1. More information on radiocarbon dating can be found at https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01895-z.
2. Diocletian proclaimed the “Tetrarchy” in 293 AD. The empire was split into two halves, each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior “Augustus” and a junior “Caesar.”
3. Theodosius I was the last emperor to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death. Arcadius ruled on the east and Honorius on the west.
1. More information can be found at http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1363.
2. Emma Blake, Social Network and Regional Identity in Bronze Age Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 182–200.
3. Emma Dench, From Barbarians to New Men: Greek, Roman, and Modern Perceptions of Peoples (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 113–16
4. Claude Albore Livadie, “A First Pompeii: The Early Bronze Age Village of Nola-Croce del Papa (Palma Campania phase),” Antiquity 76 (2002): 941–42.
5. Maria Clara Martinelli, Robert H. Tykott, and Andrea Vianello, “Lipari (Aeolian Islands) Obsidian in the Late Neolithic: Artifacts, Supply and Function,” Open Archaeology 5 (2019): 46–64.
6. John E. Robb and R. Helen Farr, “Substances in Motion: Neolithic Mediterranean ‘Trade,’” in The Archaeology of Mediterranean Prehistory, ed. Emma Blake and A. Bernard Knapp (Oxford: Blackwell 2005), 24–45.
7. Martinelli et al., “Lipari (Aeolian Islands) Obsidian.”
8. Alfred Michael Hirt, Imperial Mines and Quarries in the Roman World: Organizational Aspects 27 BC–AD 235 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
9. J. C. Edmondson, “Mining in the Later Roman Empire and Beyond: Continuity or Disruption?,” Journal of Roman Studies 79 (1989): 84–102.
1. Rosalia Gallotti and Carlo Peretto, “The Lower/Early Middle Pleistocene Small Débitage Productions in Western Europe: New Data from Isernia La Pineta t.3c (Upper Volturno Basin, Italy)” Quaternary International 357 (2015): 264–81.
2. Adolfo Panarello, Lisa Santello, Gennaro Farinaro, Matthew R. Bennett, and Paolo Mietto, “Walking along the Oldest Human Fossil Pathway (Roccamonfina Volcano, Central Italy)?” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 13 (2007): 476–90.
3. Valentina Borgia and Emanuela Cristiani, eds., Palaeolithic Italy. Advanced Studies on Early Human Adaptations in the Apennine Peninsula (Leiden, Netherlands: Sidestone Press, 2018).
4. http://grottadifumane.eu/en/.
5. Paul B. Pettitt, M. P. Richards, R. Maggi, and V. Formicola, “The Gravettian Burial Known as the Prince (Il Principe): New Evidence for His Age and Diet,” Antiquity 77, no. 295 (2003): 15–19.
6. For the uses of BP and BC see the chronology outlined at the beginning of the book.
7. Caroline Malone, “The Italian Neolithic: A Synthesis of Research,” Journal of World Prehistory 17, no. 3 (September 2003): 243–44.
8. Andrew Sherratt, “Plough and Pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution.” In Pattern of the Past, ed. I. Hodder, G. Isaac, and N. Hammond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 261–306.
11. Teodoro Scarano, “Refuge or Dwelling Place? The MBA Fortification Wall of Roca (Lecce, Italy): The Spatial and Functional Analysis of Postern C,” Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche 61 (2011): 95–122.
12. On the Sea Peoples, see Eric H. Cline, 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).
13. Graeme Barker and Tom Rasmussen. The Etruscans (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000).
14. Francesca Fulminante, The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus from the Bronze Age to the Archaic Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
17. Nancy Thomson de Grummond and Erika Simon, The Religion of the Etruscans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006).
18. Gert-Jan Burgers, “Western Greeks in Their Regional Setting: Rethinking Early Greek-Indigenous Encounters in Southern Italy,” in Ancient West and East, ed. G. R. Tsetskhladze (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2005), 252–82.
19. Elena Isayev, Migration, Mobility and Place in Ancient Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
21. Luca Cerchiai, L. Jannelli, and F. Longo, The Greek Cities of Magna Graecia and Sicily (Los Angeles: Getty Museum Publications, 2004).
1. Tim Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC) (New York: Routledge, 2012).
3. Meaning it is written alternating between right to left and left to right.
4. Francesca Fulminante, The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus from the Bronze Age to the Archaic Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
5. Nicola Terrenato and Donald Haggis, State Formation in Italy and Greece: Questioning the Neoevolutionist Paradigm (Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books, 2011). See also chapters 4 and 6.
6. A one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization.
7. Guy Bradley, “Colonization and Identity in Republican Italy,” in Greek and Roman Colonisation: Origins, Ideologies, Interactions, ed. Guy Bradley and John-Paul Wilson (Swansea: Classical Press of Wales, 2006), 161–87.
8. Arthur Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (New York: Routledge, 2013).
9. Harriet Flower, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
10. Today Largo Argentina, in the center of Rome.
12. Richard Duncan-Jones, Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Archive, 1982).
13. See chapters 1 and 4.
14. Edward Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London: Methuen & Company, 1901).
1. Emanuel Anati, La datazione dell’arte preistorica camuna (Breno, Italy: Tipografia Camuna, 1963).
2. Richard Harrison and Volker Heyd, “The Transformation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: The Example of ‘Le Petit-Chasseur I + III’ (Sion, Valais, Switzerland),” Praehistorische Zeitschrift 82, no. 2 (2007): 189–90.
3. Walter Kutschera and Werner Rom, “Ötzi, the Prehistoric Iceman,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 164–65 (2000): 12–22.
4. Konrad Spindler, The Man in the Ice: The Discovery of a 5,000-Year-Old Body Reveals the Secrets of the Stone Age (New York: Harmony Books, 1995).
5. Roberta Cascino, Helga Di Giuseppe, and Helen L. Patterson, eds., Veii, the Historical Topography of the Ancient City: A Restudy of John Ward-Perkins’s Survey (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome 19) (London: The British School at Rome, 2012.
7. David Ridgway, Italy before the Romans: The Iron Age, Orientalizing, and Etruscan Periods (London: Academic Press, 1979).
8. The first Temple of Hera (550 BC) is the oldest surviving temple in Paestum and in the eighteenth century was mistakenly named “The Basilica” because archaeologists of the time believed it to be a Roman building. The second Temple of Hera (460–450 BC) was mistakenly thought to be dedicated to Poseidon, and the so-called Temple of Ceres is actually the Temple of Athena (500 BC).
9. Paestum and its temples even appear in a war sequence in the Medal of Honor video game series.
10. Paola Aurino, “La necropoli eneolitica del Gaudo (Paestum) tra scoperta e riscoperte,” in 150 anni di preistoria e protostoria in Italia, ed. A. Guidi (Venosa, Italy: IIPP, 2015).
11. Amphitheatre in Greek means “twice a theatre.”
12. The most worldwide famous event was the Three Tenors’ concert in 1990 that featured Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, and Luciano Pavarotti.
13. Jean-Pierre Adam, Roman Building: Materials and Techniques (London: Routledge, 2005).
14. “Little soul, you charming little wanderer, my body’s guest and partner, where are you off to now? somewhere without color, savage and bare; You’ll crack no more of your jokes once you’re there.”
15. Otium is a Latin word that has a variety of meanings, including “leisure time,” in which a person can enjoy eating, playing, resting, contemplation, and academic endeavors.
16. “His villa at Tivoli was a marvel of construction, such that he inscribed upon it the names of the most famous provinces and locales; for instance, he called one part the Lyceum, another the Academy, the Prytaneum, the Canopus, the Stoa Poikile, and [the vale of] Tempe. And, so that he wouldn’t leave anything out, he even fashioned an underworld” (Historia Augusta, Vita Hadriani, 26, 5), translation from the Latin in Timothy M. O’Sullivan, Walking in Roman Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 106.
17. O’Sullivan, Walking in Roman Culture.
18. William Lloyd MacDonald and John A. Pinto, Hadrian’s Villa and Its Legacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
1. “I beni culturali non possono essere distrutti, deteriorati, danneggiati o adibiti ad usi non compatibili con il loro carattere storico o artistico oppure tali da recare pregiudizio alla loro conservazione” (art. 20 del D.Lgs. 42/2004 e smi).
2. The European Convention for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (revised) derives its name from the capital city of Malta, where the agreement was signed.
3. Treaty Office, “Details of Treaty No. 143,” Council of Europe, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/143.
4. Laura Sadori et al., “The Introduction and Diffusion of Peach in Ancient Italy,” in Plants and Culture: Seeds of the Cultural Heritage of Europe, ed. Jean-Paul Morel and Anna Maria Mercuri Centro Europeo per i Beni Culturali Ravello (Bari, Italy: Edipuglia, 2009).
5. The term Isolympic derives from a Greek word and means that the games were equal in importance to the Olympic games in Greece.
2. Michael L. Galaty and Charles Watkinson, eds., Archaeology under Dictatorship (New York: Springer, 2004).
3. Marcello Barbanera, L’archeologia degli italiani: Storia, metodi e orientamenti dell’archeologia classica in Italia (Roma: Editori Riuniti, 1998).
5. Elisa Cella, Maja Gori, and Alessandro Pintucci, “The Trowel and the Sickle: Italian Archaeology and Its Marxist Legacy,” Ex Novo 1 (2016): 71–83.
6. Processual archaeology, formerly known as “new archaeology,” is a form of archaeological theory that had its genesis in 1958. Proponents of this new phase in archaeology claimed that with the rigorous use of the scientific method it was possible to get past the limits of the archaeological record and learn something about how the people who used the artifacts lived.
9. A tell is an artificial mound formed from the accumulated refuse of people living on the same site for hundreds or thousands of years.
1. Cornelius Holtorf, From Stonehenge to Las Vegas: Archaeology as Popular Culture (Lanham, MD: AltaMira, 2005).
3. G. Q. Giglioli, L’arte etrusca (Rome: Fratelli Treves, 1935), xiii.
5. Marie-Laurence Haack, “The Invention of the Etruscan ‘Race’: E. Fischer, Nazi Geneticist, and the Etruscans,” Quaderni di storia, 80 (2014): 251–82.
6. Maurizio Harari, “Pallottino africanista,” in Les Étrusques au temps du fascisme et du nazisme (Pessac, France: Ausonius Éditions, 2016).
8. C. Vernesi et al., “The Etruscans: A Population-Genetic Study,” American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (2004): 694–704.
9. J. Pardo-Seco et al., “A Genome-Wide Study of Modern-Day Tuscans: Revisiting Herodotus’s Theory on the Origin of the Etruscans,” PLoS One 9, no. 9 (2014): e105920.
10. Phil Perkins, “DNA and Etruscan Identity,” in Etruscology, ed. Alessandro Naso (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017), 109–18.
13. M. Munzi, “Quaranta anni di archeologia coloniale a Sabratha, 1911–1951,” in Il Museo di Sabratha nei disegni di Diego Vincifori: Architettura e archeologia nella Libia degli anni trenta, ed. L. Musso and L. Buccino (Sesto Fiorentino, Italy: Insegna del Giglio, 2013), 203.
14. M. Munzi and Andrea Zocchi, “The Lepcitanian Territory: Cultural Heritage in Danger in War and Peace,” Libyan Studies 48 (November 2017): 51–67.
15. A. Del Boca, “The Myths, Suppressions, Denials and Defaults of Italian Colonialism,” in A Place in the Sun: Africa in Italian Colonial Culture from Post-Unification to the Present, ed. P. Palumbo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 7–36; C. De Cesari, “The Paradoxes of Colonial Reparation: Foreclosing Memory and the 2008 Italy–Libya Friendship Treaty,” Memory Studies 5, no. 3 (2012): 316–26.
16. On the Sea People, see Eric H. Cline, 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).
17. N. Brodie and C. Renfrew, “Looting and the World’s Archaeological Heritage: The Inadequate Response,” Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005): 344.
18. Brodie and Renfrew, “Looting and the World’s Archaeological Heritage,” 344.
19. The Carabinieri are the national gendarmerie of Italy who primarily carry out domestic policing duties. In contrast to the Polizia di Stato, the Carabinieri are a military force under the direct authority of the Ministry of Defense.
20. More information on Medici and his decades-long career as art smuggler and tomb raider can be found in the 2006 book authored by P. Watson and C. Todeschini, The Medici Conspiracy.
21. C. J. Richard, The Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome and the American Enlightenment (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).
22. Gordon Lobay, “Archaeological Looting in Central Italy: Developing Protection Strategies,” Intellectual Property Issues in Cultural Heritage (blog) January 31, 2014, https://www.sfu.ca/ipinch/outputs/blog/archaeological-looting-central-italy-developing-protection-strategies/.
23. On this controversy, see also chapter 5 on the archaeological excavations during the construction of the underground line of Rome Metro C.
24. ISTAT, https://www.istat.it/it/files/2018/11/report-movimento-turistico-anno-2017.pdf.
25. The exact names of these World Heritage Sites are “Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in That City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura”; “Archaeological Areas of Pompei, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata”; and “Historic Centre of Florence,” https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/it.
26. T. Cevoli, I flussi turistici come fattore di degrado del bene archeologico. Il caso di Pompei: dati, problematiche e prospettive. Presented at the conference Diagnosis for the Conservation and Valorization of Cultural Heritage, Naples December 15–16, 2011.