134–35, 153–69.
20. Drayton, chaps. 5–6; Desmond, Kew, xiii–xiv, chaps. 9–10, and passim; Endersby, Imperial Nature; Brockway, 6–7; quotation from McCracken, viii. Drayton takes issue with Desmond and Brockway over how clear William Hooker’s imperial ambitions for Kew were when he first took over (171–72).
21. Drayton, 156–57.
22. According to Maria Graham, in Lawson, Memories of Madras, 265.
23. Quoted in Brockway, 75; see also Grove, Green Imperialism, 335ff., 403–4, Drayton, 117–18.
24. Desmond, European Discovery, 57–58; Drayton, 115ff.
25. Cotton, Calcutta, Old and New, 786–89.
26. Keay, India Discovered, 275; Desmond, European Discovery, 59–60; Desmond, Kew, 98–100, 117ff.; Kumar, Science and the Raj, 36ff.
27. Valentia, Voyages and Travels,1:39; Cf. Graham, Journal, 145–46.
28. Milton, Paradise Lost, bk. 9, lines 1099ff.
29. Heber, Narrative of a Journey, 1:52–54; Lady Amherst, Journal, 3 Dec. 1824, 9 Feb. 1827; Desmond, European Discovery, 84; Uglow, Little History of British Gardening, 210. The giant baobab fell victim to the great cyclone of 1867 with a crash that made the earth tremble for a distance of hundreds of yards; see McCracken, 100–101.
30. Cotton, 295; http://nitpu3.nic.in/rajbhavan/thebuilding/gardens/htm; Wulf and Gieben-Gamal, This Other Eden, 233.
31. Heber, 1:52.
32. Cotton, 789–90; Desmond, Kew, 399
33. Desmond, European Discovery, 59–60, 90–91, 106–7, 281
34. Valentia, 1:39; Hooker, Himalayan Journals, 464–67; Desmond, European Discovery, 95–96.
35. Hooker, 466–68; Axelby, “Calcutta Botanic Garden.”
36. Desmond, Kew, 181–83, 221–22, 228–30, 369;
37. William Morris, Hopes and Fears for Art, quoted in Robinson, English Flower Garden, 3.
38. Desmond, European Discovery, 101.
39. Hare, Story of Two Noble Lives, 2:116, 145. Cf. Desmond, Kew, 134–35, 229–30.
40. Desmond, European Discovery, 111.
41. G. C. Mundy, Pen and Pencil Sketches, 1:127–28.
42. Desmond, European Discovery, 111, 220. See also Schiebinger and Swan, Colonial Botany, on early European respect for indigenous botanical knowledge; the quotation is from ibid., 121.
43. Desmond, Kew, 214–15; Carlton and Carlton, 66–67.
44. Marlene Dietrich’s ABC, quoted in Macfarlane and Macfarlane, Green Gold, 167.
45. Griffiths, History of the Indian Tea Industry, 25–26, 30–32. Wesley’s indictment is contained in A Letter to a Friend concerning Tea (1748).
46. Isaac D’Israeli, quoted in Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 27–30.
47. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 80; Gillian Darley, review of Tim Richardson, The Arcadian Friends, Times Literary Supplement, 23 Nov. 2007, 23.
48. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 69–75, 99.
49. For a comprehensive history, see Booth, Opium.
50. T. Bacon, Orientalist, 51–52; Heber, 1:349.
51. “In an Opium Factory,” in City of the Dreadful Night, 325–35. Kipling’s essay dates from about 1891.
52. Quoted ibid., 334.
53. Booth, 109–10; quotation from Macfarlane, 112.
54. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 33–38, 100–101, quotation on 131; Griffiths, chap. 4 and 110.
55. For a good description of tea growing and processing see www.alanmacfarlane.com/tea/Tea_manufacture.pdf, with accompanying film at www.alanmacfarlane.com/tea/av.html. The processing is now highly mechanized, although tea is still picked entirely by hand.
56. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 135–39; Griffiths, 50–51.
57. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 195.
58. Griffiths, 119, 124, 143; Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 189–201. But see Thomas Fuller, “A Tea from the Jungle Enriches a Placid Village,” New York Times, 21 Apr. 2008, A9, for an account of the revival of interest in wild tea in China.
59. Macfarlane and Macfarlane, 115–16.
60. This story is well told in Collingham, Curry, chap. 8.
61. A. Coats, Quest for Plants,172.
62. Ibid., 145; Desmond, European Discovery, vi.
63. A. Coats, 143–45; Desmond, European Discovery, 39–40; Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 11.
64. Lord Clive was the son of Robert Clive, victor of Plassey. The elder Clive had a pet tortoise, which may have been the one on view in the Alipore Zoo, Kolkata, until its death in 2006; www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article744557.ece .
65. Buchanan, 1:xii–xiii, 47. Cf. Michaud, 195.
66. M. Archer, “India and Natural History”; Keay, India Discovered, 267–68, 275.
67. A. Coats, 157.
68. D. Arnold, Tropics and the Traveling Gaze, 67.
69. Desmond, Kew, chap. 8 passim, 212; D. Arnold, 62–63. After midcentury, Kew stopped sending out its own collectors, relying on its international network, other botanical gardens, and private nurserymen; see Desmond, Kew, 212.
70. Quoted in A. Coats, Flowers and their Histories, ix.
71. See, for example, A. Coats, Quest for Plants, passim.
72. Desmond, European Discovery, provides an excellent chapter on botanizing in the Himalayas. See also Keay, When Men and Mountains Meet, 179–80.
73. M. Archer, Company Paintings, 97–98, with illustration; Gleig, Memoirs, 1:411–13; Desmond, European Discovery, 123.
74. Desmond, European Discovery, 138ff.; Mabey, Flowers of Kew, 140–43; Endersby, 121ff.
75. Hadfield, Gardening in Britain, 17.
76. Elliott, Victorian Gardens, 195; Desmond, Kew, 208; Hadfield, 230.
77. Tom Williamson, Polite Landscapes, 138.
78. Desmond, European Discovery, 318–20.
79. Saunders, Picturing Plants, 7, 141; Desmond, European Discovery, 88–90; Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 14; Kumar, 38.
80. Quoted in Endersby, 294–95.
81. Saunders, passim. See also Endersby, 118–36, for a detailed discussion of debates about botanical illustration.
82. Jahangir, Jahangirnama, 333.
83. Stronge, Painting for the Mughal Emperor, chap. 1 passim, 100–103, 172–73; Dye, “Artists for the Emperor,” 104; Desmond, European Discovery, 144–47.
84. Mildred Archer is the preeminent scholar of Indian painting for the East India Company and other British patrons; see esp. her introduction to Company Paintings. The “hybrid vigour” quote is from Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 23. See also Saunders, 12–14, 80. In Thanjavur (Tanjur) they also made natural history drawings of birds and animals from his menagerie for the ruler, Serfogi; see M. Archer, Company Paintings, 44.
85. Maria Graham, 145–46; Valentia, 1:356; Mabey, 88–91; Desmond, European Discovery, 65, 68, 144, 148–51.
86. On Wight, see esp. Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, but also Desmond, European Discovery, 116–18.
87. Noltie is paraphrasing Paul Klee’s Pedagogical Sketchbook in his comment about Rungiah’s treatment of the stem. Noltie has published two hundred drawings by Rungiah and Govindoo in Robert Wight and the Botanical Drawings of Rungiah & Govindoo.
88. The phrase “double game” is Noltie’s (Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 24).
89. North, Vision of Eden, chapters on Ceylon and India, passim.
90. Quotations are from Mukherjee, Sir William Jones, iv; Desmond, European Discovery, 53. See also Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones; A. M. Jones, Works of Sir William Jones; Shore, Memoirs; Cannon, Life and Mind of Oriental Jones; Cannon, Oriental Jones; Desmond, European Discovery, 52–57; Head, “Divine Flower Power Recorded.”
91. Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones, 2:813, 848.
92. Jones, Works, 1:6.
93. Shore, 251.
94. Quoted from Asiatick Researches 4 in Desmond, European Discovery, 53.
95. Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones, 2:743.
96. Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones, 2:755, 783–84; Shore, 309.
97. Thomas Twining, in Sykes, Calcutta Through British Eyes, 125.
98. Shore, 354–55.
99. Jones, Works, 2:91.
100. Quoted in Dyson, Various Universe, 183. It is more likely that the madhavi was a variety of jasmine.
101. Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones, 2:771; “The Design of a Treatise on the Plants of India,” repr. in Jones, Works, 2:2–8. In the same vein, Lady Henrietta Clive emphasized in a letter to her husband that trees she was sending to him had “Malabar” names attached and that care should be taken to preserve them; see Shields, 243.
102. Jones Collection, 025-036/18: XXIX. See Head, Catalogue of Paintings, and Head, “Divine Flower Power Recorded,” for reproductions of botanical illustrations by Lady Jones and artists commissioned by William Jones.
103. Arberry, Asiatic Jones, 22; Cannon, Letters of Sir William Jones, 2:902, 897.
104. Cannon, Life and Mind, 352; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asoka_tree. The tree has been reclassified as Saraca asoca; see glossary under Sita-Ashok.
105. Thomas Martyn, introduction to a translation of Rousseau’s On the Elements of Botany Addressed to Ladies (1785), quoted in Mabey, 37.
106. M. Archer, Company Drawings, 97.
107. A. Coats, Quest for Plants, 151; M. Archer, Company Paintings, 134; Desmond, European Discovery, 88; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherstia. Specimens of the golden pheasant can also be seen in the Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling. See Lady Sarah Amherst’s drawings of Government House, Calcutta, reproduced in Losty, Calcutta.
108. Shteir, Cultivating Women, 192–93; Matthew, “South-Indian Botanical Collectors.”
109. Allen, Glimpse, 11, 27.
110. Beatrix Stanley’s watercolors are in the collection of her grandson, Sir Andrew Buchanan, Hodsock Priory, Nottinghamshire, UK.
111. On North see her autobiographical works, Recollections of a Happy Life and Some Further Recollections of a Happy Life, abridged in Vision of Eden. See also Middleton, Victorian Lady Travellers, chap. 2.
112. Desmond, European Discovery, 106–7.
113. Bowring, Eastern Experiences, 385; www.horticulture.kar.nic.in/lalbagh.htm; Lear, Indian Journal, 176–77, 15 Aug. 1774; Desmond, European Discovery, 106–7.
114. For a beautifully illustrated survey of botanical gardens, see Hyams and MacQuilty, Great Botanical Gardens.
115. Colquhoun, Thing in Disguise, 26.
116. Quoted in Gorer, Growth of Gardens, 191.
117. Noltie, Dapuri Drawings, 19 and passim.
118. Robert Hay, Permanent Under-Secretary at the Colonial Office, quoted in Desmond, Kew, 123.
119. Drayton, 24, fig. 7, and chap. 2 passim. Satpal Sangwan has given this enterprise the appropriate label “plant colonialism”; cited in Kumar, 37.
120. Mabey, 50, 52; Endersby, 135.
121. Noltie, Robert Wight and the Illustration of Indian Botany, 13–14; Mabey, 141, 179–80.
122. A. Amherst, History of Gardening in England, 288–89.
123. Desmond, Kew, 344.
124. Grove, 453–54 and chap. 8 passim. See also noltie, Dapuri Drawings, 28ff., about the work of Alexander Gibson as forester for the Bombay Presidency.
125. Hooker, 2:279–80.
1. On the history of Lucknow, see especially the works of Llewellyn-Jones: A Fatal Friendship; Engaging Scoundrels; and “Lucknow, City of Dreams,” as well as two beautifully illustrated books edited by Llewellyn-Jones: Lucknow: City of Illusion and Lucknow: Then and Now. See also Sharar, Lucknow: The Last Phase of an Oriental Culture, and Oldenburg, Making of Colonial Lucknow, both reprinted in Lucknow Omnibus as is Llewellyn-Jones’s Fatal Friendship.
2. Tennyson, “The Defence of Lucknow.”
3. Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 125; Russell, Prince of Wales’s Tour, 350ff.; Morris, Pax Britannica, 415. There is an enormous literature on the Uprising of 1857, but it is well summarized in the introduction to Llewellyn-Jones’s Great Uprising.
4. Cuthell, My Garden, 74.
5. Eden, Up the Country, 294; Huggins, Sketches in India, 79–80.
6. Taylor, Visit to India, 110.
7. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 108–9; Oldenburg, 23; Pouchepadass, “Lucknow Besieged,” 96–98.
8. Llewellyn-Jones, “Lucknow, City of Dreams,” passim, and Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 140ff.; David, “La Martinière,” 222; Rawdon-Hastings, Private Journal of the Marquess of Hastings, 1:196; E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 1:198; Russell, Diary, 1:251.
9. Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 153–54, 212; Llewellyn-Jones, “Lucknow, City of Dreams,” 63; Das, “‘Country Houses’ of Lucknow,” 180ff.; Rawdon-Hastings, 1:201; Cuthell, 165.
10. Llewellyn-Jones, “Lucknow, City of Dreams,” 49, 60–63, and passim; Eden, 62. Lord Valentia was probably the first to invoke the Arabian Nights apropos of Lucknow; Voyages and Travels, 1:132.
11. Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 24–25, 163; Cuthell, 54; Das, 173ff.; E. C. Archer, Tours in Upper India, 1:23.
12. Quoted in Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 21.
13. Ibid., 21–25; Fatal Friendship, 210–12; Gordon, “Royal Palaces,” 33, 40; Rawdon-Hastings, 1:197; Russell, Diary, 1:338.
14. Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 1, 21–22.
15. Oldenburg, 9; Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, ix; Murray’s Handbook, 449; Sharar, 29.
16. Russell, Diary, 1:287–88, 337, 345; Pal and Dehejia, From Merchants to Emperors, 80–81.
17. Russell, Diary, 1:356; Oldenburg, chap. 2 passim; Llewellyn-Jones, Lucknow: City of Illusion, 19; Llewellyn-Jones, Great Uprising, 172; Gordon, 30–87.
18. Russell, Prince of Wales’s Tour, 355; Murray’s Handbook, map, 449.
19. Oldenburg, 56, 137, 244–45; J. G. Farrell, “Indian Diary,” in Hill Station, 205.
20. Dufferin, Our Viceregal Life, 2:59; Oldenburg, 56–57.
21. Cuthell, 25–26, 86, 122, 164
22. Gordon, fig. 36; Alkazi, “Husainabad Complex,” figs. 80, 81; Cuthell, 203–4.
23. Murray’s Handbook, 457.
24. Cuthell, 86–87, 184; Gordon Cumming, In the Himalayas, 115; Llewellyn-Jones, Engaging Scoundrels, 152–53; Llewellyn-Jones, City of Illusion, 198; and Llewellyn-Jones, Great Uprising, 117.
25. Dufferin, 1:269–70, 2:59; Lear, Indian Journal, 41–42; Cuthell, 184.
26. Chelkowski, “Monumental Grief,” 101ff.
27. Ward, Our Bones Are Scattered, 550–53; Llewellyn-Jones, Great Uprising, 157–58, 184–85.
28. Gordon Cumming, 100–101, 517–19; Lear, 43; Yalland, Boxwallahs, 2ff.; Llewellyn-Jones, Great Uprising, 180, 184–86. See also www.indianholiday.com/tourist-attractions/uttar-pradesh/kanpur.
29. The quote is from Llewellyn-Jones, Fatal Friendship, 238.
CHAPTER 6. THE TAJ AND THE RAJ
1. Curzon, letter to his wife, quoted in Gilmour, Curzon, 321. The most thorough study of Curzon’s restorations in India is Linstrum, “Sacred Past.” Linstrum devotes only two short paragraphs to the Taj gardens, however.
2. 1 Jan. 1888, quoted in Ronaldshay, Life of Lord Curzon, 1:64, 128.
3. Curzon Notebooks, 3:53, 62–63, Curzon Papers (hereafter CP), Mss Eur F111/104.
4. Quoted in Gilmour, 69.
5. ASI, Annual Progress, North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 2.
6. Ancient Monuments Bill, 1904, CP, Mss Eur F111/487, repr. in Raleigh, Lord Curzon in India, 198–99.
7. MacDonnell to Curzon, 29 July 1900, CP, Mss Eur F111/620.
8. Ancient Monuments Bill, 1904, repr. in Raleigh, 198.
9. See Metcalf, “Past and Present.”
10. 7 April 1900, CP. Mss Eur 111/621.
11. Hogarth, “George Nathaniel Curzon,” 514.
12. Dec. 1899, CP, Mss Eur F111/620 (emphasis added).
13. 29 July 1900, CP, Mss Eur F111/620, with enclosed sketch; 18 Aug. 1900, CP, Mss Eur F111/620.
14. 29 Aug. 1900, CP, Mss Eur F111/620.
15. 18 April 1904, CP, Mss Eur F111/620.
16. Quoted in Wescoat and Wolschke-Bulmahn, “Sources, Places, repr.sentations and Prospects,” 20.
17. Twining, Travels in India, 191.
18. Parkes, Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 190, 191.
19. Lear, Indian Journal, 78.
20. Pal et al., Romance of the Taj Mahal, 199; M. Archer, Early Views of India, pl. 4 and fig. 28.
21. Daniell and Daniell, Views of the Taje Mahal, 4.
22. North, Vision of Eden, 127.
23. CP, BL 430/5(23).
24. Cf. Metcalf, Imperial Vision. 47.
25. E. Arnold, India Revisited, 211.
26. There is an excellent body of literature on Mughal gardens. See, in addition to Villiers-Stuart and Wescoat and Wolschke-Bulmahn: Koch, Complete Taj Mahal; Crowe et al., Gardens of Mughal India; Wescoat, “Picturing an Early Mughal Garden”; and Koch, “Mughal Waterfront Garden.”
27. Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 295–96.
28. P. Mundy, Travels, 2:214–15.
29. Crowe et al, 20.
30. Khan, Zain Khan’s Tabaqat-i-Baburi, 159.
31. Jahangir, Jahangirnama, 24.
32. Fazl, Akbarnama, 81, 83–87.
33. Manrique, Travels, 2:163.
34. See Thackston, “Mughal Gardens in Persian Poetry,” 242–43.
35. Leoshko, “Mausoleum for an Empress,” 58.
36. Murray’s Handbook, 270.
37. Leoshko, 56.
38. Parkes, 190.
39. Hunt, Afterlife of Gardens, 40–41.
40. Havell, “Indian Gardens,” 214.
41. Eraly, Mughal Throne, 30.
42. Badaoni, quoted in Welch, “Gardens That Babur Did Not Like,” 60.
43. Gascoigne, Great Moghuls, 43.
44. Babur, Baburnama, 359.
45. Wescoat, “Gardens of Invention,” 106; T. Lentz, “Memory and Ideology,” 57.
46. Wescoat, “Gardens of Invention,” 108.
47. See Ruggles, “Humayun’s Tomb and Garden,” 178.
48. Koch, “Hierarchical Principles of Shah-Jahani Painting,” 16.
49. Koch, “Mughal Palace Gardens,” 212.
50. Crowe et al., 44–45, 73.
51. I am very grateful for ideas about the Taj and Mughal kingship to conversations with Ajay Sinha and to his unpublished manuscript, “Taj Mahal and Mughal Kingship.”
52. Jellicoe, “Mughal Garden,” 122.
53. Quoted in Begley, “Myth of the Taj Mahal,” 13.
54. These inscriptions have led Wayne Begley to read the Taj complex as a symbolic depiction of the Day of Judgment, with the tomb as the heavenly Throne of God; ibid., 7–37. Begley’s interpretation has not been universally accepted, however; see, e.g., Necipoğlu’s review “The Taj Mahal.” Sinha also has reservations, suggesting that Begley’s reading may be somewhat anachronistic, imposing a more threatening and apocalyptic nineteenth-century interpretation on the Taj’s Qur’anic inscriptions; “Myth of the Taj Mahal,” 8–10, and personal communication, May 25, 2005.
55. The legend that Shah Jahan intended to construct a tomb for himself of black marble across the river from the Taj Mahal has generally been discounted; see, e.g., Moynihan, “Reflections of Paradise,” 19. Necipoğlu, on the other hand, argues that this may well have been Shah Jahan’s intent but it was thwarted by Aurangzeb’s usurpation of power and imprisonment of his father for the last seven years of his life; “The Taj Mahal,” 343.
56. Moynihan, 31. Moynihan reproduces the Daniells’ aquatint in color, 32.
57. Ibid., 32.
58. Ibid., 32-38; Fritz and Michell, “Archaeology of the Garden,” 79.
59. Arberry, Koran. This is apparently the translation quoted in Moynihan, 39, but with line breaks differing from Arberry’s text.
60. Chirol, Fifty Years, 230.
61. Curzon to Brodrick, 17 Dec. 1903, CP, Mss Eur F111/620, 137; Spear, “Bentinck and the Taj,” 184. Ironically, Bentinck was soon charged with trying to dismember and sell off the marble building materials of the Taj; ibid. and Koch, “Lost Colonnade.”
62. On the budget see Ancient Monuments Bill, 1904, repr. in Raleigh, 199; Dilks, Curzon in India, 246.
63. Ancient Monuments Bill, 1904, repr. in Raleigh, 198.
64. Ibid., repr. Raleigh, 196.
65. 7 Feb. 1900, Speech to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, CP, Mss Eur 112/487, repr. in Raleigh, 188–89.
66. See, e.g., Rousselet, L’Inde des Rajahs; Rousselet visited the Taj in 1866. Commenting on the misfortunes that had befallen Agra at the hands of the Jats and Mahrattas and repeating the canard about Lord Bentinck wanting to sell off the building materials, he declared, “Today, the Queen’s government better understands its duty; all the damage has been repaired, the monument has been cleaned and restored, and the gardens, enriched with rare plants, are maintained as in the old days of Shah Jahan” (317; my translation). Cf. T. Bacon, Orientalist, 129; Emerson, “On the Taj Mahal,” 202; Robert ogden Tyler quoted in Carroll, Taj Mahal, 146; Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 3:595; Gurner, “Lord Hastings and the Monuments of Agra,” 148; Orlich, Travels in India, 2:48.
67. 23 April 1902, CP, Mss Eur F111/620, 136; emphasis added.
68. Baker, Architecture and Personalities, 80.
69. Curzon Notebooks, 3:53, CP.
70. Rawdon-Hastings, Private Journal of the Marquess of Hastings, 2:10; cf. Metcalf, “Past and Present,” 23; and Metcalf, Imperial Vision, 16ff.
71. Russell, Diary, 284; cf. the photographer Samuel Bourne’s similar experience in 1863: see Pal and Dehejia, From Merchants to Emperors,198.
72. A decade before Curzon, British officials argued about how much the Taj gardens should be pruned of their excess vegetation. Ultimately the argument prevailed that the view of the tomb should gradually unfold itself to the viewer; otherwise “there is nothing left to the imagination”; see Desmond, European Discovery, 262. If anything, the present-day lawns are more manicured than they were in Curzon’s time. There have, however, been plans to restore the gardens to something more like their original design, that is, with more flowers and denser and more varied plantings of trees, although the staff have expressed fears that if fruit trees are replanted, they may be taken over as hiding places by local children and lovers; see Edensor, Tourists at the Taj, 190.
73. Colquhoun, Thing in Disguise, 33; Thacker, History of Gardens, 230–33.
74. See the National Trust guidebook Kedleston Hall, and www.peakdistrictinformation. com/visits/kedleston.php.
75. A. E. P. Griessen, Remarks.
76. J. Malcolm to Viceroy, 18 Jan. 1902, 128–29, CP, Mss Eur 111/621. In the same letter Malcolm recommended taking on a Dutch gardener.
77. Hogarth, 517.
78. E. Roberts et al., Hindostan; Sahni, Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath; Byrom, “India,” 270; www.sacred-destinations.com/india/sarnath.htm; Beames, Memoirs of a Bengal Civilian, 127.
79. On Khajuraho see esp. Deva, Khajuraho; Griffin, Famous Monuments of Central India; B. R. Seth, Khajuraho in Pictures; Zannas, Khajuraho; Text and Photos. There is also a useful website: http://reference.indianetzone.com/1/history.htm.
80. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections, 2:32; Kisch, Young Victorian, 184; Russell, Prince of Wales’s Tour, 393–94; Parkes, 192–94; Eden, Up the Country, 362–63.
81. Villiers-Stuart, 84–85.
82. Ibid., x, 66.
83. Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 222.
84. Colquhoun, 59.
85. “Orders Passed by the Viceroy on his Visit to Agra on 15th & 16th December 1903,” 141–42, CP, Mss Eur F111/621.
86. Fritz and Michell, 79
87. Linstrum, 1.
88. Quoted in H. Nicolson, Curzon, 14.
89. Curzon, British Government in India, 1:177, 201. Curzon describes the project at length in this work. See also Metcalf, Imperial Vision, 202–10; Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, 244; Edwardes, High Noon of Empire, 127.
90. Curzon, 1:201.
91. Hodgson, “Memoir on the Illahee Guz,” 56.
1. Parkes, Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 322–23.
2. The quotation is from Spear, Delhi: A Historical Sketch, 1.
3. Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 123–24; Spear, Delhi: A Historical Sketch, 16–18.
4. Lal, “Flora and Fauna of Delhi,” 97.
5. Spear and Spear, India Remembered, 6.
6. Quoted in K. Singh, Delhi, 15
7. Arab source and Mutahar quoted ibid., 21–22; Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 3:345–46.
8. Battuta, Travels, 3:622, 739, The practice of strewing fresh flowers on Muslim graves morning and evening was still common in Arcot in 1800; see Shields, Birds of Passage, 111.
9. Babur, Baburnama, 327, 335, 353, 364.
10. Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, 110–11; Welch, “Gardens That Babur Did Not Like,” 73, 83, 92. Welch’s claim that the Mughals drew on the sophisticated hydraulic engineering of the Delhi sultans for their own gardens seems less convincing, since Babur implies that the use of waterwheels to create running water was a novelty in the gardens he and his nobles laid out in Agra: Welch, 83; Babur, 364. Questionable, too, is his claim that the Mughals also inherited from the Delhi sultans “an ancient ritual attitude toward water acquired from pre-Islamic India that had points of contact with the Muslim requirement for ablution before prayer” (83).
11. Moynihan, “But What a Pleasure,” 117–18.
12. Crowe et al., Gardens of Mughal India, 44.
13. Koch, Complete Taj Mahal, 29–30.
14. Ibid., 22, 28, 30–31
15. A poetic self-description—the Mughals were inclined toward poetic expression— quoted in Schimmel, Empire of the Great Mughals, 30.
16. Mughal (and non-Mughal) rulers relied heavily on astrologers, but Humayun carried the practice to extremes.
17. One text does describe a rather fantastical plan Humayun created for a floating water palace consisting of four barges that would symbolize paradise, accompanied by other barges planted with fruit trees and flowering plants; see Leoshko, “Mausoleum for an Empress,” 73.
18. Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 285; Spear, Delhi: A Historical Sketch, 24–26.
19. Gupta, “Indomitable City,” 34.
20. Spear, Delhi: A Historical Sketch, 27.
21. Ehlers and Krafft, Shahjahanabad/Old Delhi, 17. The authors include a large reconstruction of a map of Shahjahanabad in the India Office dating to c. 1850.
22. Mukherji, “Changing Perception of Space,” 46.
23. Bernier, 242–43.
24. Mukherji, Red Fort, 26.
25. Ibid., 100; Koch, Complete Taj Mahal, 137.
26. Koch, “Mughal Waterfront Garden,” 144. The quotation is from Kanbo, poet and self-appointed historian of Shah Jahan’s reign.
27. Bernier, 267. As a physician, Bernier sometimes was called upon to treat women of the imperial household, but in those cases he had to cover his face and head with a Kashmir shawl and be guided by a palace eunuch.
28. Hearn, Seven Cities of Delhi, 160.
29. Mukherji, “Changing Perception of Space,” 59.
30. Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 119.
31. For descriptions of these gardens as they were originally designed see Mukherji, Red Fort, passim; Koch, “Mughal Palace Gardens”; Blake, “Khanah Bagh,” 177–80; Villiers-Stuart, 118–22.
32. Blake, “Khanah Bagh,” 177. Quotation from an early source, in Lehrman, Earthly Paradise, 157.
33. Blake, “Khanah Bagh,” 178. The total cost of the entire palace complex was 6 million rupees, with 600,000 going for construction of the Hayat Baksh; see Blake, Shahjahanabad, 43.
34. Lehrman, 157; Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 34.
35. Muhammad Waris, quoted in Koch, “Mughal Palace Gardens,” 227.
36. Ibid., 224–28.
37. The lines are from the fourteenth-century poet Amir Khusrau, probably describing the capital of his day. The same inscription is found also in Jahangir’s Shalimar Garden in Kashmir; see Blake, Shahjahanabad, 44n79. The designation was not unique, therefore, to Shah Jahan’s creation.
38. On Versailles, see esp. Thompson, Sun King’s Garden; Thacker, History of Gardens, 152ff.
39. Koch, Complete Taj Mahal, 24.
40. Blake, “Khanah Bagh,” 186; Ehlers and Krafft, 19.
41. By the time of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, the zenana seems to have become eminently porous, with wives and concubines slipping in and out for frequent trysts: “Whatever his other qualities, running the domestic arrangements of the Red Fort was clearly not one of Zafar’s talents, at least in his old age.” Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 45.
42. Bernier, 283. See also Crowe et al., 146–47.
43. Bernier accompanied the emperor so that he was an eyewitness to the mind-boggling retinue (358–59). In 1739 the Persian invader Nadir Shah camped here on the eve of his massacre of the citizens of Delhi and seizure of the Peacock Throne; see Crowe et al., 147.
44. Blake, “Khanah Bagh,” passim.
45. Bernier, 246–47.
46. Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 29. Spear compares this to Christina Rosetti’s lines, “Be the green grass above me with flowers and dewdrops wet. / And if thou wilt, remember, and if thou wilt, forget.”
47. Quoted in Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 96–97.
48. Mirza Mohammed Rafi Sauda (1713–81), quoted in K. Singh, Delhi, 30.
49. On Bahadur Shah’s love of gardens, see Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 34, 97, 276. The emperor wrote poetry under the name of Zafar.
50. Heber, Narrative of a Journey, 2:302–4; cf. Lady Amherst, Journal, 23 Feb. 1827.
51. Eden, Up the Country, 97.
52. Taylor, Visit to India, 80–81.
53. Sylvia Shorto, “Public Lives, Private Places: British Houses in Delhi, 1803–57” (Ph. D. diss., New York University, 2004), 110–12.
54. Heber, 2:286.
55. Shorto, 117–20.
56. E. Roberts, Scenes and Characteristics of Hindostan, 2:155.
57. Edwardes, Glorious Sahibs, 112.
58. Dalrymple, Last Mughal, 49–50, 167n, 234. As it turned out, Octherlony died in Meerut and was buried there. The tomb was destroyed during the fighting in 1857.
59. Shorto, 183.
60. Steel, On the Face of the Waters, 147–49.
61. Morris, Stones of Empire, 39.
62. Kaye, Golden Calm, 146–48. Spear comments: “If Ochterlony was the Babur and Charles [Metcalfe] the Akbar of British Delhi, Thomas Metcalfe was its Shah Jahan”; Twilight of the Mughuls,157. K. Singh, Delhi, 13–14. Shorto comments that it was quite common to put tombs to other uses in the nineteenth century (and even today), and was not regarded as sacrilegious (190, 195). Cf. E. Roberts, 1:199; Steel, Garden of Fidelity, 220; North, Vision of Eden, 130.
63. Russell, Diary, 140; Shorto, 154.
64. E. Roberts, 2:148–49. According to Roberts, the begum eventually incurred the wrath of the British by failing to show them the deference they considered their due. The begum’s palace in Delhi now houses the State Bank of India; see Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 193.
65. Spear, Twilight of the Mughuls, 195; Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 15–16. The Hindu attraction to the Shi‘ite rituals of Mohurram is all the more surprising in that the Mughals were Sunni.
66. Gupta, “Indomitable City,” 39–40. Metcalfe himself left a handwritten history of imperial Delhi, profusely illustrated by local artists. It is reproduced in facsimile by Kaye, Golden Calm, along with Emily Metcalfe’s journal. For other views of Delhi by local artists, see J. Losty, “Delhi Palace in 1846.”
67. The one exception was the curious and ambitious creation of Trevelyanganj as a model suburb for Delhi’s middling classes of clerks and merchants—as opposed to the ancient families with their huge mansions and fine gardens—by a reforming British official, Charles Trevelyan. In 1830 Trevelyan acquired about three hundred acres of wasteland outside the Lahore Gate, laid out a road, and neatly mapped lots for houses and shops. His suburb survived for a long time before being swallowed up in later extensions of the city. See Prior, Brennan, and Haines, “Bad Language,” 106–7; Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 137–38; Gupta, “Indomitable City,” 40; A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development, 202 (where the suburb is referred to as “Trevelyanpore,” later as “Deputyganj”). The suburb is no longer remembered as Trevelyanganj (or any of the other names, for that matter); according to the website Manorama Online, “the name has just worn out.” See www.the-week.com, 8 Aug. 2004.
68. Kaye, Golden Calm, 216. His queen was less fatalistic, as well as vehemently hostile to the British. There was much speculation that she may have been responsible for poisoning Thomas Metcalfe in 1853.
69. Dalrymple’s splendid account of the uprising in The Last Mughal supersedes earlier histories in its use of newly uncovered indigenous sources.
70. Gupta, “Indomitable City,” 42
71. Quoted in Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 30
72. Mukherji, Red Fort, 152, 229.
73. North, 140.
74. ASI, Annual Report, 1903–4, 21–22.
75. Dalrymple, City of Djinns.
76. Kaye, Golden Calm, 207–8.
77. Blake, Shahjahanabad, 172; Mukherji, “Changing Perception of Space,” 63. Later much of this area would be turned into parking.
78. Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 10n3. The much reduced gardens are now known as Gandhi Park: see Mukherji, Red Fort, 202; Hearn, 19.
79. Dalrymple, Last Mughal, provides a good overview of the destruction of Delhi following the uprising. See also Fanshawe, Delhi, Past and Present, 58; Peck, Delhi, 247; Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 16n1.
80. Villiers-Stuart, 103.
81. Ehlers and Krafft, 22; Hearn, 302–3.
82. Villiers-Stuart, 113.
83. Ibid., 114–17.
84. To Curzon’s horror the gardens were no sooner restored than they were leased out to an Indian farmer who planted the lawns with turnips and whose cows broke down the water channels; see Gilmour, Curzon, 321. A century later the Aga Khan Trust for Culture took charge of a re-restoration of the garden; see Celia W. Dugger, “A Mughal Splendor Regained,” New York Times, 29 Sept. 2002.
85. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 1:312.
86. ASI, Annual Report, 1903–4, 21; ASI, Annual Report, 1909–10, 1; Mukherji, Red Fort, 225.
87. Mukherji, Red Fort, 228.
88. Ibid., 223–25. Mukherji quotes Gordon Sanderson, ASI Annual Report, 1911–12.
89. Villiers-Stuart, 121.
90. Allen, Glimpse, 125.
91. Quoted in Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, 62.
92. In a letter to her friend Lady Canning, the queen had written, “If it was not for the heat and the insects how much I should like to see India”; quoted in Allen, 21.
93. Cohn, “Representing Authority,” 197–98. Rao was one of the most distinguished Indian statesmen of the century, a former diwan of Gwalior and familiar of viceroys. On the durbar, see also Lutyens, Lyttons in India, chap. 8.
94. Cohn, passim.
95. Quoted in Allen, Kipling Sahib, 89.
96. Prinsep, Imperial India, 20; Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan, 197–98; Lutyens, 79.
97. Cohn, 199; Allen, Kipling Sahib, 90.
98. Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj, 78–79.
99. Ibid., 197.
100. Allen, “Imperial Image,” 237; James, Raj, 317; Wheeler, History of the Delhi Coronation Durbar, chap. 5.
101. Mason, Guardians, 199.
102. Ibid., 199–200.
103. Menpes, Durbar, 25.
104. CP, Mss Eur F111/274, including a clipping from the Pioneer, 25 July 1902.
105. Allen, “Imperial Image,” 234–35. The viceroy’s party alone, which had come out from England, landed in Bombay with a combined total of forty-seven tons of clothes for the Durbar festivities; see Hobbes, Imperial India, 8.
106. Wheeler, 50.
107. Ibid., 50–51, 57.
108. CP, Mss Eur F111/274.
109. Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan, 284.
110. The descriptions of the Indian camps are taken from Wheeler’s wonderfully detailed chap. 4.
111. Ibid.
112. Curzon, British Government in India, 2:28–29; Hobbes, 49.
113. Diary of Mrs. Macpherson, quoted in Mason, 201. See also Wheeler, 170ff.; Fowler, 290ff. The peacock dress is on display in Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire, the Curzon family seat. Old India hand that she was, the novelist Flora Annie Steel thought it appalling to imagine “mankind handing ices to women kind” in Shah Jahan’s gem of a building and wondered about Curzon’s lapse of taste; see Garden of Fidelity, 220.
114. Fowler, 212, 244.
115. Wheeler, 135. The Indian leaders in attendance represented some 230 million souls, one-fifth of the world’s population at the time; see Hobbes, 18–19.
116. Menpes, 56. And yet Menpes himself makes the curious comment that the Durbar “seemed no show for the Saxon”—Europeans seemed out of place, drab beetles, awkward, and “a blot in an otherwise harmonious whole” (34, 37). Curzon had wanted to erect a monument to the Durbar on the riverfront—a “Memorial to commemorate a commemoration”—but this was vetoed by the lieutenant governor, who pointed out that the site was prone to flooding; see Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 167.
117. Hardinge, Old Diplomacy, 28–30.
118. Ibid., 42.
119. Hardinge, Indian Years, 24.
120. Ibid., 23–24; Mukherji, Red Fort, 227–28; ASI, Annual Report, 1909–10.
121. Hardinge, Indian Years, 56–57.
122. Villiers-Stuart, 121.
123. Illustrated London News, 23 Dec. 1911, 1073, quoted in Pelizzari, “From Stone to Paper,” 38.
1. P. Singh, Of Dreams and Demons, 6–7; Ridley, Architect and His Wife, 380.
2. Quoted in Frykenberg, “Coronation Durbar of 1911,” 238.
3. Quoted in Chaudhuri, Autobiography of an Unknown Indian, 280.
4. Quoted in Lewis and Lewis, Delhi’s Historic Villages, 144n4.
5. Hardinge, Indian Years 38; Dutta, Calcutta 129; Curzon, British Government in India, 1:70.
6. Irving, Indian Summer, 119ff.; Ridley, Architect and His Wife, 269–70.
7. Tavernier, Travels in India, 1:79.
8. Smith, “‘A Grand Work of Noble Conception,’” passim.
9. The most thorough studies of the planning and politics of New Delhi are Irving, Indian Summer, and Volwahsen, Imperial Delhi, but see also Ridley, Architect and His Wife; A. D. King, Colonial Urban Development; Metcalf, Imperial Vision; and Metcalf, “Architecture and Empire.”
10. Irving, 79–80. Hardly the first to notice the abundance of Delhi’s ruins, Lutyens compared them to motorcars in London.
11. Volwahsen, 195. It is larger than the palace at Versailles: see Davies, Splendours of the Raj, 227.
12. Hussey, Life of Sir Edwin Lutyens, 247.
13. Moorhouse, India Britannica, 234.
14. Percy and Ridley, Letters of Edwin Lutyens to His Wife, 250 (3 June 1912), 280 (16 Feb. 1913), 281 (17 Feb. 1916).
15. Ridley, “Edwin Lutyens,” 79–81.
16. Percy and Ridley, 280.
17. Hussey, 272.
18. Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, esp. 277ff.; Villiers-Stuart, “Indian Paradise Garden,” 804; Wescoat and Wolschke-Bulmahn, “Sources, Places, Representations and Prospects,” 17; Irving, 217–18.
19. Lively, A House Unlocked, 79. Lively’s grandmother bought a Lutyens-style house in 1923, built some fifteen years earlier, and set about creating a large garden in the manner of Jekyll to complement it; ibid., 6.
20. Jane Brown, Gardens of a Golden Afternoon, 13–14, 35, 187. On a trip to South Africa where he had been commissioned to build an art gallery with Herbert Baker, Lutyens was startled to find himself referred to in the Johannesburg Star as an “unrivalled” landscape gardener; ibid., 153.
21. Ibid., 96.
22. Ridley, Architect and His Wife, 147.
23. Jane Brown, 50, 104; Stamp and Goulancourt, English House, 29.
24. For the best summary of the machinations by which Lutyens was appointed to the Delhi Planning Commission and then chief architect, see Ridley, Architect and His Wife, chap. 11. Irving gives an almost day-by-day account; chaps. 3–5.
25. Ridley, Architect and His Wife, 213, 215. In the end, the dome blended St. Paul’s with the Buddhist motifs from Sarnath and Bodhgaya, while the Palladian portico was scaled down to more Islamic proportions; ibid., 239–40.
26. Percy and Ridley, 342 (21 Feb. 1917).
27. Edwin Lutyens to Emily Lutyens, 25 Feb. 1917, RIBA.
28. Jane Brown, 172, 202n26.
29. George, “Roadside Planting,” 84; Bowe, “‘Genius of an Artist.’”
30. Percy and Ridley, 412–13 (17 Jan. 1929).
31. Edwin Lutyens to Emily Lutyens, 24 Jan. 1929, RIBA; Irving, 141.
32. Percy and Ridley, 416 (31 Jan. 1929).
33. Quoted in Volwahsen, 114.
34. For descriptions of the gardens, see esp. Irving, 214ff.; Hussey, 502–4; Jane Brown, 15–52, 172; Byron, “New Delhi, IV”; Volwahsen, 124–29; and www.presidentofIndia.nic.in/mughalGarden.html.
35. For the drawing see Irving, fig. 18.
36. Byron, “New Delhi, IV,” 812.
37. Hussey, 503.
38. Byron, “New Delhi,” pl. VIII.
39. Byron, “New Delhi, IV,” 810.
40. Irving, 223.
41. See “Mughal Garden,” www.presidentofIndia.nic.in/mughalGarden.html.
42. Stanley, “Gardening in India.”
43. Ibid.; H. Y. S. Prasad, Rashtrapati Bhavan, 81–82.
44. Hussey, 504.
45. Halifax, Fullness of Days, 142–43.
46. Note by N. Gupta and L. Sykes to Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 97n6.
47. G. Jekyll, Wall and Water Gardens, 135, 160, and passim; Jane Brown, 127–29.
48. Hussey, 254.
49. Irving, 218, among others, describes the disks as lotus leaves.
50. D. Lentz, “Botanical Symbolism,” 52; Koch, Complete Taj Mahal, 177.
51. Mukherji, Red Fort, 58, 121 148.
52. Fowler, Below the Peacock Fan, 260.
53. For an illustration of the lotus flower in the Durbar Hall see Volwahsen, fig. 103. The 2,300-year-old Ashokan Bull capital standing outside the Durbar Hall, which rests on an inverted lotus, was not part of Lutyens’s scheme. It was installed after an exhibition of Indian art in London in 1947–48; see H. Y. S. Prasad, 51, 58.
54. Ridley, “Edwin Lutyens,” 80.
55. On the association of Victoria regia with Queen Victoria see Campbell-Culver, Origin of Plants, 330.
56. The official website designates this part of the garden complex as the Purdha Garden, but the term does not seem to have been used commonly in the literature; see www.presidentofIndia.nic.in/mughalGarden.html.
57. Jane Brown, passim. Ridley, however, argues that Lutyens Indianized his pergola in the Long Garden by building it entirely of red sandstone, like Akbar’s stone beams at Fatehpur Sikri, fashioned “like wood in tension”; “Edwin Lutyens,” 80.
58. Jane Brown, 151.
59. Lutyens, Edwin Lutyens, 269.
60. Irving, 226–28. Cf. Kaye, Sun in the Morning, 95.
61. Edwin Lutyens to Emily Lutyens, 22 Oct. 1938, 11 Nov. 1938, 18 Nov. 1938, RIBA; Ridley, Architect and His Wife, 402–3; Bence-Jones, Viceroys, 272, 280. Panter-Downes, Ooty Preserved, 43. As far as I know, the drawing remains unreproduced.
62. Stark, Dust in the Lion’s Paw, 231.
63. Jane Brown, 97–98, 152; Volwahsen, 38–39; William Dalrymple, “The Rubble of the Raj,” Guardian, 13 Nov. 2004.
64. Wilhide, Sir Edwin Lutyens, 40.
65. Lutyens, 147–48; Hussey, 320. After a day when the temperature was 117 degrees in the shade, he had also suggested Uzipore as an appropriate name for the capital; see I. Butler, Viceroy’s Wife, 160. Edward Lear was also an inspired punster: “Making Delhineations of the Dehlicate architecture as is all impressed on my mind as inDehlibly as the Dehliterious quality of the water in that city.” Quoted in Dehejia, Impossible Picturesqueness, 32.
66. Quoted in Volwahsen, 212. “Blaze/riot of colour” seems to have been the cliché of choice.
67. Irving, 109–10; Bence-Jones, 215; I. Butler, 28, 52, 62; Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 77. Lady Reading had anticipated Lady Willingdon by decorating the interior with mauves and grays. The hastily built and hastily abandoned capital of Dacca, East Bengal, also provided a trial run for New Delhi, but Lutyens does not seem to have been aware of it. See Nilsson, New Capitals, 101.
68. Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 178–79.
69. Volwahsen, 233–34, 259; Irving, 264ff. Lutyens and Baker had supervisory control over all the princes’ palaces, and Lutyens personally designed the lavish Hyderabad House.
70. Irving, 77–78; Davies, 225.
71. Volwahsen, 239.
72. Hardinge, Indian Years, 71–72; Baker, Architecture and Personalities, 71.
73. There was an epidemic of “Willingdonitis” in the 1930s, with a spate of places named for father, mother, and son. Some of them survived beyond India’s independence,. In the 1950s the Lodi Garden was relandscaped by a Japanese team, but a decade later an American architect prepared a master plan for the park. Spear, Delhi: Its Monuments and History, 43nn2 and 4.
74. Patrick Geddes, consulted on a number of urban planning projects in India, strenuously argued for greater integration of the new and the old, but his ideas found little sympathy with Lutyens and his fellow planners. See Geddes, Patrick Geddes in India, passim.
75. Irving, 85, 51.
76. Byron, “New Delhi,” 11.
77. Quoted in Parkes, Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, 46. Cf. Madhur Jaffrey’s recollections that planting trees was the leitmotif of her childhood history classes: “Indian emperors planted a lot of trees.” Climbing the Mango Trees, 205.
78. Roe, Embassy, 492; Tavernier, Travels in India, 1:78; Bernier, 284. More recently, Lord Wellesley had planted trees along the road laid out between Calcutta and the garden retreat of Barrackpore: “Mango, banyan, india-rubber, peepul—like white poplars, teak—with enormous leaves, laurel of several sorts, mimosas, tamarinds, etc.” Lady Charlotte Canning, Journal Letter, 19 March 1856, in Hare, Story of Two Noble Lives, 2:60.
79. George, 85. George also offers a wonderful picture of Lutyens’s modus operandi during his cold-weather visits to Delhi. He held “open house” in his offices, urging everyone to stay for tiffin (lunch), from lieutenant-governors to engineers and plumbers, “friends or foes”—a very civilized way to sort out the myriad disagreements that arose (81–82).
80. Krishen, Trees of Delhi, 32. Krishen provides an excellent schematic diagram showing the plantings on different avenues (34–35).
81. Krishen identifies these species as Syzigium cumini and Syzigium nervosum rather than George’s Eugenia jambolina (89; fig. 3, 83).
82. Quotations from George, 82–83. Several sources claim that faster-growing trees were planted along with slower-growing ones to provide shade in the interim, although George does not mention this. See, e.g., Volwahsen, 212; Irving, 251.
83. George, 86.
84. Singh and Varma, Millennium Book on New Delhi, 47.
85. Ibid., 103.
86. Christopher Hawkins to Larry Hawkins, 28 Aug. 1937. I am grateful to Arthur Hawkins for this material.
87. See Volwahsen, fig. 179.
88. Emma Wilson, quoted in Barr, Dust in the Balance, 158.
89. George, 87.
90. Hussey, 571.
91. Jane Brown, 108, 111.
92. Ibid., 120–26.
93. Hussey, 509–11.
94. Mukherji, Red Fort, 50–51, 56, 110, 241.
95. Hussey, 551.
96. There were attempts to introduce contemporary ideas of urban planning in Bombay during the middle decades of the nineteenth century; see Dossal, Imperial Designs.
97. In many respects, Bangalore would have been an excellent choice as capital of British India, but it does not seem to have been considered.
98. Crowe et al., 132–33.
99. Stronach, “Parterres and Stone Watercourses,” 6; Mukherji, Red Fort, 68–70, 121.
100. Gupta, “Indomitable City,” 30–31; Gupta, Delhi Between Two Empires, 2; Bernier, 241; Mukherji, Red Fort, 92; S. Prasad, “Tale of Two Cities,” passim; Fonseca, “Walled City of Old Delhi,” 111.
101. S. Prasad, 187ff.
102. Volwahsen, 51, quoting Sten Nillson; H. V. Lanchester, preface to Geddes, Patrick Geddes in India, 32.
103. P. Singh, Of Dreams and Demons, 10–11, 85 (quoting Blake). In fact, Shah Jahan did design it, much as it changed over the centuries.
104. Hussey, 368.
105. Pevsner, quoted in Jane Brown, 157; Byron, “New Delhi,” 28.
106. Ridley, “Edwin Lutyens,” 75, 79–81. At the time, Byron also emphasized Lutyens’s masterful synthesis of themes from both the European and Indian pasts; “New Delhi,” 30 and passim.
107. Quoted in P. Singh, Of Dreams and Demons, 85.
1. Orlich, Travels in India, 2:71–72; Barr, Dust in the Balance, 38; Desmond, Victorian India, pl. 21; Lord Irwin’s letters to his father, the Second Viscount Halifax, Apr. 1926–Apr. 1931, MssEur C152/27, India Office Library and Records. Willow Pattern tea sets can be found illustrated on eBay.
2. Bromfield, The Rains Came, 115. Bromfield’s novel was inspired by his visit to India in 1932.
3. Uglow, Little History of British Gardening, 282–83; Metcalf, Imperial Vision, 127ff., 133; E. Arnold, India Revisited, 94; Morris, Pax Britannica, 274, which notes that the palace gardens of the Maharajah of Jaipur inspired Kipling’s comment, “The Maharajah gave the order and Yakub Sahib [Swinton] made the garden.”
4. Bowe, “Indian Gardening Tradition.”
5. Ismail, My Public Life, 53, 82ff.; Srinivas, Landscapes of Urban Memory, 53; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnaraja_Sagara.
6. Ismail, 48, 82–83; www.mysoresamachar.com/brind_fount.htm.
7. Hancock, Politics of Heritage, 99.
8. I have relied primarily on the following sources to reconstruct the recent history of the Taj and other Agra monuments: Jessica Barry and Rahul Bedi, “Outrage at Plan to Ring Taj with Cafes and Malls,” Daily Telegraph, 8 July 2001; Tripathi, “Saving the Taj Mahal”; Kushal S. Yadav, “Taj Corridor Project Compromises Heritage,” India Environment Portal, 30 July 2003, www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/node/34633; Sean Farrell, “The Taj Mahal: Pollution and Tourism,” TED Case Studies, No. 668, 2002, www.american.edu/TED/taj.htm; Harkness and Sinha, “Taj Heritage Corridor,” quotations on 67, 68; ASLA Online, www.asla.org/meetings/awards/awds02/tajmahal.html; www.tajmahalagra.com/a-world-heritage-site.html; A. G. Krishna Menon, “Book Review: Still Another view of the Taj Corridor Project, Oct. 2003,” www.architexturez.net/+/subject-listing/000170.shtml. There are also many newspaper accounts online. I have not been able to consult either Tata’s Taj Mahal, Agra, Site Management Plan or the two-volume publication of the University of Illinois Project.
9. Brij Khandelwal, “Another Taj Project Runs into Trouble,” SME Times, 3 Aug. 2009, http://smetimes.tradeindia.com;DeanNelson, “Taj Mahal facelift branded ‘insensitive,’” Daily Telegraph, 3 Aug. 2009. Oversized golf carts were introduced to ferry tourists around the Taj in June 2009; see “Tourists to View Taj Mahal in Environment-Friendly Golf Carts,” www.thaindian.com/newsportal.
10. See, for example, the following articles in the Hindustan Times: “Dust, Vanishing Greenery Threaten Taj,” 19 Apr. 2010; “Rs. 22 Crore Spent, Yet Taj Pollution Up,” 1 July 2010; “Air, Water Pollution Rising Near Taj Mahal,” 10 July 2010. Available at www.hindustantimes.com.
11. See the entries for Raj Ghat and Sydney Percy-Lancaster on Wikipedia.
12. Hancock, chap. 3 passim.
13. Agniva Banerjee, “Let’s Ban Tennyson,” Times of India, 30 Sept. 2007.
14. See websites devoted to Nana Rao Park Kanpur.
15. For the recent history of Humayun’s Tomb and other monuments, see the forthcoming new edition of Charles Lewis and Karoki Lewis, Delhi’s Historic Villages.
16. H. Y. S. Prasad, Rashtrapati Bhavan, 101.
17. Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 72.
18. Sykes, “Afterword—Fifty Years On,” 145.
19. Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 23, and Dalrymple, “The Rubble of the Raj,” Guardian, 13 Nov. 2004; “New Delhi Newsletter,” www.lutyenstrust.org.uk/newsletters/newdelhi2003.htm. Tree planting since independence has also not been very successful. Lal notes that of over five million saplings planted, only some 5 percent survived: Lal, “Flora and Fauna of Delhi,” 96, 99–100. Patwant Singh labels today’s Delhi a “wasteland: Of Dreams and Demons, 75.
20. Spear, “Delhi—The ‘Stop-Go’ Capital,” 323; Dalrymple, City of Djinns, 221; Volwahsen, Imperial Delhi, 217; Tully, “Travails of a Metropolis,” 175; Luce, In Spite of the Gods, 212. The addition of fleets of newer, less polluting buses and the extension of the Metro to more of the city and its suburbs offers some relief.
21. “MCD Sows to Reap a Lush 2010,” Times of India, New Delhi, 17 Mar. 2008.
22. http://2010commonwealthgamesindia.blogspot.com; “Poor Lose Homes as Delhi Cleans Up,” New York Times, 1 Jan. 2007.
23. Patwant Singh, 197–98; cf. George “Roadside Planting,” 87; Lal, 96, 99–100; Tully, 175. For a Rosier view of the Buddha Jayanti Park on the Ridge, see K. Singh, Delhi, 50.
24. On the recent history of Kashmir, see esp. Tunzelmann, Indian Summer, chap. 17; and Peer, Curfewed Night. Quotation from Peer, 124.
25. Peer, 110–11. On the Mughal gardens of Kashmir, see Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, and Crowe et al., Gardens of Mughal India.
26. Christine Ottery, “Kashmir Fears Forests Will Disappear Through ‘Timber Smuggling,’” Guardian, 14 July 2010; Panter-Downes, Ooty Preserved, 72–73, 107; Crossette, Great Hill Stations, 110ff.
27. Ismail, 48–49; Trevelyan, Golden Oriole, 341.
28. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jorasanko_Thakur_Bari.jpg for an illustration of the inner garden.
29. Rahul Bedi, “Opening Meet Finds India’s Only Hunt in the Pink,” Daily Telegraph, 19 July 2004.
30. Panter-Downes, 124. Ruskin Bond observes that when the British departed from India in 1947, they left their ghosts behind: foreword to Chaudry, Ghost Stories.
31. See the official website, www.horticulture.kar.nic.in/lalbagh.htm. On the political implications of garden gnomes, see the review of Shirley Williams, Climbing the Bookshelves, Times Literary Supplement, 23 Oct. 2009, 34.
32. Jayapal, Bangalore, 186–88.
33. Mishra, Romantics, 73; www.nal.res.in/pages/nalcampus.htm. Cf. a video featuring the Infosys campus in Banglore, www.youtube.com/watch?v=osFCn4iU-hI, uploaded on 15 July 2007.
34. Swaminarayan Akshardham Guide, www.akshardham.com. The website reprints an article from the Economic Times, 23 Feb. 2007, commenting that the temple “borrows in equal measure from the spiritual as well as from Las Vegas and Walt Disney.”
35. Judith Brown, Nehru, 104–5, 143, 151, 153, 191. Cf. V. Seth, A Suitable Boy, 1072.
36. Murphy, On a Shoestring, 191.
37. C. P. Sujaya, personal communications, 24 Feb. and 30 Mar. 2004, 26 Aug. and 1 Sept. 2009. I am very grateful to Mrs. Sujaya for sharing her experiences.
38. V. Seth, 1405 and passim.
1. Hyams and MacQuilty, Great Botanical Gardens, 229; Sharwood-Smith, Diary of a Colonial Wife, chap. 16.
2. Baker, Architecture and Personalities, 16; Lamb, Africa House; Lively, Oleander, Jacaranda 28, 31; Raafat, Maadi, 23, 33ff
3. Bennett, “A Nigerian Garden”; Ngugi wa Thiong’o, A Grain of Wheat, 36; Gavaghan, Of Lions and Dung Beetles, 243.
4. Orlich, Travels in India, 2:230; Morris, Pax Britannica, 204–5; A. Coats, Quest for Plants, 193
5. Duncan, Simple Adventures, 166; Bella Woolf, From Groves of Palm, 63.
6. Mortimer, Clinging to the Wreckage, 153.
7. Jaffrey, Climbing the Mango Trees, 42–43. As with Dwarkanath Tagore’s family in nineteenth-century Calcutta, the women in Jaffrey’s household led a somewhat more traditional life than the men.
8. J. Marshall, epigraph to Cannadine, Ornamentalism; Hunt, “Imitation,” 205; Tidrick, Empire and the English Character, 135; Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, 132ff.
9. Cf. Fraenkel, No Fixed Abode, 125–26, referring to Lusaka in 1939. See also McMaster, “Colonial District Town,” 341–42; Awam Ampka, personal communication. The quotation is from Kipling’s “The Glory of the Garden,” in Complete Verse, 735.
10. Richard II, 3.4.48–52, quoted in Uglow, Little History of British Gardening, 82.
11. Fazl, Akbarnama, quoted in Crowe et al., 46.
12. Fazl, Akbarnama, quoted in Richards, “Historiography of Mughal Gardens,” 261.
13. Kipling, “The Glory of the Garden.”
14. Sharp, Good-bye India, 6–7, 221; Edwardes, High Noon of Empire, 41. Cf. Eden, Up the Country, 138.
15. Campbell-Culver, Origin of Plants, 435; Euan Dunn, review of Jeremy Mynott, Birdscapes: Birds in Our Imagination and Experience, Times Literary Supplement, 11 Sept. 2009, 23; Hyams, English Garden, 9–10.
16. Quoted in Hadfield, Gardening in Britain, 198; Steel, Garden of Fidelity, 192.
17. Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 239–41. The hot bath at the end of the day was a staple of British colonial life. One of the more extreme examples concerned the viceregal train that carried the newly arrived Lord Irwin and his wife from Bombay to New Delhi in 1926. Each had a suite complete with bathroom, with giant boilers for hot water being kept on the simmer at local stations, “where the Viceroy’s arrival was timed to a minute by a schedule kept with military precision”; see Birkenhead, Halifax, 175.
18. Letter to Lady Douglas, 9 Aug. 1799, in Shields, Birds of Passage, 92; Quest-Ritson, English Garden Abroad, 78. Quest-Ritson notes that in the hundreds of letters written by Elizabeth Barrett-Browning during her life in Italy, she only mentions meeting one Italian socially.
19. The quotation is from Jane Brown, Pursuit of Paradise, 10–11.
20. See, e.g., Lear, Flora Nonsensica; Sellar and Yeatman, Garden Rubbish; and the drawings of Osbert Lancaster accompanying Scott-James, Pleasure Garden.
21. Hutchins, Illusion of Permanence, chap. 5.
22. Gorer, Growth of Gardens, 194; J. Kincaid, My Garden, 8; F. Bacon, Of Gardens, n.p.; Harrison, Gardens, 41, 146, and passim.
23. Macaulay, “Lord Macaulay’s Minute, 2nd February 1835,” 102.
24. Quoted in Dalyrymple, introduction to Parkes, Begums, Thugs and White Mughals, Parks xiii.
25. Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals, 278–79; and Villiers-Stuart, “Indian Paradise Garden,” 804.
26. Tidrick, 1.
