Introduction
1. Coeur qui Brule to Delassus, 1800, Box 3, Chouteau Collections, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis.
2. We cannot know if Coeur qui Brule spoke French, and it is very likely that he dictated the letter. But it is quite possible that he spoke some French; for just one example of Indians (especially slaves and former slaves) “who talked excellent French,” see Patricia Cleary, The World, the Flesh, and the Devil: A History of Colonial St. Louis (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 282. The letter does indicate that Coeur qui Brule understood what the French wanted to hear. While he probably wanted his visit to have diplomatic and commercial ramifications, the particular choice of words would seem to indicate the genuine curiosity of a tourist.
3. Coeur qui Brule to Delassus, 1800, Box 3, Chouteau Collections, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis. For the Missouri Indians story, see Jay Gitlin, The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 18; J. Frederick Fausz, Founding St. Louis: First City of the New West (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2011), 118–120.
4. Gitlin, The Bourgeois Frontier; Fausz, Founding St. Louis; and Patricia Cleary, The World, the Flesh, and the Devil: A History of Colonial St. Louis (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 42–48. In her book on early St. Louis, Cleary describes the place as a “global village . . . at once isolated—distant from European seats of power—and part of vast continental and trans-Atlantic networks of trade and migration” (37). Her characterization fits nicely into our formulation of frontier cities.
5. Richard C. Wade, The Urban Frontier: Pioneer Life in Early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and St. Louis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 1. Wade’s book is a classic source but, a half-century on, is showing its age. Wade went on to tell Euro-American stories of solving “Indian problems” and “civilizing” in ways that current histories would question. For a sense of these differences, see Adam Arenson, “The Double Life of St. Louis: Narratives of Origins and Maturity in Wade’s Urban Frontier,” Indiana Magazine of History 105:3, Richard Wade Special Issue (September 2009), 246–261, and Barbara Berglund, Making San Francisco American: Cultural Frontiers in the Urban West, 1846–1906 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 221.
6. While Truett and Hämäläinen have outlined complementary trends in borderlands studies emphasizing “spatial mobility, situational identity, local contingency, and the ambiguities of power” we insist on calling these frontier cities, rather than borderlands cities. Pekka Hämäläinen and Samuel Truett, “On Borderlands,” Journal of American History 98:2 (September 2011), 338. The geographic distance of frontier cities from imperial centers and global markets is what helped define them, not merely their place along the seam of various patterns of control. Moreover, far from being “local and regional” (Hämäläinen and Truett, 349), frontier cities describe places we think are most often local and global. They are most interesting when they are the sites of this juxtaposition.
We don’t agree that frontiers are, by definition, places or zones that include a teleology driven by European newcomers—as we insist throughout, frontier is a word redeemable from the Turnerian viewpoint. Full global integration removes the frontier nature of these places, but the interplay of their city logic and their frontier logic determines how, at different timescales, in different ways, and to different ends, frontier cities continue to be their own centers. They provide a narrative that recasts both national and imperial developments. Frontier cities, in this way, provide a link to later transnational conditions. Cities never close.
7. See especially William Cronon, George A. Miles, and Jay Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America’s Western Past (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992); Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987); Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, eds., Frontier in History: North America and South Africa Compared (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981); and Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron, “From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States, and the Peoples in Between in North America,” American Historical Review 104:3 (June 1999), 814–841.
8. For the imperial inclinations of the early United States see, for example, Amy Kaplan, “‘Left Alone with America’: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture,” in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993) and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, This Violent Empire: The Birth of an American National Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
9. Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (London: Chatto & Windus, 1973). See also Dolores Hayden, Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820–2000 (New York: Pantheon Books, 2003); Carl Abbott, How Cities Won the West: Four Centuries of Urban Change in Western North America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008); Sam B. Warner, Jr., The Urban Wilderness: A History of the American City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961).
10. Robert S. Lopez, “The Crossroads Within the Wall,” in The Historian and the City, ed. Oscar Handlin and John Burchard (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1963), 27–28.
11. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson Smith (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1991); Gyan Prakash and Kevins Kruse, eds., The Spaces of the Modern City: Imaginaries, Politics, and Everyday Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
12. This is reflected in recent figures presented at the meeting of the Urban History Association in 2010. Of the ten most cited scholars in the Journal of Urban History, books on the twentieth century dominated, with only two works that focused on an earlier period. And of the books reviewed in that publication since 2005, the temporal breakdown is illuminating. The journal reviewed 181 books in the “1870 to the present” category while the period spanning from the ancient world to 1870 warranted the review of only 52 books. Clay McShane presented these figures at the Urban History Association meeting’s roundtable session, “The American Urban History Canon,” October 21, 2010.
13. As the Australian historian Penelope Edmonds has recently argued, the “pervasive trend of privileging city planning and infrastructure over culture and identities, of focusing on colonial cities without attention to the dispossessed and displaced Indigenous peoples on whose land these cities were built, as well as the wider issues of settler colonialism and race, represents a methodological schism between the disciplines of history and urban studies.” Penelope Edmonds, Urbanizing Frontiers: Indigenous Peoples and Settlers in 19th-Century Pacific Rim Cities (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2010), 8. See also Gitlin, The Bourgeois Frontier, 187–190; Adam Arenson, The Great Heart of the Republic: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), chapter 1.
14. Coll Thrush, Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing-Over Place (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007); Philip J. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006).
15. Melvin M. Webber, among others, shaped our thinking about “community without propinquity” and the “non-place urban realm.” See Melvin M. Webber et al., Explorations into Urban Structure (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964); Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (New York: Doubleday, 1991); Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (New York: Basic Books, 1987); and Robert Bruegmann, Sprawl: A Compact History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). Historians have been slow to apply such insights to cities and communities in the past. For one example, however, see John Mack Faragher, Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986).
For recent investigations of Seattle and its Native environs, see Matthew Klingle, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007) and Thrush, Native Seattle.
16. Berglund, Making San Francisco American.
17. For studies without an urban angle, see Theodore Binnema, Common and Contested Ground: A Human and Environmental History of the Northwestern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001); Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972); Kathleen DuVal, The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
18. For key studies of these other continents, Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York: Routledge, 1995); Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992); Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Vicente L. Rafael, White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000).
For some recent attempts at applying these insights to North America, see Ann Laura Stoler, ed., Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006); Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001); Berglund, Making San Francisco American; and Alexandra Minna Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).
There is a substantial literature on cities in colonial Latin America. It is impossible to avoid cities when studying the American empires of Portugal and Spain, whose policymakers understood urban planning as a critical tool of authority and an expression of culture. Well-ordered cities provided a level of legibility in distant colonies. Indigenous peoples were incorporated into both empires and were clearly visible in their cities. Not surprisingly, historians of Latin America have produced studies of colonial cities that take both empire and indigeneity very seriously. See, for example, Dora P. Crouch, Daniel J. Garr, and Axel I. Mundigo, Spanish City Planning in North America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982); Alejandro de la Fuente, Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Jay Kinsbruner, The Colonial Spanish-American City: Urban Life in the Age of Atlantic Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005); Jane E. Mangan, Trading Roles: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Urban Economy in Colonial Potosí (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); María Emma Mannarelli, Private Passions and Public Sins: Men and Women in Seventeenth-Century Lima (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007).
19. Howard Roberts Lamar and Leonard Monteath Thompson, The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981); John C. Weaver, The Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650–1900 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003); Robin W. Winks, The Myth of the American Frontier: Its Relevance to America, Canada and Australia, Sir George Watson Lecture, 1971 (Leicester, England: Leicester University Press, 1971); Paul Sabin, “Home and Abroad: The Two ‘Wests’ of Twentieth-Century United States History,” Pacific Historical Review 66:3 (August 1997), 305–335; Adam Arenson, “Anglo-Saxonism in the Yukon: The Klondike Nugget and American-British Relations in the ‘Two Wests,’ 1898–1901,” Pacific Historical Review 76:3 (August 2007), 373–403.
20. Here we are thinking of, for example, William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991); John Mack Faragher, Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Jeffrey S. Adler, Yankee Merchants and the Making of the Urban West: The Rise and Fall of Antebellum St. Louis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); John M. Findlay, Magic Lands: Western Cityscapes and American Culture after 1940 (Berkeley: University of California, 1992); Berglund, Making San Francisco American; Carl Abbott, How Cities Won the West; Eugene P. Moehring, Urbanism and Empire in the Far West, 1840–1890 (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2004); Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Verso, 1992); Matthew Klingle, Emerald City; Thrush, Native Seattle.
21. Contrast Patricia Nelson Limerick, Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Knopf, 1987); Andrew Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Walter T. K. Nugent, Into the West: The Story of Its People (New York: Knopf, 1999); William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991); James Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2002); Stephanie E. Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007); Kathleen DuVal, The Native Ground; Stuart B. Schwartz, All Can Be Saved: Religious Tolerance and Salvation in the Iberian Atlantic World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Daniel Richter, Before the Revolution: America’s Ancient Pasts (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011); and Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004).
See also the critiques in Robert Johnston, “Beyond ‘The West’: Regionalism, Liberalism, and the Evasion of Politics in the New Western History,” Rethinking History 2 (Summer 1998), 239–277; and Stephen Aron, “Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History,” Pacific Historical Review 63 (1994), 125–147, which have bearing on the scope of analysis.
22. Arenson, comment, and Samuel Truett, “Global Crossings, Local Tales: Seeing the World in Borderlands and Transnational History” (paper presented at “The South African Influence on Landscapes of the American West,” Western History Association annual meeting, Incline Village-Lake Tahoe, October 15, 2010). For classic works of western history that were global in their outlook, see Howard R. Lamar, Dakota Territory, 1861–1889: A Study of Frontier Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956); Howard R. Lamar, The Far Southwest, 1846–1912: A Territorial History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966); Harold A. Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1930); Hubert H. Bancroft, The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, 39 vols. (San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Co., 1882–1890).
Chapter 1
1. This summons is reproduced as Document 1 in the Appendix to C. R. Boxer, Portuguese Society in the Tropics: The Municipal Councils of Goa, Macao, Bahia, and Luanda, 1510–1800 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), 153–154.
2. Useful documents on Portuguese interactions with many of the islands of Southeast Asia can be found in Ronald Bishop Smith, ed., The First Age of the Portuguese Embassies, Navigations and Peregrinations to the Kingdoms and Islands of Southeast Asia (1509–1521) (Bethesda: Decatur Press, 1968). On the Portuguese in East Africa, and their connections to India and other points east, see Michael N. Pearson, Port Cities and Intruders: The Swahili Coast, India, and Portugal in the Early Modern Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998). For an introduction and overview of European activities in Asia, see J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance (Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1953). Photographic images of many of the wonderful artifacts obtained by the Portuguese through trade with Asia, Africa, India, and elsewhere in this period are reproduced and discussed in Jay A. Levenson, ed., Encompassing the Globe: Portugal and the World in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2007).
3. The most thorough analysis of Portuguese trade in China from the mid-seventeenth to mid-eighteenth centuries is George Bryan Souza, The Survival of Empire: Portuguese Trade and Society in China and the South China Sea, 1630–1754 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
4. On the movement of silver to China, see Dennis Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, “Silk for Silver: Trade via Manila and Macao in the 17th Century,” Philippine Studies 44 (1996), 52–68; Dennis Owen Flynn, World Silver and Monetary History in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1996); Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez, “Born Again: Globalization’s Sixteenth Century Origins,” Pacific Economic Review 13:3 (2008), 359–387; Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
5. On Potosí, see Jane Mangan, Trading Roles: Gender, Ethnicity, and the Urban Economy in Colonial Potosí (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005); P. J. Blackwell, Miners of the Red Mountain: Indian Labor in Potosí, 1545–1650 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984).
6. Flynn and Giráldez, “Silk for Silver,” 62–64.
7. Sofia Sanabrais, “The Biombo or Folding Screen: Examining the Impact of Japan on Artistic Production and the Globalization of Taste in Seventeenth-Century New Spain” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2005).
8. Luís Filipe Barreto, Ploughing the Sea: The Portuguese and Asia, c. 1480–c. 1630 (Lisbon: Comissão para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 2000), 52. For a detailed discussion of Portuguese trade with Asia in this period, especially of Portuguese investment and returns among both crown and private interests, see James C. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Hapsburgs, 1580–1640 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). But also see A. R. Disney, Twilight of the Pepper Empire: Portuguese Trade in Southwest India in the Early Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978).
9. Leslie España Bauzon, “Deficit Government: Mexico and the Philippine Situado (1606–1804)” (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1970).
10. For Goa’s relationship with other Portuguese settlements, particularly in the Bay of Bengal, see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Improvising Empire: Portuguese Trade and Settlement in the Bay of Bengal, 1500–1700 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990). For an overview of Goa’s trade, and of secondary sources analyzing that trade, see M. N. Pearson, “Goa-Based Seaborne Trade, 17th–18th Centuries,” in Goa Through the Ages, vol. 2, An Economic History, ed. Teotonio R. de Souza (New Delhi: Goa University, 1990), 146–175.
11. On Goa, see M. N. Pearson, “Looking Outward: Colonial Goa in the Sixteenth Century,” in The Rise and Growth of the Colonial Port Cities in Asia, ed. Dilip K. Basu (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 8–11 and “Goa During the First Century of Portuguese Rule,” Itinerario 8:1 (1984), 36–57. A. Da Silvo Rego analyzes Portuguese administration of its Asian empire, with a particularly thoughtful discussion of Goa, in Portuguese Colonization in the Sixteenth Century: A Study of the Royal Ordinances (Regimentos) (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1959).
12. Kenneth J. Banks, Chasing Empire Across the Sea: Communications and the State in the French Atlantic, 1713–1764 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002). Banks shows the usefulness of the city to imperial intentions, but the city is not central to the building or maintenance of empire. An excellent overview of the city for the Spanish can be found in Richard L. Kagan, Urban Images of the Hispanic World, 1493–1793 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).
13. Gary B. Nash, First City: Philadelphia and the Forging of Historical Memory (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001); John W. Reps, “C2 + L2 = S2?: Another Look at the Origins of Savannah’s Town Plan,” in Forty Years of Diversity: Essays on Colonial Georgia, ed. Harvey H. Jackson and Phinizy Spalding (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984), 101–151.
14. Walter Rossa, Cidades Indo-Portuguesas: Contribuições para o estudo do urbanismo português no Hindustão Ocidental, trans. Richard Trewinnard (Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemoraçōes dos Descobrimentos Portugeses, 1997), 50–51.
15. Afonso de Albuquerque to King Manuel, April 1512, in Albuquerque: Caesar of the East, ed., trans., and annot. T. F. Earle and John Villiers (Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips, Ltd., 1990), 147. Timothy J. Coates shows the success of the intermarriage policy in seventeenth-century Goa, where both “Portuguese men and women found marriage to Goans and other South Asians more desirable than to each other.” Coates explains this largely in economic terms. See his book, Convicts and Orphans: Forced and State-Sponsored Colonizers in the Portuguese Empire, 1550–1775 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 159–161.
16. Rossa, Cidades, 41.
17. For the operation of the câmara in Goa, see Boxer, Portuguese Society, 12–41, 141–149.
18. For the administration of Portuguese India in its intended form and in practice, which compares administrative effectiveness in different Indian settlements, see M. N. Pearson, The Portuguese in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Much interesting discussion of cultural interaction and transition in Goa can be found in Shihan de Silva Jayasuriya, The Portuguese in the East: A Cultural History of a Maritime Trading Empire (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2008).
19. Rossa, Cidades, 94.
20. For Macau I draw upon Boxer, Portuguese Society, 42–71; Souza, Survival of Empire; B. V. Pires, “Origins and Early History of Macau,” in Macau: City of Commerce and Culture, ed. R. D. Cremer (Hong Kong: UEA Press, 1987), 7–21; R. D. Cremer, “From Portugal to Japan: Macau’s Place in the History of World Trade,” in Cremer, Macau, 23–38; Barreto, Ploughing the Sea; Clive Willis, ed., China and Macau: Portuguese Encounters with the World in the Age of Discoveries (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2002); Malyn Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668 (London: Routledge, 2005).
21. Boxer, Portuguese Society, 43.
22. The document is reproduced along with other useful documents on Macau in Willis, China and Macau, 84–86. On Bocarro, see Garcia de Orta, “Antonio Bocarro and the ‘Livro do Estado da Índia Oriental,’” in Portuguese Conquest and Commerce in Southeast Asia, 1500–1750, ed. C. R. Boxer (London: Variorum Reprints, 1985), chapter 10.
23. Boxer, Portuguese Society, 56–57.
24. A good starting point for contextualizing Portuguese activities in Nagasaki with the rest of Asia is Newitt, History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion. See also C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951); Catarina Madeira Santos, Portugal auf den Schiffsrouten der Welt, trans. Jonathan Weightman (Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemoraçōes dos Descobrimentos Portugeses, 1997), 37–40. Much valuable material on the Spanish and Portuguese in Japan can be found in Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Mexico: Geronymo Balli, 1609). For an English translation, see E. H. Blair and J. A. Robertson, trans. and eds., History of the Philippine Islands . . . by Dr. Antonio de Morga, 2 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1907), especially the end of volume 1. Sanjay Subrahmanyam reminds us that Japanese trade was important to Portuguese development in Asia, but that it “represented no more than one of several new directions taken by the Portuguese enterprise in this period.” Improvising Empire, 141–142.
25. M. N. Pearson, “Spain and Spanish Trade in Southeast Asia,” in European Entry into the Pacific: Spain, and the Acapulco-Manila Galleons, ed. Dennis O. Flynn, Aruturo Giraldez, and James Sobredo (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2001), 118–120.
26. For the early development of Manila, see Robert R. Reed, “The Foundation and Morphology of Hispanic Manila: Colonial Images and Philippine Realities,” in Basu, Rise and Growth, 197–205. Much of the primary source material is available in Emma H. Blair and James A. Robertson, eds., The Philippine Islands, 1493–1598, 5 vols. (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903–1909). See also John L. Pheland, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565–1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959); Daniel F. Doepper, “The Development of Philippine Cities Before 1900,” Journal of Asian Studies 31 (1972), 769–792. The best discussion of Spain’s movement of the capital from one place to the next, finally settling on Manila, can be found in Robert R. Reed, Colonial Manila: The Context of Hispanic Urbanism and Process of Morphogenesis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 17–26. Indispensible for study of Manila is de Morga’s history published in 1609. An experienced Spanish official, his work includes not only his observations from living in the Philippines, but draws on (and reproduces excerpts from) documents no longer extant. Blair and Robertson, History of the Philippine Islands (especially the end of volume 1). For the history of early Manila, and of the Manila Galleon, still useful is William Lytle Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1939).
27. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade, 232–234, 236.
28. Reed, Colonial Manila, 53; M. T. Paske-Smith, “The Japanese Trade and Residence in the Philippines: Before and During the Spanish Occupation,” in Flynn et al., European Entry, 139–164; Pearson, “Spain and Spanish Trade,” 125–126.
29. Reed, Colonial Manila, 54–55, provides two valuable maps of Manila that include the location of the ethnic enclaves outside the city.
30. For the Chinese community in Manila, see Lucille Chia, “The Butcher, the Baker, and the Carpenter: Chinese Sojourners in the Spanish Philippines and Their Impact on Southern Fujian (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries),” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 49:4 (2006), 509–534, especially 509–523; Berthold Laufer, “The Relations of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands,” in Flynn et al., European Entry, 55–92; Pearson, “Spain and Spanish Trade,” 117–138; Benito Legardo, Jr., “Two and a Half Centuries of the Galleon Trade,” in Flynn et al., European Entry, 337–365.
31. Katherine Bjork, “The Link That Kept the Philippines Spanish: Mexican Merchant Interests and the Manila Trade, 1571–1815,” Journal of World History 9:1 (Spring 1998), 42. For varying aspects of the Manila trade, see the essays published in Flynn et al., European Entry.
32. Bjork, “Link That Kept,” 42–46.
33. The best study of the Philippine trade in the context of its relationship to both Mexico and Spain is Bauzon, “Deficit Government.” See also Bjork, “Link That Kept,” 25–50; C. R. Boxer, “Plata es Sangre: Sidelights on the Drain of Spanish-American Silver in the Far East, 1550–1770,” in Flynn et al., European Entry, 165–186.
34. Bjork, “Link That Kept,” 33–37; Bauzon, “Deficit Government.”
35. Luke Clossey, “Merchants, Migrants, Missionaries, and Globalization in the Early-Modern Pacific,” Journal of Global History (2006), 49–51.
36. William J. McCarthy, “Between Policy and Prerogative: Malfeasance in the Inspection of the Manila Galleons at Acapulco,” Colonial Latin American Historical Review 2:2 (Spring 1993), 167.
37. Pearson, “Spain and Spanish Trade,” 123; Hang-Sheng Chuan, “The Chinese Silk Trade with Spanish America from the late Ming to the Mid-Ch’ing Period,” in Flynn et al., European Entry, 241–259; Clossey, “Merchants, Migrants,” 41–58.
38. “Royal Ordinances Concerning the Laying Out of Towns,” trans. Zeliz Nuttall, Hispanic American Historical Review 5:2 (May 1922), 249–254.
39. Ibid., quotations from 250, 254.
40. Ibid., quotations from 250, 253.
41. Ibid., quotation from 252.
42. Ibid.
43. Kagan, Urban Images.
44. Banks, Chasing Empire; Kenneth J. Banks, “A Little Versailles in the Wilderness: Quebec, and the Aesthetics of Royal Power, 1670–1760” (paper presented at The Center for Historical Research, Ohio State University, May 16, 2008).
45. For Philadelphia, see Nathan Ross Kozuskanich, “‘For the Security and Protection of the Community’: The Frontier and the Makings of Pennsylvanian Constitutionalism” (Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 2005); for Boston, see Richard R. Johnson, Adjustment to Empire: The New England Colonies, 1675–1715 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1981); for Charles Town, see Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1715 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).
1. Christopher Cooper and Robert Block, Disaster: Hurricane Katrina and the Failure of Homeland Security (New York: Times Books, 2006), 151, 237.
2. Bill Walsh, “Idaho Senator Says Fraud Part of La. Culture,” Times-Picayune, October 15, 2006, A-18.
3. John Lewis Gaddis, The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 14.
4. For a sample, see Arnold R. Hirsch, “New Orleans: Sunbelt in the Swamp,” Sunbelt Cities: Politics and Growth Since World War II, ed. Richard M. Bernard and Bradley R. Rice (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983), 100–137; Kim Lacy Rogers, Righteous Lives: Narratives of the New Orleans Civil Rights Movement (New York: New York University Press, 1993); Pamela Tyler, Silk Stockings and Ballot Boxes: Women and Politics in New Orleans, 1920–1963 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996); Alecia P. Long, The Great Southern Babylon: Sex, Race, and Respectability in New Orleans, 1865–1920 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004); Kent Germany, New Orleans after the Promises: Poverty, Citizenship, and the Search for the Great Society (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007).
5. Anthony J. Stanonis, Creating the Big Easy: New Orleans and the Emergence of Modern Tourism, 1918–1945 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006); J. Mark Souther, New Orleans on Parade: Tourism and the Transformation of the Crescent City (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006); Kevin Fox Gotham, Authentic New Orleans: Tourism, Culture, and Race in the Big Easy (New York: New York University Press, 2007). For comparable studies of other American cities and regions, see Dona Brown, Inventing New England: Regional Tourism in the Nineteenth Century (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995); Simon J. Bronner, Popularizing Pennsylvania: Henry W. Shoemaker and the Progressive Uses of Folklore and History (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996); Thomas S. Bremer, Blessed with Tourists: The Borderlands of Religion and Tourism in San Antonio (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Stephanie E. Yuhl, A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); and Steven Conn, Metropolitan Philadelphia: Living with the Presence of the Past (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
6. Billy Sothern, Down in New Orleans: Reflections from a Drowned City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), xx. To sample how the storm and its aftermath are already influencing scholarship about the city’s past, present, and future relationship with the rest of the nation, see the special issue of the Journal of American History 94 (December 2007), 693–876, “Through the Eye of Katrina: The Past as Prologue,” ed. Lawrence N. Powell and Clarence L. Mohr.
7. Historical Sketch Book and Guide to New Orleans and Environs Edited and Compiled by Several Leading Writers of the New Orleans Press (New Orleans, 1885), Introduction (n.p.). For closer analysis of how the otherness of colonial Louisiana was deliberately written into nationalist and regionalist narratives over the nineteenth century, see Daniel H. Usner, Jr., “Between Creoles and Yankees: The Discursive Representation of Colonial Louisiana in American History,” in French Colonial Louisiana and the Atlantic World, ed. Bradley G. Bond (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 1–21. I explain how twentieth-century historians handled this representation in Usner, “The Significance of the Gulf South in Early American History,” in Coastal Encounters: The Transformation of the Gulf South in the Eighteenth Century, ed. Richmond F. Brown (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), 13–30.
8. For a breakthrough analysis of how Richard Wade helped perpetuate the Anglo-American narrative’s appropriation of St. Louis’s early history, see Adam Arenson, “The Double Life of St. Louis: Narratives of Origins and Maturity in Wade’s Urban Frontier,” Indiana Magazine of History 105 (September 2009), 246–261.
9. Richard C. Wade, Urban Frontier: The Rise of Western Cities, 1790–1830 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 1–7, 42, 66–67, 79–89, 119, 126.
10. Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Journal d’un voyage fait par ordre du roi dans l’Amérique septentrionale (Paris: Nyon fils, 1744), 3:429–430, 438–439.
11. Shannon Lee Dawdy, Building the Devil’s Empire: French Colonial New Orleans (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008). For a valuable discussion of urban refounding after disaster, see Adam Arenson, The Great Heart of the Republic: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011), 20–27.
12. Ann Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper, “Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda,” in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Cooper and Stoler (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 3–6, 17–18.
13. Dunbar Rowland and A. G. Sanders, eds. and trans., Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion (Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1929), 2:599, 623–624, 654. For an overview of these frontier relationships in early New Orleans, see Daniel H. Usner, Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 31–63.
14. Daniel H. Usner, Jr., “American Indians in Colonial New Orleans,” in Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, ed. Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and Tom Hatley, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 163–186.
15. Christopher Morris, “Impenetrable but Easy: The French Transformation of the Lower Mississippi Valley and the Founding of New Orleans,” Transforming New Orleans and Its Environs: Centuries of Change, ed. Craig E. Colten (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 22–42; Dawdy, Building the Devil’s Empire. To learn how the physical geography of Boston also influenced both the market activity among workers and the response from officials and merchants, see Phyllis Whitman Hunter, Purchasing Identity in the Atlantic World: Massachusetts Merchants, 1670–1780 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 25–27, 101–105.
16. Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 3:516.
17. Heloise H. Cruzat, trans., “Louisiana in 1724: Banet’s Report to the Company of the Indies, Dated Paris, December 20, 1724,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 12 (1929), 125; Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 2:418–419.
18. Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves, 46–59; Shannon Lee Dawdy, “The Burden of Louis Congo and the Evolution of Savagery in Colonial Louisiana,” in Discipline and the Other Body: Correction, Corporeality, Colonialism, ed. Steven Pierce and Anupama Rao (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 61–89.
19. Mississippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 1:405–406; “Records of the Superior Council,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 19 (April 1936), 479, 503–504.
20. Jean M. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 69. Important studies that reinforce this comparison in various ways include Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975); Timothy Breen and Stephen Innes, “Myne Owne Ground”: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1640–1676 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); Billy G. Smith, The “Lower Sort”: Philadelphia’s Laboring People, 1750–1800 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); John Mack Faragher, Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1992); Betty Wood, Women’s Work, Men’s Work: The Informal Slave Economies of Lowcountry Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995); Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpart: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Timothy James Locker, Lines in the Sand: Race and Class in Lowcountry Georgia, 1790–1860 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); Jane T. Merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); April Lee Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations in the Seventeenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004); Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery, and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005); James E. McWilliams, Building the Bay Colony: Local Economy and Culture in Early Massachusetts (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007).
21. “Report on Louisiana,” n.d. [ca. 1750]. Louisiana Miscellany Collection, Library of Congress, Manuscripts, f. 1493, quoted in Samuel Wilson, The Vieux Carré, New Orleans: Its Plan, Its Growth, Its Architecture (New Orleans: Marcou O’Leary and Associates, 1968), 37.
22. Smith, The “Lower Sort,” 21–26; Steven Rosswurm, Arms, Country, and Class: The Philadelphia Militia and “Lower Sort” during the American Revolution, 1775–1783 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 35–37; Clare A. Lyons, Sex among the Rabble: An Intimate History of Gender and Power in the Age of Revolution, Philadelphia, 1730–1830 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 193–195.
23. “Report on Louisiana,” quoted in Wilson, Vieux Carré, 37.
24. Henry P. Dart, ed., “Cabarets of New Orleans in the French Colonial Period,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 19 (July 1936), 581.
25. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992); Thomas N. Ingersoll, Mammon and Manon: The First Slave Society in the Deep South, 1718–1819 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1998).
26. Usner, “American Indians in Colonial New Orleans.”
27. Carl A. Brasseaux, trans., ed., and annot., A Comparative View of French Louisiana, 1699 and 1762: The Journals of Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville and Jean-Jacques-Blaise d’Abbadie (Lafayette: Center for Louisiana Studies, 1979), 118. For more information about the presence and influence of American Indians in the city during the nineteenth century, see Daniel H. Usner, Jr., American Indians in the Lower Mississippi Valley: Social and Economic Histories (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 111–137.
28. Jennifer M. Spear, Race, Sex, and Social Order in Early New Orleans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009).
29. Marc de Villiers du Terrage, The Last Years of French Louisiana, trans. Hosea Phillips and ed. Carl A. Brasseaux and Glen R. Conrad (Lafayette: Center for Louisiana Studies, 1982), 101–102. For comparable sources of tension between officials and merchants in eighteenth-century New York, see Cathy Matson, Merchants and Empire: Trading in Colonial New York (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), and Thomas M. Truxis, Defying Empire: Trading with the Enemy in Colonial New York (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008). Also see Wim Klooster, “Inter-Imperial Smuggling in the Americas, 1600–1800,” in Soundings in Atlantic History: Latent Structures and Intellectual Currents, 1500–1830 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 141–180, for analysis of the fuller context.
30. Villiers du Terrage, Last Years of French Louisiana, 215–217. For details about the Louisiana Rebellion of 1768, see John Preston Moore, Revolt in Louisiana: The Spanish Occupation, 1766–1770 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1976; Carl A. Brasseaux, Denis-Nicolas Foucault and the New Orleans Rebellion of 1768 (Ruston: Louisiana Tech University Press, 1987); and Dawdy, Building the Devil’s Empire, 219–246.
31. Carl A. Brasseaux, The Founding of New Acadia: The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987); Gilbert C. Din, The Canary Islanders of Louisiana (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988).
32. Thomas N. Ingersoll, “The Slave Trade and the Ethnic Diversity of Louisiana’s Slave Community,” Louisiana History 37 (Spring 1996), 133–161; Jean-Pierre Leglaunec, “Slave Migrations in Spanish and Early American Louisiana: New Sources and New Estimates,” Louisiana History 46 (Spring 2005), 185–209.
33. For this early Cuban influence on New Orleans, see Ned Sublette, The World That Made New Orleans: From Spanish Silver to Congo Square (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2008). Highlighting political and economic channels during the Spanish era, Sublette underscores Kongo influence on slave community and culture in Louisiana via Cuba. In 1787, for example, 41 of 108 ships leaving New Orleans went to Havana. In 1798, 63 of 102 left for Havana.
34. Kimberly S. Hanger, Bounded Lives, Bounded Places: Free Black Society in Colonial New Orleans, 1769–1803 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997); Spear, Race, Sex, and Social Order.
35. Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 317–374; Gilbert C. Din and John E. Harkins, The New Orleans Cabildo: Colonial Louisiana’s First City Government, 1769–1803 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996).
36. Paul F. Lachance, “The Politics of Fear: French Louisianians and the Slave Trade, 1786–1809,” Plantation Society 1 (June 1979), 162–197; Leglaunec, “Slave Migrations;” Peter J. Kastor, The Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 115–120, 127–131; Nathalie Dessens, From Saint-Domingue to New Orleans: Migration and Influences (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007).
37. George Washington Cable, “Creole Slave Songs,” Century Magazine 31 (April 1886), 814–815; Brenda Marie Osbey, All Saints: New and Selected Poems (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 108–114. For discussion of a later maroon-camp leader, see Bryan Wagner, “Disarmed and Dangerous: The Strange Career of Bras-Coupé,” Representations 92 (Fall 2005), 117–151.
38. Charles César Robin, Voyage to Louisiana, 1803–1805 (New Orleans: Pelican Press, 1966), 30–31.
39. Edna B. Freiberg, Bayou St. John in Colonial Louisiana, 1699–1803 (New Orleans: Harvey Press, 1980, 298–321; Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 19–86; John Magill, “On Perilous Ground,” Louisiana Cultural Vistas 16 (Winter 2005–2006), 32–43.
40. James Sidbury, Ploughshares into Swords: Race, Rebellion, and Identity in Gabriel’s Virginia, 1730–1810 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 151–183.
41. Kastor, Nation’s Crucible, 56.
42. Clarence E. Carter, ed., The Territorial Papers of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1940), 9:159–160, 174–175.
43. Dunbar Rowland, ed., The Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1801–1816 (Jackson: Mississippi State Library and Archives, 1917), 2:54–55, 217–218. For a close analysis of Claiborne’s decision making over this issue, see Erin M. Greenwald, “To Strike a Balance: New Orleans’ Free Colored Community and the Diplomacy of William Charles Cole Claiborne,” in Nexus of Empire: Negotiating Loyalty and Identity in the Revolutionary Borderlands, 1760s-1820s, eds. Gene Allen Smith and Sylvia L. Hilton (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2010), 113–139.
44. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1:354.
45. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 2:113–114, 134.
46. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 2:244–246.
47. Territorial Papers, 9:222.
48. Territorial Papers, 9:265–266.
49. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 2:256–257.
50. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 2:310–311; Territorial Papers, 9:280–309.
51. Territorial Papers, 9:298.
52. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 3:357.
53. Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 4:129–130, 229.
54. Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), 73–162; Daniel Rasmussen, American Uprising: The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2011).
55. Berquin-Duvallon, Travels in Louisiana and the Floridas, in the Year 1802, Giving a Correct Picture of Those Countries, trans. John Davis (New York, 1806), 53–54.
56. January 22, January 29, 1796, October 6, 1797, January 21, 1803, Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo, New Orleans Public Library; May 19, August 8, December 3, 1804, April 4, May 18, 1805, August 6, 1806, March 18, 1807, October 3, 1810, November 2, 1812, August 14, 1813, Proceedings of the Counseil de Ville, New Orleans Public Library; Letter Books of William C. C. Claiborne, 1:380, 393.
57. For some insightful commentary on what he calls “a longstanding geographical turn in early American history,” see Trevor Burnard’s July 2008 essay on Common-Place, “A Passion for Places,” www.common-place.org/vol-08/no-04/burnard.
58. The imaginative performance of an improvisational past is perhaps the most important expression of New Orleans’ unique identity, continuing into the twenty-first century. See Michael P. Smith, “New Orleans’ Carnival Culture from the Underside,” Plantation Society in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Tropical and Subtropical History and Culture 3 (1990), 11–32; Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circum-Atlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); and Roger D. Abrahams, with Nick Spitzer, John F. Szwed, and Robert Farris Thompson, Blues for New Orleans: Mardi Gras and America’s Creole Soul (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
59. Smith, “New Orleans’ Carnival Culture from the Underside,” 12, 32.
Chapter 3
1. Breslay founded both a French parish and an Indian mission at the west end of Montreal. The latter was actually a fortified compound with a chapel and a residence adjacent to the Nipissing village on Isle-aux-Tourtres, separated by a narrow channel from the main island. See E. A. Chard, “Breslay, René-Charles de,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 2 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969).
2. “Procès contre François Lamoureux dit Saint-Germain, armurier, accusé de vente d’eau de vie des sauvages,” Sept. 7, 1713, Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Quebec, Montreal (BANQM), TL4, S1, D1483. The trial record comprises more than seventy manuscript pages, including transcripts of all interrogations, depositions, and judicial orders.
3. “Procès contre François Lamoureux;” and, for the murder, “Procès contre Claude Dudevoir, aubergiste, le nommé Bineau et Jacques Milot, accusés d’avoir vendu de l’eau de vie aux sauvages et provoquer ainsi le meurtre de l’un des sauvages,” June 13, 1713, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1457. For the king’s memorandum, see “Extrait du memoire du roi a Vaudreuil et Bégon,” 1713, Archives nationales d’outre-mer (ANOM), Colonies, C11A vol. 34, 32–32v, 32 (quote) (“on ne peut avoir trop d’attention d’empecher”). For New France’s long and contentious battle over the liquor trade, see Peter Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 137–154; W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760 (Albuquerque, 1969), 57, 112, 146; and Jan Grabowski, “The Common Ground: Settled Natives and French in Montreal, 1667–1760” (Ph.D. diss., Université de Montréal, 1993), especially 193–245. For Natives’ refusal to submit to French justice, see Grabowski, “French Criminal Justice and Indians in Montreal, 1670–1760,” Ethnohistory 3 (Summer 1996), 405–429.
4. For marriages and baptisms, see Programme de recherche en démographie historique, Repertoire des actes de baptême, marriage, et sepulture (RAB), CD-Rom (Quebec: PRDH, 1997). Breslay had performed the marriages of Lamoureux’s stepsister (RAB: 47672) and cousin (RAB: 47831), and baptized Lamoureux’s niece (RAB: 42329), and just three years before the trial, had baptized and then buried Lamoureux’s illegitimate child (RAB: 15304).
5. “Breslay a eté insulté par des Sauvages yvres et que le nommeé St. Germain habitant du d. Lieu a traitté l’eau de vie aux sauvages.” “Procès contre François Lamoureux.”
6. “Procès contre François Lamoureux.” For Lamoureux’s smuggling, see “Procès contre René Godefroy, sieur de Linctot, commandant du fort Saint-Louis, François Lamoureux dit Saint-Germain, arquebusier, et Charles Lemaire dit Saint-Germain dit Lirlande, accuse de faire de la traite avec les sauvages,” July 15–25, 1716, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1960; and “Procès contre François Lamoureux dit St-Germain, arquebusier et marchand, accusé de vente de boisson aux sauvages,” July 8–24, 1726, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D3289. For Breslay sailing for France, see letter of Nov. 15, 1713, ANOM, Colonies, C11A vol. 34, 25.
7. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), xi.
8. James Pritchard, In Search of Empire: The French in the Americas, 1670–1730 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 255–256. The most prominent exception to this rule is Francis Parkman, who caricatured New France as hopelessly mired in the swamp of absolutist Catholicism. Recent French-language literature tends to balance understanding of the state, colonists, and Indians more successfully. See especially Gilles Havard, Empire et métissage: Indiens et Français dans le Pays d’en Haut (Quebec: Septentrion, 2003); and Havard and Cécile Vidal, Histoire de l’Amérique française (Paris: Flammarion, 2008). For a survey of recent historiography on this topic, see Christopher Hodson and Brett Rushforth, “Absolutely Atlantic: Colonialism and the Early Modern French State in Recent Literature,” History Compass 8 (2010), 101–117.
9. Jay Gitlin, “On the Boundaries of Empire,” in Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America’s Western Past, ed. William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992), 72.
10. Richard Wade, The Urban Frontier: The Rise of Western Cities, 1790–1830 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 1.
11. Jacques Cartier, The Voyages of Jacques Cartier, ed. Ramsay Cook (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 65.
12. Cartier, Voyages, 61.
13. Marcel Trudel, The Beginnings of New France, 1524–1663, trans. Patricia Claxton (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1973), 187; Samuel de Champlain, The Works of Samuel de Champlain, trans. John Squair (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971), 2:331 (quote). For the best overall history of early Montreal, see Louise Dechêne, Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Montreal, trans. Liana Vardi (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1992).
14. Quoted in W. J. Eccles, The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969), 40.
15. “Tous les arbres de cet Isle se devraient changer en autant d’Iroquois.” François Dollier de Casson), Histoire de Montréal, 1640–1672 (Montreal: Eusebe Senécal, 1871), 18.
16. José António Brandão, Your Fyre Shall Burn No More: Iroquois Policy toward New France and Its Native Allies to 1701 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), Table D.1.
17. Dechêne, Habitants and Merchants, 16–17, Table A; and Mario Lalancette and Alan M. Stewart, “De la ville-comptoir à la ville fortifiee: Évolution de la forme urbaine de Montréal au dix-septième siècle,” in Habitants et marchands; Twenty Years Later: Reading the History of Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century Canada, ed. Sylvie Dépatie, Catherine Desbarats, Danielle Gauvreau, Mario Lalancette, and Thomas Wien (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1998), 259.
18. Gretchen Lynn Green, “A New People in an Age of War: The Kahnawake Iroquois, 1667–1760” (Ph.D. diss., College of William and Mary, 1991); Louis Lavallée, La Prairie en Nouvelle-France, 1647–1760 (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1992), 51–61; Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 55–77; Allan Greer, Mohawk Saint: Catherine Tekakwitha and the Jesuits (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 89–110; and Daniel K. Richter, “Iroquois versus Iroquois: Jesuit Missions and Christianity in Village Politics, 1642–1686,” Ethnohistory 32 (Winter 1985), 1–16.
19. Ibid.
20. Dechêne, Habitants and Merchants, Table A; and Lalancette and Stewart, “De la villecomptoir à la ville fortifiée,” 259.
21. “Villemarie dans l’isle de Montréal,” Nov. 13, 1685, ANOM, Archives du dépôt des fortifications des colonies FR ANOM 03DFC466C; and “Plan de la Ville de Montréal levé en l’année 1704,” Nov. 15, 1704, ANOM, Archives du dépôt des fortifications des colonies, FR ANOM 03DFC468A.
22. Lalancette and Stewart, “De la ville-comptoir à la ville fortifiée,” 274; for the 1689 attack, known as the “Lachine Massacre,” see Eccles, Canadian Frontier, 120.
23. Grabowski, “Common Ground;” and Dechêne, Habitants and Merchants, Table A.
24. Brett Rushforth, Bonds of Alliance: Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries in New France (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2012).
25. Information about Lamoureux was gleaned from trial records in the BANQ-M; as well as RAB.
26. For Lamoureux’s mother, see Marriage, Sept. 22, 1693, Notre-Dame de Montreal; Marriage Contract for François Lamoureux dit Saint-Germain and Marguerite Ménard, July 26, 1712, Montreal; and Cyprien Tanguay, Dictionnaire genealogique des familles Canadiennes depuis la fondation de la colonie jusqu’a nos jours (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1967), 1:342. Étienne Pigarouich’s wife was also named Marguerite and is known to have children near the age of Lamoureux’s mother. See Baptism of March 3, 1643, Sillery. For Pigarouich’s life and confession, see Elsie McLeod Jury, “Pigarouich, Étienne,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 1 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967); and Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1898), 25:249–257 (quote, 257).
27. Baptism of Aug. 12, 1700, Notre-Dame de Montréal; Baptism of Feb. 28, 1705, Sainte-Anne de Bellevue; Baptism of Apr. 26, 1705, Sainte-Anne de Bellevue; and Baptism of Aug. 15, 1713, Sainte-Anne de Bellevue. Bellevue was the name of Lamoureux’s seigneury, where Breslay served on-andoff as the parish priest in addition to his missionary duties. For Catholicism and kinship in a similar setting, see Susan Sleeper-Smith, “Women, Kin, and Catholicism: New Perspectives on the Fur Trade,” Ethnohistory 47 (Spring 2000), 423–452.
28. “Procès contre François Lamoureux” 1713.
29. Adhémar database, Centre Canadian d’Architecture, Montréal; and Archives de la Province, Aveu et dénombrement de Montréal [1731] (Quebec, 1943), 7, 130.
30. For the debate about Indian witnesses in liquor cases, see Vaudreuil et Bégon to the minister, Nov. 15, 1713, ANOM, Colonies, C11A, vol. 34, 26v–27.
31. See, for example, “Procès contre Nicolas Sarrazin, avironnier, Pierre Sarrazin et Joseph, esclave panis de François Lamoureux, accusés d’avoir préparé un voyage de traite dans l’Outaouais, sans permis,” Feb. 18, 1712, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1328; “Procès en appel de François Lamoureux dit Saint-Germain . . . contre une sentence les accusant de traite illégal,” Oct. 29, 1714, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1638; and “Procès contre François Lamoureux dit Saint-Germain, arquebusier et marchand, accusé de vente de boisson aux sauvages,” July 8, 1726, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D3289.
32. “Procès contre François Lamoureux,” 1726.
33. On women and Catholicism, see Greer, Mohawk Saint; and Green, “The Kahnawake Iroquois.”
34. Adhémar database, Centre Canadian d’Architecture, Montreal.
35. “Procès contre Simon Réaume, voyageur, accusé d’avoir introduit illégalement des paquets de castors en ville et de les avoir vendus à M. Pascaud,” Aug. 4, 1708, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1124; and “Procès contre Louise Leblanc, épouse de Paul Bouchard, accusée d’avoir vendu de l’eau de vie à un sauvage,” Aug. 7, 1710, BANQ-M, TL4, S1, D1248.
36. Clairambault d’Aigrement to the minister, Nov. 14, 1708, ANOM, Colonies, C11A vol. 29, 59v-60.
37. “[L]es Anglois tirent un grand avantage du commerce qu’ils font avec les Sauvages de leur eau de vie ce qui est une si grand attrait pour eux que par ce moyen les anglois attirent les plus grande partie de leurs pelleteries . . .” (235) [Not having access to French liquor, Indians go to Orange] “ou ils portent tous leur castor, ce qui forme un commerce ouvert entre leur et les anglois, enfin ces Sauvages ne ressistent point à l’attrait de l’eau de vie les anglois se les attireront tous, d’ou la Ruine de la Colonie” (235v). Vaudreuil and Bégon to the minister, Sept. 20, 1714, ANOM, Colonies, C11A, vol. 34, 235–235v.
38. Yves Zoltvany, Philippe de Rigaud de Vaudreuil (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1974).
39. Chard, “Breslay.”
40. Baptism, Aug. 23, 1715, Sainte-Anne de Bellevue.
41. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Fredrika J. Teuta, “Introduction: On the Connection of Frontiers,” in Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1998), 1–15; Gregory Evans Dowd, “Wag the Imperial Dog: Indians and Overseas Empires in North America, 1650–1776,” in A Companion to American Indian History, ed. Philip J. Deloria and Neal Salisbury (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2004), 46–67; and White, Middle Ground, ix–xvi.
1. Richard White notes that Detroit “officially faced east toward the Iroquois and the English whom it was intended to confine” in The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 150. In Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), Daniel Richter places Europeans arriving from the Atlantic on the periphery of a vast, complex, and vibrant world inhabited by hundreds of Native nations. This author concurs with Richter that such a view allows us to “to turn familiar tales inside out” by identifying with Native historical agents and to “alternate between the general and the personal” (9) in writing histories. The present chapter speaks to eighteenth-century European efforts to expand their imperial and economic agendas farther and farther west in order to reach Native nations. But, as this chapter also shows, high-ranking imperial agents who developed policy were not the ones traveling through Indian country, and they were therefore often uninformed as to the nuances and channels of Native-European interaction and mutual influence. Lines of communication moved east, west, south and north, depending on the era and on the familial networks that were the means for cross-cultural conversation.
2. Jacqueline Peterson published a groundbreaking study of elite métis lineages in “Prelude to Red River: A Social Portrait of the Great Lakes Métis,” Ethnohistory 25:1 (Winter 1978), 41–67. Although Peterson mentions the Detroit métis in her study, her main focus is on the upper Great Lakes in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Her description of the lifeways of the métis is applicable in some ways to those who operated at Detroit in an earlier period, but there are subtle differences in culture that can be ascribed to Detroit’s central importance in imperial networks in the pays d’en haut.
3. White, Middle Ground, 123.
4. Elmore Barce, The Land of the Miamis: An Account of the Struggle to Secure Possession of the North-West from the End of the Revolution until 1812 (Fowler, IN: Benton Review Shop, 1922), 10.
5. Gilles Havard, The Great Peace of Montreal of 1701: French-Native Diplomacy in the Seventeenth Century, trans. Phyllis Aronoff and Howard Scott (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001), 145, 148–49.
6. The English counseled the Iroquois that they should reassert their former claims of conquest of the area around Detroit acquired during the Beaver Wars. Iroquois sachems, however, felt they could not keep the French out of Detroit. On July 19, 1701, twenty of their sachems deeded title to the King of an area they claimed by right of conquest—a tract eight hundred miles long and four hundred miles wide that included Detroit. Although the Iroquois considered themselves to have only temporarily placed the land under the protection of the King, the English would use the deed to push their claims to Detroit for decades. For French fears that the Iroquois would favor their English allies, see William N. Fenton, The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 346. For English advice to the Iroquois that they reassert their claim to Detroit by right of conquest and for the Iroquois confession that they could not prevent settlement at Detroit, see Fenton, 356. For English claims to Detroit through the Iroquois deed, see Fenton, 389, and Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1975), 125.
7. Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, ed. E. B. O’Callaghan (Albany: Weed, Parsons, and Company, Printers, 1854), 4:650.
8. “Project d’un nouvel etablissement au détroit des lacs Erie et Huron, Extrait du mémoire du Roi au sieur chevalier de Callières, Gouverneur, et au sieur de Champigny, Intendant de la Nouvelle France, Versailles, 27 mai, 1699,” in Charles J. Balesi, The Time of the French in the Heart of North America 1673–1818 (Chicago: Alliance Française Chicago, 1991), 134–135.
9. White, The Middle Ground, 146.
10. For Cadillac’s change in opinion about Native-European marriages, see White, The Middle Ground, 70. For Cadillac’s lack of knowledge of the intricacies of relations of Native groups at Detroit, see White, The Middle Ground, 83.
11. Gilles Havard, Empire et métissages: Indiens et Français dans le Pays d’en Haut 1660–1715 (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2003), 628.
12. “Mémoire de Lamothe Cadillac au Ministre donnant la description du Détroit,” Québec, September 25, 1702, BAC, Série C11E, Correspondence générale, vol. 14, Folio 119.
13. The entire French passage reads: “il n’est pas possible que nos familles peussent demeurer dans un lieu qui ne seroit habité que par des sauvages,; leur misere seroit extreme; puis quelles seroient sans aucun secours, comme il en arrive au Madame Tonty qui aveu mourir son enfant pour avoir manqué de lait, a quoi elle ne s’attendoit pas. Je crains que la même chose n’arrive a ma femme qui êtoit sur le point d’accoucher quand je suis parti, celle n’est pas extraordinaire, suivre que ces dames seroient nourrir leurs enfans, ainsi il n’ya suis a balancer de les faire decendre des l’année prochaine, si on ne permet pas a quelques familles d’aller s’y êtablir, affin quelles se puissent soulager dans ces facheuses conjonctures.” “Mémoire de Lamothe Cadillac au Ministre donnant la description du Détroit,” Folio 120. English translation used here appears as M. La Motte Cadillac, “Description of Detroit,” Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society Collections (Lansing, MI: Robert Smith Printing Co., 1904), 139. For the comment that women of surrounding Native villages could have served as wet nurses, see Timothy Kent, Ft. Ponchartrain at Detroit: A Guide to the Daily Lives of Fur Trade and Military Personnel, Settlers, and Missionaries at French Posts (Ossineke, MI: Silver Fox Enterprises), 1:43.
14. “Copie de la lettre des directeurs de la Compagnie de la Colonie au ministre Pontchartrain,” November 4, 1701, Bibliothèque et Archives Canada (BAC), Série C11A, vol. 19, Folios 36 and 36v.
15. “Rapport de Clairambault d’Aigremont au ministre concernant sa mission d’inspection,” November 14, 1708, BAC, Série C11A, vol. 29, Folio 32.
16. “Lettre de Louvigny au ministre,” Québec, October 30, 1715, Série C11A, Folio 229v.
17. “Lettre de Vaudreuil au ministre,” Québec, November 3, 1710, BAC, Série C11A.
18. Peter Dooyentate Clarke, Origin and Traditional History of the Wyandotts, and Sketches of Other Indian Tribes of North America (Toronto: Hunter, Rose and Co., 1870), 37.
19. For Pierre Roy as an engagé, see Yvon Lacroix, Les Origines de la Prairie, 1667–1697 (Montréal: Éditions Bellarmin, 1981), 134. For the marriage of Pierre Roy and Marguerite Ouabankikoué, see Rev. Fr. Christian Denissen, Genealogy of the French Families of the Detroit River Region 1701–1936, rev. ed. (Detroit: Detroit Society for Genealogical Research, 1987), 2:1108, and René Jetté, Dictionnaire généalogique des familles du Québec (Montréal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal, 1983), 1022.
20. For a biography of Pierre Roy, Sr., see Michel Langlois, Dictionnaire Biographique des Ancêtres Québécois 1608–1700 (Sillery, QC: Éditions du Mitan, 2001), 4:310–311. For Catherine Ducharme as a “fille du roi” (daughter of the King), see Yves Landry, Orphelines en France, pionnières au Canada: Les Filles du roi au septième siècle; suivi d’un Répertoire biographique des Filles du roi (Montréal: Leméac Éditeur Inc., 1992), 308.
21. Pierre Roy, Sr., and his wife Catherine Ducharme acquired eight-year-old Elizabeth Corse; Corse’s eight-year-old cousin Martha French married Pierre and Catherine’s son Jacques at the age of sixteen; see Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), 245–247.
22. Andrée Désilets, “Roy, Marguerite, dite de la Conception,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online , vol. 3, http://www.biographi.ca/009004–119.01–e.php?id_nbr=1638, April 30, 2012.
23. According to historian Louise Dechêne, the fur trade drew men from up and down the French socioeconomic hierarchy; see Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth Century Montreal, trans. Liana Vardi (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1992), 120–121.
24. For more on Madame Montour and the pivotal role she played in Native-European relations, see Alison Duncan Hirsch, “Indian, Métis, and Euro-American Women on Multiple Frontiers,” in Friends and Enemies in Penn’s Woods: Indians, Colonists, and the Racial Construction of Pennsylvania, ed. William A. Pencak and Daniel K. Richter (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), 63–84.
25. “Contract of François and Pierre Roy to conduct trade at the Miamis,” May 12, 1719, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library. The agreement enabled considerable traffic in goods and people into the Miami village for years following; see Ls-A. Proulx, Rapport de L’Archiviste de la Province de Québec pour 1921–1922 (Québec, Imprimeur de Sa Majesté le Roi, 1922), 196–213 for a list of permits granted to François and Pierre.
26. Mississippi Valley Mélange: A Collection of Notes and Documents for the Genealogy and History of the Province of Louisiana and the Territory of Orleans, ed. Winston de Ville, vol. 2 (Ville Platte, LA: privately printed, 1995).
27. John D. Barnhart and Dorothy L. Riker, Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau, 1971), 19.
28. Mississippi Valley Mélange, vol. 1, 14. The Roy family continued to operate and gain power throughout the entire eighteenth century and into the nineteenth. For a more detailed discussion of how these kin connections increased the influence of that family network in the arena of European-Native relations, see Karen Marrero, “‘She Is Capable of Doing a Great Deal of Mischief ’: A Miami Woman’s Threat to Empire in the Eighteenth-Century Ohio Valley,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 6.3 (Winter 2005), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_colonialism_and_colonial_history/toc/cch6.3.html. For further genealogical information on the Roy family, see Sammye Leonard Darling, “Takamwa of the Miami Tribe,” Michigan’s Habitant Heritage 25:4 (October 2004), 179–184; Suzanne Boivin Sommerville, “André Roy dit Pacanne: Documentation for Another Son of Pierre Roy and Marguerite OuabanKiKoué,” Michigan’s Habitant Heritage 29:4 (October 2008), 153–160; and Suzanne Boivin Sommerville, “André Roy dit Pacanne, Son of Pierre Roy and Marguerite OuabanKiKoué, and his Brother, François Roy, Voyageur and Interpreter,” Michigan’s Habitant Heritage 30:1 (January 2009), 23–29.
29. Registre de Ste. Anne Detroit, vol. 1, no. 1252, Reel 1, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library, 204.
30. Original document #2583 from the microfilm copy of the notarial records of Jean-Baptiste Adhémar, Archives Nationales du Québec à Montréal. For a description of the trade agreement, see S. Dale Standen, “‘Personnes sans caractère’: Private Merchants, Post Commanders and the Regulation of the Western Fur Trade, 1720–1745,” in De France en Nouvelle-France: Société Fondatrice et Société Nouvelle, ed. Hubert Watelet and Cornelius J. Jaenen (Ottawa: Presses de l’Université d’Ottawa, 1994), 274.
31. The French passage reads: “C’est à ce dernier endroit qu’il faut aujourdhui le plus attacher. S’il y avoit une fois dans ce canton mille habitans cultivateurs, il nourriroit et défendroit tous les autres. C’est de tout l’interieur du Canada l’endroit le plus propre à établir une ville ou se reuniroit tout le commerce des lacs, et qui munie d’une bonne garnison et entourée d’un bon nombre d’habitations seroit a portée d’en imposer à presque tous les sauvages du continent. Il suffit d’en voir la position sur la carte pour en sentir l’utilité. . . .” Roland Michel, Comte de la Galissoniere, in Anglo-French Boundary Disputes in the West 1749–1763, French Series, vol. 2, Collections of the Illinois Historical Library, ed. Theodore Calvin Pease (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1936), 27:16–17.
32. Colonel John Bradstreet, February 1762, in Peter Marshall, “Imperial Policy and the Government of Detroit: Projects and Problems 1760–1774,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 2:2 (January 1974), 157.
33. For population figures of 1707, see Almon Ernest Parkins, The Historical Geography of Detroit (Lansing: Michigan Historical Commission, 1918), 55. For 1765 population, see Brian Leigh Dunnigan, Frontier Metropolis: Picturing Early Detroit, 1701–1838 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2001), 50. For an estimate of Native population, see Dunnigan, 36. For comments of Beauharnois, see Parkins, 71. For the self-sufficiency of Detroit because of the influx of 1749–1750, see Dunnigan, 35. Dunnigan comments that at the mid-century point, “Detroit was finally on a firm footing and was about to become one of the breadbaskets of French military operations in the West.” Dunnigan, 35
34. Historical Atlas of Canada: From the Beginning to 1800, vol. 1, ed. R. Cole Harris (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), plate 41.
35. Dunnigan, 46.
36. For a discussion of this second state-sponsored wave of immigration to Detroit, see Lina Gouger, “Les convoys de colons de 1749–1750: Impulsion gouvernementale decisive pour le développement de la region de Windsor,” in Le Passage du Détroit: Trois cents ans de presence Francophone (Passages: Three Centuries of Francophone Presence at Le Détroit), ed. Marcel Bénéteau, Working Papers in the Humanities (Windsor, Ontario: Humanities Research Group, 2003), 11:47–57.
37. Marcel Trudel, Dictionnaire des esclaves et de leurs propriétaires au Canada français (LaSalle, QC: Éditions Hurtubise HMH, 1990), xx.
38. Marcel Trudel, L’esclavage au Canada Français: Histoire et Conditions de L’esclavage (Québec: Presses l’Université Laval, 1960), 97
39. Brett Rushforth, “Savage Bonds: Indian Slavery and Alliance in New France” (Ph.D. diss., University of California Davis, 2003), 216.
40. Gilles Havard and Cécile Vidal, Histoire de l’Amérique française (Paris: Éditions Flammarion, 2003), 371.
41. Rushforth, 216.
42. George Paré, The Catholic Church in Detroit 1701–1888 (Detroit: Gabriel Richard Press, 1951), 155.
43. As has been previously mentioned in this chapter, the ranks of the coureurs de ville contained men who hailed from many different classes in New France, including officers. In the first few decades of the eighteenth century, commandants and officers at the western posts participated in the fur trade despite attempts by colonial authorities to censure and control this activity. In relations with local Native groups, the commandant was supposed to occupy a position of impartiality as arbiter. Commandants such as Cadillac and his successor Tonty failed to maintain this objective position when they partnered with some but not other local French families and Native groups. But the coureurs de ville possessed enough economic clout that they could bring about the removal of commandants, as was the case in 1727 when this group’s petitions to imperial authorities for the ouster of Alphonse de Tonty were finally successful. As the century wore on, colonial authorities in Quebec sought to severely restrict participation of the officers in the trade. Interestingly, at about the same time, the coureurs de ville began to organize their own regiments commanded by bourgeois officers. For the participation of officers in the fur trade at the western posts, see Standen, “‘Personnes sans caractère.’” For a discussion of the class system in New France, see Allan Greer, The People of New France (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997), and particularly in Montreal, which, like Detroit, was dominated by the trade in furs and with Native groups; see Louise Dechêne, Habitants and Merchants.
44. Johnson kept a diary of his activities at Detroit that was published as an appendix in William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson, Bart. (Albany: J. Munsell, 1865), 2:456–464.
45. Walter S. Dunn, Jr., Frontier Profit and Loss: The British Army and the Fur Traders, 1760–1764 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998), 109.
46. James Sterling to Mr. James Syme, Detroit, June 8, 1762, James Sterling Letterbook, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan.
47. Sterling to Syme, June 8, 1762.
48. James Sterling to Captain Walter Rutherford, Detroit, November 22, 1762, James Sterling Letterbook.
49. Sterling to Syme, June 8, 1762.
50. James Sterling to George Croghan, Esq., Detroit, January 31, 1762, James Sterling Letterbook.
51. James Sterling to John Duncan, Detroit, February 26, 1765, James Sterling Letterbook.
52. James Sterling to John Porteus, Detroit, September 4, 1765, James Sterling Letterbook.
53. George Trumbull to Thomas Gage, Detroit, April 16, 1767, Thomas Gage Papers, American Series, William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan.
54. Captain James Stevenson to Sir William Johnson, Bart., Detroit, December 18, 1770, Chicago Historical Society.
Chapter 5
1. John Heckewelder, Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations, ed. William C. Reichel (1876; reprint, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006), 142; C. A. Weslager, The Delaware Indians: A History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1972), 166. The Delaware translation of Onas was Miquon. See also Randolph C. Downes, Council Fires on the Upper Ohio: A Narrative of Indian Affairs in the Upper Ohio Valley until 1795 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1940), 18; James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1999), 172.
2. “Ashalacoa” is the spelling given by James Smith, A Treatise, on the Mode and Manner of Indian War (Paris, KY: Joel R. Lyle, 1812; reprint, Chicago: Barnard & Miller, 1948), 42. For the derivation, and other spellings in languages as far away as Mandan, see Arthur Woodward, “The ‘Long Knives,’” Indian Notes 5:1 (January 1928), 64–79. The Delaware translation was Mechanschican (see Heckewelder, Account, 142–143) and the Ojibway was Kitchimokomans; see Arent S. DePeyster, “Speech to the Western Indians,” Wisconsin Historical Collections 18 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1908), 380. See also Downes, Council Fires, 91.
3. Reuben Gold Thwaites and Louise Phelps Kellogg, eds., The Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 1775–1777, Draper Series, vol. 2 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1908), 52.
4. For the towns, see Michael N. McConnell, A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Valley and Its Peoples, 1724–1774 (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 22, 25; William M. Darlington, Christopher Gist’s Journals, with Historical, Geographical, and Ethnological Notes (Pittsburgh: J. R. Weldin & Co., 1893), 33–34, map opp. 80; Helen Hornbeck Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 41. On the prewar fur trade, see Eric Hinderaker, Elusive Empires: Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Valley, 1673–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 21–45; Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 186–222; McConnell, A Country Between, 37–112; John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., American National Biography (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press), 5:752–754.
5. David Dixon, Fort Pitt Museum: Pennsylvania Trail of History Guide (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2004), 27; James Kenny, “Journal of James Kenny, 1761–1763,” ed. John W. Jordan, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 37:145 (January 1913), 1–47; 37:146 (April 1913), 152–201. The particulars mentioned by Kenny are on pages 6 (coal mine, sawmill), 17 (robberies), 28 (buildings), 29 (school), 39, 43 (diet), 162 (postal service). The boatyard is from Max Savelle, George Morgan: Colony Builder (New York: Columbia University Press, 1932), 26.
6. David McClure, Diary of David McClure, Doctor of Divinity, 1748–1820, ed. Franklin B. Dexter (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1899), 45, 53.
7. Thomas Hutchins, A Topographical Description of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina, ed. Frederick Charles Hicks (London: Printed for the author, 1778; reprint, Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1904), 77. Trader John Campbell is credited with laying out the town, as he later did for Louisville. Ensign Hutchins himself may have helped, since he was stationed at Fort Pitt at the time. See Thwaites and Kellogg, Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 231.
8. R. Eugene Harper, The Transformation of Western Pennsylvania 1770–1800 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991), 4–7.
9. There is no modern history of the Pittsburgh fur trade. Information can be found in William Vincent Byars, B. and M. Gratz: Merchants in Philadelphia 1754–1798 (Jefferson City, MO: Hugh Stephens Printing Co., 1916); Savelle, George Morgan; and Kenny, “Journal.” See also Clarence Walworth Alvord and Clarence Edwin Carter, eds., The New Regime 1765–1767, Illinois State Historical Library, Collections, vol. 11, British Series, vol. 2 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1916), and Trade and Politics 1767–1769, Illinois State Historical Library, Collections, vol. 16, British Series, vol. 3 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1921).
10. Alvord and Carter, New Regime, 510.
11. John B. Gibson, “General John Gibson,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 5:4 (October 1922), 299–305 (second quote, 305); David Jones, A Journal of Two Visits Made to Some Nations of Indians on the West Side of the River Ohio, in the Years 1772 and 1773 (New York: Reprinted for Joseph Sabin, 1865), 63 (first quote); Allen Johnson and Dumas Malone, eds., Dictionary of American Biography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1931), 7:253; William Wesley Woollen, Biographical and Historical Sketches of Early Indiana (Indianapolis: Hammond & Co., 1883), 11; Reuben Gold Thwaites and Louise Phelps Kellogg, eds., Documentary History of Dunmore’s War, 1774, Draper Series, vol. 1 (Madison: Wisconsin Historical Society, 1905), 11; Consul W. Butterfield, The Washington-Crawford Letters (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., 1877), 69. The information on Gibson’s wife comes from Charles A. Hanna, The Wilderness Trail, or The Ventures and Adventures of the Pennsylvania Traders on the Allegheny Path (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1911), 1:381.
12. Thomas Sergeant, View of the Land Laws of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: James Kay, Jr., and Pittsburgh: John I. Kay, 1838), 61; Thomas Perkins Abernethy, Western Lands and the American Revolution (New York: Russell and Russell, 1959), 91–93. For the Pittsburgh compromise, see Kenny, “Journal,” 28, 152.
13. A good description of the mentality is Andrew R. L. Cayton, “Land, Power, and Reputation: The Cultural Dimension of Politics in the Ohio Country,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 47 (April 1990), 266–286.
14. Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2008).
15. Matthew Smith and James Gibson, A Declaration and Remonstrance of the Distressed and Bleeding Frontier Inhabitants of the Province of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: William Bradford, 1764).
16. McClure, Diary of David McClure, 53.
17. The vacillations of William Crawford and George Croghan are good examples. Crawford, a Virginian, started out on the Pennsylvanian side, probably because he identified with the social class of the Pennsylvanians, and only later switched over. Croghan, a Pennsylvanian, switched sides so many times he lost the trust of everyone. John Gibson, the Pennsylvania trader, ended up commanding the Thirteenth Virginia regiment in the Revolution. Many other examples could be given.
18. On Pennsylvania, see Hinderaker, Elusive Empires; on Virginia, see David Hackett Fischer and James C. Kelly, Bound Away: Virginia and the Westward Movement (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000).
19. See Sir William Franklin’s scheme in Alvord and Carter, The New Regime, 248–257, and Samuel Wharton’s in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree and Whitfield J. Bell (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1959–), 31:525–548, especially 539.
20. Clarence W. Alvord and Clarence E. Carter, eds., The Critical Period 1763–1765, Illinois State Historical Library, Collections, vol. 10, British Series, vol. 1 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1915), 24; see also the petitions of George Mercer and George Mason in Kenneth P. Bailey, The Ohio Company of Virginia and the Westward Movement 1748–1792 (Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1939), 314–327.
21. Abernethy, Western Lands, 93, 136; Bruce J. Egli, “The First Battalion, Westmoreland County Militia,” Westmoreland History 2:2 (Summer 1996), 17.
22. Harper, Transformation of Western Pennsylvania, 8–10; Robert A. Jockers, “Speculators and Squatters: The Frontier Beginnings of Moon Township,” Western Pennsylvania History 87:2 (Summer 2004), 20, 22–27; Stephen Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 65–81.
23. Peter Force and M. St. Clair Clarke, eds., American Archives, 4th ser. (Washington, DC: M. St. Clair Clarke and Peter Force, 1837), 1:275–276.
24. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:267 (quote), 484. The whole conflict would later be replayed in territorial Ohio, and St. Clair would assume the same role. See Cayton, “Land, Power, and Reputation.”
25. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:269.
26. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:262 (first quote), 264, 271 (second quote), 272 (third quote), 469 (last quote).
27. Abernethy, Western Lands, 54.
28. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:470 (first quote), 475 (second quote), 549 (third quote).
29. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:287 (last quote), 469 (first quote).
30. James Alton James, ed., George Rogers Clark Papers 1771–1781, Illinois State Historical Library, Collections, vol. 8, Virginia Series, vol. 3 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1912), 7.
31. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:468, 484; Augustine Prevost, “Turmoil at Pittsburgh: Diary of Augustine Prevost, 1774,” ed. Nicholas B. Wainwright, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 85:2 (April 1961), 147.
32. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (New York, Evanston, and London: Harper Torchbooks, 1964), 212–213.
33. Butterfield, Washington-Crawford Letters, 87; Jefferson, Notes, 216, 221, 228; Thwaites and Kellogg, Dunmore’s War, 10, 16; Prevost, “Diary,” 149.
34. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:429, 469 (first quote), 473 (second quote).
35. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:429, 473 (last quote), 474 (first quote), 483, 484.
36. Force and Clarke, American Archives, 1:287, 463, 547, 549 (quote).
37. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 1–4; Jefferson, Notes, 212–213, 225–226.
38. Hinderaker, Elusive Empires.
Chapter 6
1. E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), 330–339; Collin M. MacLachlan, A History of Modern Brazil: The Past Against the Future (Wilmington, Del.: SR Books, 2003), 62–64.
2. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Bicentennial ed., pt. 2 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 731. Here are a few especially useful works from the enormous literature on the construction of the national rail system: Winthrop M. Daniels, American Railroads: Four Phases of Their History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1932); James E. Vance, Jr., The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution and Geography (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Maury Klein, Union Pacific (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1987); George Rogers Taylor, The American Railroad Network, 1861–1890 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956); John F. Stover, American Railroads (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961); David Hayward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999); John F. Stover, Iron Road to the West: American Railroads of the 1850s (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978).
3. For general works on the telegraph, see Alvin F. Harlow, Old Wires and New Waves: The History of the Telegraph, Telephone, and Wireless (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1936); Lewis Coe, The Telegraph: A History of Morse’s Invention and Its Predecessors in the United States (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1993); Robert Luther Thompson, Wiring a Continent: A History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832–1866 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947).
4. Armin E. Shuman, “Report on the Statistics of Telegraphs and Telephones in the United States,” in Report on the Agencies of Transportation in the United States, Including the Statistics of Railroads, Steam Navigation, Canals, Telegraphs and Telephones, Tenth Census, 1880 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1881), 4:784–785.
5. A recent splendid work on early nineteenth-century American history makes a similar point and makes it more broadly, arguing that the transportation and communications revolution were key to bringing the evolving young republic into focus as a true nation: Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought?: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
6. On the California wheat trade during these years, see Rodman W. Paul, “The Wheat Trade Between California and the United Kingdom,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 45:3 (December 1958), 391–412.
7. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Ninth Census, The Statistics of the Wealth and Industry of the United States (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1872), 3:80–81, 367.
8. Two classic older accounts of the Comstock Lode and its astonishing physical plant are Dan De Quille, History of the Big Bonanza: An Authentic Account of the Discovery, History, and Working of the World Renowned Comstock Silver Lode of Nevada (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing Company; San Francisco, Calif.: A. L. Bancroft and Co., 1876); and Eliot Lord, Comstock Mining and Miners (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1883). A newer account is Ronald M. James, The Roar and the Silence: A History of Virginia City and the Comstock Lode (Reno and Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press, 1998).
9. James, Roar and the Silence, 58.
10. Richard Walker, “Industry Builds the City: The Suburbanization of Manufacturing in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1850–1940,” Journal of Historical Geography 27:1 (2001), 37–38.
11. For three interesting case studies of the role of such a mentality in immigration westward, see Dianne Newell, “The Importance of Information and Misinformation in the Making of the Klondike Gold Rush,” Journal of Canadian Studies, 21:4 (1986–87), 95–111; Cole Harris, “Industry and the Good Life Around Idaho Peak,” Canadian Historical Review, 66:3 (September 1985), 315–343; and S. M. Glover and M. C. Towner, “Long-distance Dispersal to the Mining Frontier in late 19th Century Colorado,” Behaviour 146:4–5 (2009), 677–700.
12. Walter Prescott Webb, The Great Frontier (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952).
13. Jos[eph] L. King, History of the San Francisco Stock Exchange Board (1910; reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1975), 9–10.
14. Ibid., 78.
15. Robert Louis Stevenson, “Old and New Pacific Capitals: San Francisco,” 1883, in The Works of Robert Louis Stevenson (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1892), 2:435.
16. The demographic profile of western urban centers was most out-of-line with those of the East in mining camps. For two recent studies on some of the implications on California’s mining frontier, see Susan Lee Johnson, Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000) and Brian Roberts, American Alchemy: The California Gold Rush and Middle-Class Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).
17. For a demographic study of the trans-Appalachian region illustrating this pattern, see James E. Davis, Frontier America, 1800–1840: A Comparative Demographic Analysis of the Settlement Process (Glendale, Calif.: Clark, 1977).
18. Besides Johnson, Roaring Camp, see also Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001).
19. Don E. Fehrenbacher, ed., History and American Society: Essays of David M. Potter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 284.
20. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Ninth Census, The Statistics of the Population of the United States (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1872), 1:299; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on the Social Statistics of Cities, comp. George E. Waring, Jr. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1887), 800.
21. For demographic studies of mining towns, where these patterns were most exaggerated, see Elliott West, “Five Idaho Mining Towns: A Computer Profile,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 73:3 (July 1982), 108–120; Ralph Mann, After the Gold Rush: Society in Grass Valley and Nevada City, California, 1849–1870 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982).
22. This is the thesis of David T. Courtwright, Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).
23. On consequences for Indians in California, see Johnson, Roaring Camp; Andrew C. Isenberg, Mining California: An Ecological History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005); and Rodman W. Paul and Elliott West, Mining Frontiers of the Far West, 1848–1880 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001).
24. Virginia City, Nevada, Territorial Enterprise, June 14, July 30, 1872; Virginia City, Nevada, Virginia Evening Chronicle, January 5, 1875, Russell M. Magnaghi Collection, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
25. Hal Rothman, Devil’s Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998), especially chapter 12, and Neon Metropolis: How Las Vegas Started the Twenty-first Century (New York: Routledge, 2002).
26. “A Rumble in the Jungle,” Containerisation International 35:8 (2002), 30–33.
27. Joe Kane, Running the Amazon (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989), 246–249.
28. Ibid., 190.
Chapter 7
Portions of this essay were adapted and excerpted from Matthew Klingle, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007). I am grateful for permission to reprint that material here. Thanks to Jay Taylor, Connie Y. Chiang, Adam Arenson, Barbara Berglund, and Jay Gitlin, plus the participants of the 2008 “Frontier Cities” conference in St. Louis and the Southern Maine American History Reading Group, for their help and suggestions. Thanks also to the Bowdoin College Faculty Development Committee for a Fletcher Family Fund Grant to cover image reproduction and permissions fees.
1. Seattle Times, March 7, 1893, as quoted in Coll Thrush, Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing-Over Place (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007), 82–83, quotation at 3.
2. Thrush, Native Seattle, 3–16.
3. Richard White, “Frederick Jackson Turner and Buffalo Bill,” in The Frontier in American History, ed. James Grossman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 7–11.
4. Richard C. Wade, The Urban Frontier: Pioneer Life in Early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and St. Louis (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 1.
5. For frontier anxiety at the end of the nineteenth century, see David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 27–68. For urban chaos, see Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978).
6. White, “Frederick Jackson Turner and Buffalo Bill,” 10. For examples of other celebratory expositions tinged with frontier angst, specifically the 1894 Midwinter International Exposition in San Francisco, see Barbara Berglund, Making San Francisco American: Cultural Frontiers in the Urban West, 1846–1906 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 171–217.
7. A few definitions are in order. The word urban, rarely used before the nineteenth century, describes primarily a city or town and its immediate environs. In contrast, an older word, metropolitan, denotes complex connections between a city and its colonies. It is more expansive, evocative of networks and associations, not discrete locations, pushpins on a map, or static frontiers. Metropolitan speaks more specifically to how cities are zones of contact, conflict, or accommodation wherein consequences reverberate inside and beyond town limits. In using metropolitan, I borrow from William Cronon’s work on Chicago, which in turn rests on the idea of “metropolitanism” as developed in Canadian history: Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1991). For useful overviews of the concept by one of its proponents, see J. M. S. Careless, “Frontierism, Metropolitanism, and Canadian History,” Canadian Historical Review 35 (March 1954), 1–21; and Frontier and Metropolis: Regions, Cities, and Identities in Canada before 1914 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989). For an American attempt at metropolitanism prior to Cronon, see Charles Gates, “The Role of Cities in the Westward Movement,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 37 (September 1950), 277–278; and “The Concept of the Metropolis in the American Western Movement,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 49 (September 1962), 299–300. For recent efforts by urban historians to use “metropolitan” in the post–World War II era, see Andrew Needham and Allen Dietrich-Ward, “Beyond the Metropolis: Metropolitan Growth and Regional Transformation in Postwar America,” Journal of Urban History 35 (November 2009), 943–969.
8. For one assessment of Turner as a ghost (or a disinterred corpse), see Richard White, “Reply from an Empty Grave,” Columbia: The Magazine of Northwest History 9 (Fall 1995), 4–6.
9. The best recent survey of borderlands historiography is the introduction to a recent edition of the Journal of American History devoted to the topic. See Pekka Hämäläinen and Samuel Truett, “On Borderlands,” Journal of American History 98 (September 2011), 338–361 (quotation at 360–361). See also Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aaron, “From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States, and the Peoples in Between in North American History,” American Historical Review 104 (June 1999), 813–841.
10. David Igler, “Diseased Goods: Global Exchanges in the Eastern Pacific Basin, 1770–1850,” American Historical Review 109 (June 2004), 705–707.
11. Robin Fisher, Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1977), 1–48; and Richard Somerset Mackie, Trading Beyond the Mountains: The British Fur Trade on the Pacific, 1793–1843 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997).
12. Igler, “Diseased Goods,” 707–719.
13. David A. Chang, “Borderlands in a World at Sea: Concow Indians, Native Hawaiians, and South Chinese in Indigenous, Global, and National Spaces,” Journal of American History 98 (September 2011), 384–385. I take the term resettlement from Cole Harris, The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and Geographical Change (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1997).
14. Mike Davis, Ecology of Fear: Los Angeles and the Imagination of Disaster (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998), 10–20. It is important to note that the Pacific Northwest is also prone to cataclysmic earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other “high-intensity” events even if they have not occurred as often or dramatically since American rule. See Coll Thrush with Ruth S. Ludwin, “Finding Fault: Indigenous Seismology, Colonial Science, and the Rediscovery of Earthquakes and Tsunamis in Cascadia,” American Indian Culture & Research Journal 31 (Fall-Winter 2007), 1–24.
15. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America, vol. 3, Transcontinental America, 1850–1915 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 38, 44–45; Matthew Klingle, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 14–17, 46–49.
16. Steven W. Hackel, “Land, Labor, and Production: The Colonial Economy of Spanish and Mexican California,” in Contested Eden, 111–146; Hackel, Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis: Indian-Spanish Relations in Colonial California, 1769–1850 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2005), 272–320. I use the terms Native and Indian interchangeably when referring to indigenous peoples in aggregate to reflect the historical complexity behind these labels, preferring to use Indian in the context of relations with or comments by non-Indians whenever possible.
17. Matthew Morse Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge: An Environmental History of San Francisco’s Tidal Wetlands, 1846–1972” (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 2005), 32–44; Albert Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 100–218; Stephen J. Pitti, The Devil in Silicon Valley: Northern California, Race, and Mexican Americans (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), 1–50; Susan Lee Johnson, Roaring Camp: The Social World of the California Gold Rush (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1999), 25–234.
18. Alexandra Harmon, Indians in the Making: Ethnic Relations and Indian Identities around Puget Sound (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 13–71.
19. For treaty negotiations, see Harmon, Indians in the Making, 72–86, 103–217. For Indian labor migration, see John Lutz, “Work, Sex, and Death on the Great Thoroughfare: Annual Migrations of ‘Canadian Indians’ to the American Pacific Northwest,” in Parallel Destinies: Canadian-American Relations West of the Rockies, ed. John M. Findlay and Ken S. Coates (Seattle: Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest in association with University of Washington Press; Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 80–103; Paige Raibmon, Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late-Nineteenth-Century Northwest Coast (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 74–97. For Indians and Seattle’s economy, see Thrush, Native Seattle, 47–49, 72–161. Seattle’s case fits a larger pattern of city building and indigenous dispossession in the Anglo-American history of settler colonialism. For comparison, see Adele Perry, On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001); and Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Colony and Metropole in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
20. Thrush, Native Seattle, 83–86.
21. David Igler, “The Industrial Far West: Region and Nation in the Late Nineteenth Century,” Pacific Historical Review 69 (May 2000), 159–192.
22. Gunther Barth, Instant Cities: Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975); Andrew Isenberg, Mining California: An Ecological History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005), 73–98; Thomas C. Cox, Mills and Markets: A History of the Pacific Coast Lumber Industry to 1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 46–137. Actual statistics, which included lumber from Puget Sound, the Columbia River, and California, were 75,523,000 million board feet (MBF) in 1860 and 147,631,000 MBF in 1867. See Cox, Mills and Markets, 303.
23. Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge,” 72–79; Joanna Leslie Dyl, “Urban Disaster: An Environmental History of San Francisco after the 1906 Earthquake” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2006), 53–58. For fires and urban development, see Christine Meisner Rosen, The Limits of Power: Great Fires and the Process of City Growth in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
24. C. A. Murdock, A Backward Glance at Eighty: Recollections and Comment: Massachusetts 1841, Humboldt Bay 1854, San Francisco 1864 (San Francisco: P. Elder, 1921), 107, as quoted in Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge,” 71.
25. John Muir, “The Bee Pastures,” in The Mountains of California (New York: Century Company, 1894), 340–342, quoted in Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge,” 105–106.
26. Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge,” 124–125. According to Sucheng Chang, the profits reaped by delta tideland speculators were immense: after paying $1 to $4 per acre for swampland and spending another $6 to $12 to drain it, the Tide Land Reclamation Company sold it for $20 to $100 per acre. See This Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860–1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 185.
27. Booker, “Real Estate and Refuge,” 148. Booker also quotes from sociologist Paul Taylor’s interview with an unnamed observer of California agriculture during the Great Depression who said “we are not husbandsmen. We are not farmers. We are producing a product to sell.” See Paul Taylor and Dorothea Lange, American Exodus: A Record of Human Erosion (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1939), 147. For the “wageworkers’ frontier,” see Carlos A. Schwantes, “The Concept of a Wageworkers’ Frontier: A Framework for Future Research,” Western Historical Quarterly 18 (January 1987), 39–55.
28. Marshall Moore, “Address,” December 9, 1867, in Charles M. Gates, Messages of the Governors of the Territory of Washington to the Legislative Assembly, 1854–1889 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1940), 139, 142.
29. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 3, 14, February 19, December 30, 1888; January 10, 1889.
30. Thomas Burke to Carrie L. Allen, May 1, 1888, box 20, Thomas Burke Papers, Special Collections Division, University of Washington Libraries.
31. Daily Intelligencer (Seattle), July 27, 1879; Thomas Prosch, “A Chronological History of Seattle from 1850 to 1897,” typescript (Seattle, 1901), 259–260, Special Collections Division, University of Washington Libraries. For Indians and fires, see Thrush, Native Seattle, 63–64. For the 1889 fire, see Clarence B. Bagley, History of Seattle from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing, 1916), 419–428.
32. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, August 19, 23, 1889; Jacob Furth to William F. Prosser, April 16, 1890, box 2, Harbor Line Commission, Survey Notes, Correspondence, and Reports, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Washington State Archives. For tideland laws, see Wilfred J. Airey, “A History of the Constitution and Government of Washington Territory” (Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1945), 497–521; and Laws, Rules and Regulations Governing the Appraisement and Sale of Tidelands of the State of Washington (Olympia, 1893), box 1, Harbor Line Commission Reports, Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Washington State Archives.
33. Padraic Burke, A History of the Port of Seattle (Seattle: Port of Seattle, 1976); and Richard C. Berner, Seattle 1900–1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulence, to Restoration (Seattle: Charles Press, 1991), 141–152.
34. Samuel A. Eliot, Report Upon the Conditions and Needs of the Indians of the Northwest Coast (Washington, DC: GPO, 1915), 17, 21. For Indian policy at the time, see Frances Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indian (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 2:657–686; Harmon, Indians in the Making, 131–159; and Thrush, Native Seattle, 85–91.
35. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 6, 7, May 11, 1910. For a similar analysis, see Thrush, “City of the Changers: Indigenous People and the Transformation of Seattle’s Watersheds,” Pacific Historical Review 75 (February 2006), 89–111.
36. David S. Torres-Rouff, “Water Use, Ethnic Conflict, and Infrastructure in Nineteenth-Century Los Angeles,” Pacific Historical Review 75 (February 2006), 119–126.
37. For land claims conflicts in the Los Angeles area, see Karen Clay and Werner Troesken, “Ranchos and the Politics of Land Claims” in Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles, ed. William Deverell and Greg Hise (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005), 52–66. For cattle and gold mining, see Isenberg, Mining California, 101–130; Igler, Industrial Cowboys: Miller & Lux and the Transformation of the Far West, 1850–1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 19–59.
38. City of Los Angeles, “Zanjero’s Report, 1883,” Los Angeles Municipal Reports, 1879–1896, 115, quoted in Torres-Rouff, “Water Use,” 127.
39. Torres-Rouff, “Water Use,” 127–140. For the Los Angeles River in this era, see Blake Gumprecht, The Los Angeles River: Its Life, Death, and Possible Rebirth (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 9–130.
40. The classic study in this vein is Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971). For an overview of the dual labor system, see Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 282–288.
41. For racial covenants and residential discrimination, see Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle’s Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994), 79–158; Judy Yung, Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); and Scott Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), 13–90. For Seattle covenants in particular, see “Segregated Seattle: A Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project Special Section,” http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/segregated.htm (accessed January 16, 2006).
42. For recent salient overviews, see Yong Chen, Chinese San Francisco, 1850–1943: A Trans-Pacific Community (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000); Madeline Yuan-yin Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dreaming of Home: Transnationalism and Migration Between the United States and South China, 1882–1943 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000); Adam M. McKeown, Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, and Hawaii, 1900–1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Erika Lee, At America’s Gates: Chinese Immigration during the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); and Sucheng Chan, ed., Chinese American Transnationalism: The Flow of People, Resources, and Ideas between China and America During the Exclusion Era (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006). See also Chang, “Borderlands in a World at Sea,” 384–403.
43. Arthur F. McEvoy, The Fisherman’s Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 65–92; Chris Friday, Organizing Asian-American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870–1942 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 25–103. Patterns of racial segregation were consistent but often inverted elsewhere on the Pacific coast. Along the lower Fraser River and Strait of Georgia in British Columbia, Japanese immigrants dominated the fishery while cannery jobs were off limits for all but white Canadians. Similarly, Asian immigrants in Hawaii were relegated to harvesting sugar cane while white Americans ran the mills and plantation operations. See Patricia Roy, A White Man’s Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858–1914 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1990), 64–268; and Ronald Takaki, Pau Hana: Plantation Life and Labor in Hawaii, 1835–1920 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983).
44. Connie Y. Chiang, “‘Monterey-by-the-Smell’: Odors and Social Conflict on the California Coastline,” Pacific Historical Review 73 (May 2004), 183–214; and Shaping the Shoreline: Fisheries and Tourism on the Monterey Coast (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), 12–39.
45. Matthew Morse Booker, “Oyster Growers and Oyster Pirates in San Francisco Bay,” Pacific Historical Review 75 (February 2006), 63–88.
46. For an overview of these hydrologic and social changes, see Klingle, Emerald City, 44–87; for the Duwamish River, see also George Blomberg, Charles Simenstad, and Paul Hickey, “Changes in Duwamish River Estuary Habitat over the Past 125 Years,” Proceedings: First Annual Meeting on Puget Sound Research (Seattle: Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1988), 2:437–454.
47. For the original fisheries around Seattle, see Barton Warren Evermann and Seth Eugene Meek, “A Report upon Salmon Investigations in the Columbia River and Elsewhere on the Pacific Coast in 1896,” Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1897 (Washington, DC: GPO), 34–47; R. Rathbun, “A Review of the Fisheries in the Contiguous Waters of the State of Washington and British Columbia,” Report of the United States Fish Commission for the Year Ending June 30, 1899 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1890), 251–350. For commercial fishing, see L. H. Darwin to Louis F. Hart, October 1, 1919, box 2J-1–18, Fisheries Commission File, 1919, Governors’ Papers, Hart Group, Washington State Archives.
48. Twenty-Eighth and Twenty-Ninth Annual Reports of the State Fish Commissioner, 1917–1919 (Olympia, WA, 1919), 10–13, WSA. For urban fishery politics, see Joseph E. Taylor III, Making Salmon: An Environmental History of the Northwest Salmon Crisis (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 166–202. For an overview of this conflict and the fishery closing, see Klingle, Emerald City, 173–176.
49. Seattle Times, July 31, 1928. For arrest records, see Annual Reports of the State Fish Commissioner: Twenty-Eighth and Twenty-Ninth, 1917–1919 (Olympia, WA, 1919), 162; Thirtieth and Thirty-First (1919–1921), 202, 293–94; Thirty-Second and Thirty-Third (1921–1923), 44–45, 104; Thirty-Fourth and Thirty-Fifth (1923–1925), 63–64, 128; Thirty-Sixth and Thirty-Seventh (1925–1927), 123–124, 203, WSA. For other accounts, see Seattle Times, October 1, 6, 11, 1928.
50. Carl Abbott, How Cities Won the West: Four Centuries of Urban Change in the North American West (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008), 70–73; Berglund, Making San Francisco American, 171–217.
51. “The A.-Y.-P. Exposition,” World’s Work 18 (August 1909), 11890.
52. Seattle Times, August 29, 1909; Thrush, Native Seattle, 118–122. For world’s fairs as racial exploitation, specifically along the Pacific Slope, see Robert W. Rydell, All the World’s a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 184–233.
53. Seattle Times, August 8, 1909. “Igorot” is one current and preferred term for this group of Philippines indigenous people. I use the 1909 original term in the main text as well.
54. Herbert C. Hoover to Charlie Field, April 29, 1912, as quoted in Rydell, 208. For another analysis of the connections between race, imperialism, and American frontier ideology, see Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 35–158, 229–284.
55. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 73.
56. Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History,” in The Frontier in American History (New York: H. Holt and Co., 1899, 1920), 1–35. I borrow my analysis of Turner from Stuart M. Blumin, “Driven to the City: Urbanization and Industrialization in the Nineteenth Century,” OAH Magazine of History (May 2006), 47.
57. Kerwin Klein, Frontiers of Historical Imagination: Narrating the European Conquest of Native America, 1890–1990 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 78; see also Wrobel, 27–142.
58. Frank Norris, “The Frontier Gone at Last,” World’s Work 3 (February 1902), 1729–1730, also quoted in Wrobel, 73.
59. Wade, 1.
60. For the links between immigration restriction and overseas expansion in the United States and Canada, see Lee, At America’s Gates; Adam M. McKeown, Melancholy Order: Asian Migration and the Globalization of Borders (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008); Kornel Chang, “Circulating Race and Empire: Transnational Labor Activism and the Politics of Anti-Asian Agitation in the Anglo-American Pacific World, 1890–1910,” Journal of American History 96 (December 2009), 678–701; and Andrea Geiger, Subverting Exclusion: Transpacific Encounters with Race, Caste, and Borders, 1885–1928 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011).
61. Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life (1909; reprint, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989), 22–23, 349–350; Wrobel, 79–80.
62. Theodore Roosevelt, “The Pioneer Spirit and American Problems,” Outlook 96 (September 1910), 56–60, quoted in Wrobel, 80.
63. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 2–3, 87–146. For the Owens River, see William L. Kahrl, Water and Power: The Conflict over the Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens River Valley (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 80–179. For city engineers, see Stanley K. Schultz, Constructing Urban Culture: American Cities and City Planning, 1800–1920 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 153–205. For sanitarians, see Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City: Environmental Services in Urban America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).
64. For descriptions and analysis of the earthquake and fires, plus their aftermath, see Dyl, 27–77, 102–103; Philip L. Fradkin, The Great Earthquake and Firestorms of 1906: How San Francisco Nearly Destroyed Itself (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 51–191. For the social ramifications of disasters on urban life, see Kevin Rozario, The Culture of Calamity: Disaster and the Making of Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).
65. Fradkin, 289–296; Dyl, 92–97.
66. Susan Craddock, City of Plagues: Disease, Poverty, and Deviance in San Francisco (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 1–123; and Nayan Shah, Contagious Divides: Epidemics and Race in San Francisco’s Chinatown (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 1–203.
67. Dyl, 190–228. See also Craddock, 124–160; Shah, 120–157.
68. Dyl, 226; see also “The War on Rats versus the Right to Keep Chickens: Plague and the Paving of San Francisco, 1907–1908,” in The Nature of Cities: Culture, Landscape, and Urban Space, Studies in Comparative History Series, ed. Andrew Isenberg (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press in association with the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies at Princeton University, 2006), 38–61. For urban horses in their national context, see Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
69. For ecological metaphors, see Peter A. Coates, American Perceptions of Immigrant and Invasive Species: Strangers on the Land (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), especially 18–21. For eugenics and immigration, see Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 15–90. For immigrants and disease, see Alan M. Kraut, Silent Travelers: Germs, Disease, and the “Immigrant Menace” (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 50–77.
70. For the Malthusian strain of frontier anxiety, see Wrobel, 112–121 (quotation at 117).
71. Shah, 158–258.
72. Daniel Johnson, “Pollution and Public Policy at the Turn of the Century” and Christopher G. Boone, “Zoning and Environmental Inequity on the Industrial East Side,” in Land of Sunshine, 78–94, 167–178. For oil and beaches, see Paul Sabin, Crude Politics: The California Oil Market, 1900–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 53–78. For romanticizing California’s Hispanic past, see William Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe: The Rise of Los Angeles and the Remaking of Its Mexican Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); and Phoebe S. Kropp, California Vieja: Culture and Memory in a Modern American Place (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
73. Steven Stoll, The Fruits of Natural Advantage: Making the Industrial Countryside in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 124–154; and Douglas Cazaux Sackman, Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 119–180.
74. George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 129–208; and Matt Garcia, A World of Its Own: Race, Labor, and Citrus in the Making of Greater Los Angeles, 1900–1970 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 1–154.
75. Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, 172–187.
76. Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, 188–206. First quotation is from the Los Angeles Herald Examiner, October 17, 1958; second is from Samuel Holmes, “An Argument against Mexican Immigration,” Transactions of the Commonwealth Club of California 21 (March 23, 1926), 23, both quoted in Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, 188, 205. According to Deverell, the vast majority of those killed by the outbreak were Mexican.
77. Natalia Molina, Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 116–188.
78. Deverell, Whitewashed Adobe, 127–128.
79. Thomson to C. J. Moore, February 15, 1898, box 1, fol. 1, R. H. Thomson Papers, Special Collections Division, University of Washington Libraries. For demographics, see Thomson, “The Seattle Regrades,” [c. 1930], 11, box 13, fol. 5, same location; and O. A. Piper, “Regrading in Seattle North District,” [c. 1910], 1, Local Improvement District 4818, Letters, fol. 3, Seattle Engineering Department, Seattle Municipal Archives.
80. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, April 28, 1899.
81. Reginald Heber (R. H.) Thomson, That Man Thomson, ed. Grant H. Redford (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1950), 63–70; Mary McWilliams, Seattle Water Department History, 1854–1954 (Seattle: Water Department, 1954), 53–63. For a more sanguine overview of Thomson’s tenure as city engineer, see William H. Wilson, Shaper of Seattle: Reginald Heber Thomson’s Pacific Northwest (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 2009).
82. Thomson, “The Seattle Regrades,” 3.
83. Thomson to Frederick J. Haskin, April 24, 1908, box 4, book 5, R. H. Thomson Papers, Special Collections Division, University of Washington Libraries.
84. R. M. Overstreet, “Hydraulic Excavation Methods in Seattle,” Engineering Record 65 (May 4, 1912), 480–483. For an overview of early regrading, see Klingle, Emerald City, 98–104.
85. Arthur H. Dimock, “Preparing the Groundwork for a City: The Regrading of Seattle, Washington,” Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Paper No. 1669, 92 (1928), 733.
86. Louis P. Zimmerman, “The Seattle Regrade, with Particular Reference to the Jackson Street Section,” Engineering News 60 (November 12, 1908), 511; “The Jackson Street Regrade,” 1.
87. Wong Kee Jun v. Seattle, 143 Wash. 505 (1927). The other “Jackson Street regrade cases” (as defined by the Court in Davis v. Seattle) were Jorguson v. Seattle, 80 Wash. 126 (1914); Farnandis v. Seattle, 95 Wash. 587 (1917); Lochore v. Seattle, 98 Wash. 265 (1917); Blomskog, Erickson, and Cotton v. Seattle, 107 Wash. 471 (1919); Davis v. Seattle, 134 Wash. 1 (1925); Bingaman v. Seattle, 139 Wash. 68 (1926); and Hamm v. Seattle, 140 Wash 427 (1926). Only in Jorguson did the Court find for the city.
88. Klingle, Emerald City, 181–185.
89. Roderick D. McKenzie, “The Ecological Approach to the Study of the Human Community,” American Journal of Sociology 30 (November 1924), 298–301; Klingle, Emerald City, 192–197.
90. McKenzie, “Ecological Succession in the Puget Sound Region,” Publications of the American Sociological Society 23 (1929), reprinted in Roderick D. McKenzie on Human Ecology: Selected Writings, ed. and intro. Amos H. Hawley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 243.
91. Donald Francis Roy, “Hooverville: A Study of a Community of Homeless Men in Seattle” (M.A. thesis, University of Washington, 1935), 1, 20–21.
92. Seattle Star, December 30, 1930; and Calvin Schmid, Social Trends in Seattle, Publications in the Social Sciences, vol. 14 (Seattle: University of Washington, 1944), 286–287.
93. “Protest against Shacks in the Interbay District,” April 26, 1937, file 154992, Seattle City Clerk’s (Comptroller’s) Files, Seattle Municipal Archives; Berner, Seattle, 1921–1940: From Boom to Bust (Seattle: Charles Press, 1992), 183–187; Klingle, Emerald City, 197–201.
94. Paul Sabin, “Home and Abroad: The Two ‘Wests’ of Twentieth-Century United States History,” Pacific Historical Review 66 (August 1997), 305–335, quotation at 318.
95. For energy and utility systems, see Bruce Stadfeld, “Electric Space: Social and Natural Transformations in British Columbia’s Hydroelectric Industry to World War II” (Ph.D. diss., University of Manitoba, 2002); and Andrew Todd Needham, “Power Lines: Urban Space, Energy Development, and the Making of the Modern Southwest” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2006). For weeds and other mobile biota, see Ian R. Tyrrell, True Gardens of the Gods: Californian-Australian Environmental Reform, 1860–1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Klingle, “Spaces of Consumption in Environmental History,” History and Theory 42 (December 2003), 94–110; Mark T. Fiege, “The Weedy West: Mobile Nature, Boundaries, and Common Space in the Montana Landscape,” Western Historical Quarterly 36 (Spring 2005), 22–47; and Zachary J. S. Falck, Weeds: An Environmental History of Metropolitan America (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011). For the challenges of identifying proper spatial and historical scales in environmental history, see Richard White, “The Nationalization of Nature,” Journal of American History 86 (December 1999), 976–986; and Joseph E. Taylor, III, “Boundary Terminology,” Environmental History 13 (July 2008), 454–481.
96. Dorothy Fujita-Rony, “Water and Land: Asian Americans and the U.S. West,” Pacific Historical Review 76 (November 2007), 563–574; see also Patricia Nelson Limerick, “Disorientation and Reorientation: The American Landscape Discovered from the West,” Journal of American History 79 (December 1992), 1021–1049. For environmental and labor history, see Gunther Peck, “The Nature of Labor: Fault Lines and Common Ground in Environmental and Labor History,” Environmental History 11 (April 2006), 212–238; and Thomas G. Andrews, “‘Made by Toile’? Tourism, Labor, and the Construction of the Colorado Landscape, 1858–1917,” Journal of American History 92 (December 2005), 837–863.
97. For example, see Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrones and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880–1930 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Fujita-Rony, American Workers, Colonial Power: Philippine Seattle and the Transpacific West, 1919–1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Chen, Chinese San Francisco; Kramer, Blood of Government; and Geiger, Subverting Exclusion.
98. One suggestive study in this vein is Mansel G. Blackford, Pathways to the Present: U.S. Development and Its Consequences in the Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007).
99. For landscape and forgetfulness, see Patricia Nelson Limerick, “Empire and Amnesia,” Historian 66 (September 2004), 532–538; Don Mitchell, The Lie of the Land: Migrant Workers and the California Landscape (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); and Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1995). For the frontier and the persistence of innocence, Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1987), 35–54. For a compelling study of how certain frontier ideas about savagery and nature persist in a particular Utah landscape, see Jared Farmer, On Zion’s Mount: Mormons, Indians, and the American Landscape (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008). For a recent study of how past borderlands affect present-day borders, see Geraldo L. Cadava, “Borderlands of Modernity and Abandonment: The Lines within Ambos Nogales and the Tohono O’odham Nation,” Journal of American History 98 (September 2011), 362–383.
100. For “metronatural” Seattle, see Seattle Post-Intelligencer, October 21, 2006; Seattle Times, October 21, 2006; and the Seattle Convention and Visitors Bureau web site at www.metro natural.com/ (accessed December 24, 2006).
101. Spencer Michaels, “Fear of SARS Hits San Francisco’s Chinatown,” The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, April 25, 2003, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/jan-june03/sars_04–25.html (accessed August 4, 2009); Quarantine Stations at Ports of Entry Protecting the Public’s Health (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2005), 14–69. For how fears over SARS affected businesses and residents in Seattle’s International District, the former Chinatown, see “SARS scare, economy keep Uwajimaya’s sales flat,” Puget Sound Business Journal, June 20, 2003. For pandemic disease monitoring, see Seattle and King County Department of Public Health, “Pandemic Flu Response Plans, Version 14,” http://www.kingcounty.gov/healthservices/health/preparedness/pandemicflu/plan.aspx (accessed February 11, 2009); and Tom Costello, “Why Seattle Is Prepared for a Bird Flu Pandemic,” NBC Nightly News with Brian Williams, April 26, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12426421/ (accessed February 12, 2009).
102. For a small sample of the immigrant smuggling trade along the Pacific coast, see the following articles from the Los Angeles Times: “Smuggling of Chinese Ends in a Box of Death, Squalor,” January 12, 2000; “Chinese Stowaways in Good Condition,” April 4, 2001; and “Human Smuggling Operation Probed,” January 17, 2005. For invasive species in California, see the web site for the intergovernmental agency, Invasive Species Council of California, established in 2009 to “coordinate and ensure complimentary, cost-efficient, environmentally sound and effective state activities regarding invasive species,” http://www.iscc.ca.gov/ (accessed December 16, 2011).
103. Klingle, Emerald City, 263; for Portland, see Ellen Stroud, “Troubled Waters in Ecotopia: Environmental Racism in Portland, Oregon,” Radical History Review 74 (Spring 1999), 65–95; for San Diego, see Kevin Delgado, “A Turning Point: The Conception and Realization of Chicano Park,” Journal of San Diego History 44 (Winter 1998), 48–61; and J. Holtzman, “Barrio Logan, San Diego, California,” www.umich.edu/%7Esnre492/holtzman.html#problem (accessed August 3, 2009).
104. For the quotation, see Seattle Times, January 4, 2009; for tribal recognition and opposition to it, see Seattle Post-Intelligencer, September 5, 2008, and July 15, 2009.
105. Wade, 342.
Chapter 8
1. Richard Wade, The Urban Frontier: Pioneer Life in Early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and St. Louis (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), 1.
2. Robert R. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 99.
3. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, vol. 1, Atlantic America, 1492–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), 69; Carl Abbott, How Cities Won the West: Four Centuries of Urban Change in Western North America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008), 11, 44; Duncan Aikman, ed., The Taming of the Frontier (New York: Minton, Balch and Company, 1925), 204; Eugene P. Moehring, Urbanism and Empire in the Far West, 1840–1890 (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2004), 4, 13, 125, 128 .
4. Robert Bradford, Denver City, to W. B. Waddell, 18 January 1860, William Hepburn Russell, Alexander Majors, and William Bradford Waddell Papers, Huntington Library.
5. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 21.
6. David Hamer, New Towns in the New World: Images and Perceptions of the Nineteenth-Century Urban Frontier (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), 163.
7. D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America, 69.
8. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 24.
9. Bernard Bailyn, The New England Merchant in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Harper and Sons, 1964), 33.
10. Timothy R. Mahoney, River Towns in the Great West: The Structure of Provincial Urbanization in the American Midwest, 1820–1870 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 209; Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 60–61.
11. Meinig, The Shaping of America , 66.
12. Mahoney, River Towns in the Great West, 210.
13. Bailyn, The New England Merchant in the Seventeenth Century, 34.
14. Bailyn, The New England Merchant in the Seventeenth Century, 60–74.
15. Virginia D. Harrington, The New York Merchant on the Eve of Revolution (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1964), 63–72.
16. Alan Taylor, William Cooper’s Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 107–111, 437.
17. Mahoney, River Towns in the Great West, 110.
18. Timothy R. Mahoney, “Down in Davenport (I): Antebellum Town Economic Development in a Regional Perspective,” Annals of Iowa 50 (Summer 1990), 457, 460–65.
19. Mahoney, “Down in Davenport (I),” 460–65.
20. Wilma Daddario, “Side by Side, the Stout Farmer and the Keen-Eyed Speculator: Founding and Shaping Nebraska City, 1854–1870” (M.A. thesis, University of Nebraska, 1992), 14, 25; Robert Bradford, Denver City, to W. B. Waddell, 19 October 1859, 3 November 1859, 29 November 1859, William Hepburn Russell, Alexander Majors and William Bradford Waddell Papers, Huntington Library, San Marino, California; Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 79.
21. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 79–80.
22. North American and United States Gazette, 15 December 1853.
23. Lore Ann Guilmartin, “Textiles from the Steamboat Bertrand: Clothing and Gender on the Montana Mining Frontier” (Ph.D. thesis, Texas A&M University, 2002), 45–46.
24. Lewis Atherton, The Frontier Merchant in Mid-America (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1971), 98.
25. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 46.
26. Gunther Barth, Instant Cities, Urbanization and the Rise of San Francisco and Denver (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), xiii.
27. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 12.
28. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 32.
29. Moehring, Urbanism and Empire, 175.
30. Mark Eifler, Gold Rush Capitalists: Greed and Growth in Sacramento (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), 56–60.
31. William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1991).
32. Abbott, How Cites Won the West, 46.
33. Guilmartin, “Textiles from the Steamboat Bertrand,” 2.
34. Don L. and Jean Harvey Griswold, The Carbonate Camp Called Leadville (Denver: University of Denver Press, 1951).
35. Henry Veith Papers, Nebraska State Historical Society.
36. Abbott, How Cities Won the West, 13.
37. Timothy H. Breen, “Looking Out for Number One: Conflicting Cultural Values in Early Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” South Atlantic Quarterly 78:3 (1979), 342–360; Timothy R. Mahoney, “‘A Common Band of Brotherhood’: The Booster Ethos, Male Subcultures, and the Origins of Urban Social Order in the Midwest of the 1840s,” Journal of Urban History (July 1999), 619–646; Robert R. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 248.
38. Alexandra Fuller, The Legend of Colton H. Bryant (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 84.
39. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns, 248.
40. Aikman, The Taming of the Frontier.
Chapter 9
1. Estwick Evans, A Pedestrious Tour, of four thousand miles through the western states and territories, during the winter and spring of 1818 interspersed with brief reflections upon a great variety of topics . . . (Concord, NH: Joseph C. Spear, 1819), 191.
2. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, in Jefferson: Writings, ed. Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of America, 1894), 291.
3. John William Reps, Cities on Stone: Nineteenth Century Lithograph Images of the Urban West (Fort Worth, TX: Amon Carter Museum, 1976); John William Reps, John Caspar Wild: Painter and Printmaker of Nineteenth-Century Urban America (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press; distributed by University of Missouri Press, 2006).
4. For revealing studies of the ethnic and racial component of travel narratives, maps, and other forms of cultural production, see Wayne Franklin, Discoverers, Explorers, Settlers: The Diligent Writers of Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Thomas Hallock, From the Fallen Tree: Frontier Narratives, Environmental Politics, and the Roots of a National Pastoral, 1749–1826 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Stephanie LeMenager, Manifest and Other Destinies: Territorial Fictions of the Nineteenth-Century United States (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004); Elizabeth Vibert, Traders’ Tales: Narratives of Cultural Encounters in the Columbia Plateau, 1807–1846 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).
5. The scholarship on American print culture is both deep and rich. For selected studies that chronicle the growth, content, and circulation of that print culture, see Jeffrey L. Pasley, The Tyranny of Printers: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001); David Waldstreicher, In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes: The Making of American Nationalism, 1776–1820 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Michael Warner, The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990).
6. For the development of geographic publishing, see Martin Brückner, The Geographic Revolution in Early America: Maps, Literacy, and National Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006). For travel narratives, see Bruce Greenfield, Narrating Discovery: The Romantic Explorer in American Literature, 1790–1855 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992); Hallock, From the Fallen Tree; Larzer Ziff, Writing in the New Nation: Prose, Print, and Politics in the Early United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); Larzer Ziff, Return Passages: Great American Travel Writing, 1780–1910 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).
7. Paul W. Mapp, The Elusive West and the Contest for Empire, 1713–1763 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2011).
8. Peter J. Kastor, William Clark’s World: Describing America in an Age of Unknowns (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 62–67, 78–87.
9. Brückner, The Geographic Revolution in Early America; John R. Short, Representing the Republic: Mapping the United States, 1600–1900 (London: Reaktion, 2001), 144–162.
10. For the role of landscape description (primarily surveying) in land ownership, see Edward T. Price, Dividing the Land: Early American Beginnings of Our Private Property Mosaic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Alan Taylor, William Cooper’s Town: Power and Persuasion on the Frontier of the Early American Republic (New York: Norton, 1995).
11. D. A. Hamer, New Towns in the New World (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
12. Zadok Cramer, The Ohio and Mississippi Navigator . . . (Pittsburgh: Zadok Cramer, 1802), 20.
13. Cramer, The Navigator (1802), 26.
14. Zadok Cramer, The Navigator: Containing Directions for Navigating the Monongahela, Allegheny, Ohio and Mississippi Rivers . . . (Pittsburgh: Z. Cramer, 1808); Zadok Cramer, The Navigator: Containing Directions for Navigating the Monongahela, Allegheny, Ohio, and Mississippi Rivers, with an ample account of these much admired waters . . . (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear, and Eichbaum, 1811); Zadok Cramer, The Navigator: Containing Directions for Navigating the Monongahela, Alleghany, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers, with an ample account of these much admired waters . . . and a concise description of their towns (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear, and Eichbaum, 1814); Zadok Cramer, The Navigator...to which is added an appendix, containing an account of Louisiana, and of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, as discovered by the voyage under Capts. Lewis and Clark (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Eichbaum, 1817); Zadok Cramer, The Navigator . . . To which is added an appendix, containing an account of Louisiana, and of the Missouri and Columbia rivers, as discovered by the voyage under Capts. Lewis and Clark (Pittsburgh: Cramer & Spear, 1824).
15. In 1807, Cramer secured a plum contract when he published the journals of Patrick Gass, in the process releasing the first account of the Lewis and Clark Expedition based on the manuscript journals of one of the explorers. But even in this situation, Cramer included no illustrations or maps, and only in later editions did he begin to include crude woodcuts. More relevantly, however, there was no visual representation of frontier settlements like Pittsburgh that Cramer promoted so vigorously. See Patrick Gass, A Journal of the Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery: Under the Command of Capt. Lewis and Capt. Clarke of the Army of the United States, from the Mouth of the River Missouri Through the Interior Parts of North America to the Pacific Ocean, During the years 1804, 1805 & 1806 . . . (Pittsburgh: Zadok Cramer, 1807); Patrick Gass, Journal of the Voyages and Travels of a Corps of Discovery Under the Command of Capt. Lewis and Capt. Clarke, of the Army of the United States, from the mouth of the river Missouri through the interior parts of North America to the Pacific Ocean, during the years 1804, 1805, and 1806 (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1810 and 1812).
16. For studies of Filson and History of Kentucke, see Hallock, From the Fallen Tree, 56–76.
17. This was apparently the only major map published by Pursell, who remains something of mystery, leaving no record of his training or experience. While Pursell’s map of Kentucky was widely distributed and featured prominently as a source for numerous other maps, none of the major map collections in the United States indicates that Pursell himself created other maps. Likewise, Pursell does not feature in the correspondence surrounding Filson’s publication, or record or the work of other cartographers.
18. John Garretson Clark, New Orleans, 1718–1812: An Economic History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1970); Daniel H. Usner, Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).
19. Philip Pittman, Plan of New Orleans (London: J. Nourse, 1770); The Isles of Montreal as they have been survey’d by the French engineers (Montreal: n.p., 1761).
20. H. M. Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear, and Eichbaum, 1814); Amos Stoddard, Sketches, Historical and Descriptive, of Louisiana (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1812).
21. The debate over what constitutes a frontier has a rich history all to itself. My own working definition emerges from Greg Nobles’s useful terminology of an intercultural contact zone where no one particular group wields political or cultural control. See Gregory H. Nobles, American Frontiers: Cultural Encounters and Continental Conquest (New York: Hill & Wang, 1997), Preface.
22. Jedidiah Morse, Geography Made Easy (New Haven: Meigs, Bowen, and Dana, 1784), 112–113.
23. For selected examples, see Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Journal of a Voyage to North-America.Undertaken by order of the French King. Containing the Geographical Description and Natural History of that Country, Particularly Canada . . . (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1761); Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz, The History of Louisiana, or of the Western Parts of Virginia and Carolina . . . (London: T. Becket and P. A. De Hondt, 1763); Thomas Jefferys, The Natural and Civil History of the French Dominions in North and South America . . . (London: T. Jefferys, 1760); James Pitot, Observations on the Colony of Louisiana from 1796 to 1802 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979). In addition, many of the late eighteenth-century European travel narratives that circulated throughout the United States were later republished in Reuben Gold Thwaites, Early Western Travels, 1748–1846 (Cleveland: A. H. Clark Company, 1904).
24. The European and Euro-American belief in Indian laziness has been a central concern of a vast literature on intercultural contact, European science, and federal policy. For examples, see Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Vintage Books, 1979); Terry Jay Ellingson, The Myth of the Noble Savage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Harry Liebersohn, Aristocratic Encounters: European Travelers and North American Indians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); John F. Moffitt and Santiago Sebastián, O Brave New People: The European Invention of the American Indian (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996); Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 102–105; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999), 180–203.
25. Pitot, Observations on the Colony of Louisiana, 29.
26. Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana; Stoddard, Sketches, Historical and Descriptive, of Louisiana.
27. Thomas Jefferson to Meriwether Lewis, 20 June 1803, Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, With Related Documents 1783–1854, ed. Donald Jackson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1978), 1:61–66; Jefferson to Lewis, 16 November 1803, Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1:137; Jefferson to Thomas Freeman, 14 April 1804, Papers of Thomas Freeman, 1796–1807, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress; James Wilkinson to Zebulon Pike, 30 July 1805 and 24 June 1806, both in The Journals of Zebulon Montgomery Pike, ed. Donald Jackson (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), 1:3–4 and 285–287.
28. History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark, to the sources of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky Mountains and down the river Columbia to the Pacific Ocean: Performed during the years 1804–5–6 by order of the government of the United States (Philadelphia: Bradford and Inskeep, 1814); Zebulon Montgomery Pike, An Account of Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi: and through the western parts of Louisiana to the sources of the Arkansaw, Kans, La Platte, and Pierre Jaun Rivers . . . (Philadelphia: C. & A. Conrad & Co., 1810); Message from the President of the United States, communicating discoveries made in exploring the Missouri, Red River, and Washita, by Captains Lewis and Clark, Doctor Sibley, and Mr. Dunbar; with a statistical account of the countries adjacent. February 19, 1806 (Washington: A. and G. Way, 1806); An Account of the Red River, in Louisiana, Drawn up from the Returns of Messrs. Freeman and Custis to the War Office of the United States, who Explored the Same, in the year of 1806 (Washington, 1806). The notion of Indian cities, and their connection to early western explorers, has been most thoroughly developed in Carolyn Gilman, Lewis and Clark: Across the Divide (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2003).
29. Jedidiah Morse, A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States, on Indian Affairs, comprising a narrative of a tour performed in the summer of 1820 (New Haven: Converse, 1822). For Morse’s travel and observations, see Richard Morse to Elizabeth Morse, 13, 22, and 23 June 1820, Morse Family Papers, 1779–1868, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
30. For examples, see Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, A View of the Lead Mines of Missouri . . . (New York: Charles Wiley & Co., 1819); Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Travels in the central portions of the Mississippi valley: Comprising observations on its mineral geography, internal resources, and aboriginal population (New York,: Collins and Hannay, 1825); Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Narrative of an expedition through the upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake: the actual source of this river: embracing an exploratory trip through the St. Croix and Burntwood (or Broule) Rivers: in 1832 (New York: Harper, 1834).
31. Schoolcraft, Travels in the central portions of the Mississippi valley, 51–52.
32. Kastor, William Clark’s World, 233–244.
33. Peter J. Kastor, “‘What Are the Advantages of the Acquisition?’: Inventing Expansion in the Early American Republic,” American Quarterly 60: 4 (2008), 1027–1030.
34. John William Reps, John Caspar Wild: Painter and Printmaker of Nineteenth-Century Urban America (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, distributed by University of Missouri Press, 2006); J. C. Wild, The Valley of the Mississippi: Illustrated in a Series of Views (St. Louis: Chambers and Knapp, 1841).
Chapter 10
1. For a list of McDermott’s publications and scholarly collaborations see the calendar to his papers. Allan McCurry, John Francis McDermott Research Papers: A Descriptive Inventory (Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University, 1985).
2. Correspondence files, McDermott Research Collection, Lovejoy Library, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville.
3. McDermott Research Collection; SIUE.
4. For a discussion of these issues, see Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1965); Douglas E. Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1966).
5. McDermott wrote his seminal “The Confines of the Wilderness” as published in The Missouri Historical Review 29:1 (October) in 1934 and built upon similar research in the city’s probate records throughout the 1930s.
6. For early St. Louis’s history, see Charles E. Peterson, Colonial St. Louis: Building a Creole Capital (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1949); J. Thomas Scharf, History of St. Louis City and County (Philadelphia: Everts, 1883); James N. Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri (Boulder: Pruett, 1981). J. F. McDermott, Private Libraries in Creole St. Louis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938) gives an excellent rendition of St. Louis citizens and citations to the authors listed above.
7. McDermott, Private Libraries in Creole St. Louis, part 2, 23–169.
8. On the organization of early libraries in private hands on both sides of the Atlantic, see Helmut Lehmann-Haupt, The Book in America (New York: Bowker, 1951), 194–259.
9. McDermott, Private Libraries, 24; McDermott Research Collection, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, Box 43/20–21 and Box 49–54; St. Louis Probate Court Historical Records; French and Spanish Archives of St. Louis.
10. Ibid., 26.
11. Ibid., 62.
12. Ibid., 90.
13. Ibid., 128–166.
14. Narrative on the Founding of St. Louis by Auguste Chouteau (ca. 1806), St. Louis Mercantile Library Special Collections, University of Missouri, St. Louis.
15. It seems very possible that an audience of readers who were literate in both French and English existed in a variety of North American towns from Quebec City and Montreal to New Orleans—and including St. Louis and Detroit. The Montreal Gazette/Gazette de Montréal, for example, printed various sections in only one language (literature often in English, political items often in French). This suggests an audience that could read both languages, and we know that the fur trade in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries promoted fluency in both languages for those employed in positions requiring literacy. Bilingualism in such frontier cities is a topic that has not been studied and would benefit from bibliographical investigations. For more on Montréal, see Yvan Lamonde and Patricia Lockhart Fleming, Cultural Crossroads: Print and Reading in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century Montreal (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 2004).
16. For information on the early imprints of early Missouri printers, such as Joseph Charless, see Viola A. Perotti, Important Firsts in Missouri Imprints (Kansas City: Perotti, 1967); also David Kaser, A Directory of the St. Louis Book and Printing Trades to 1850 (New York: New York Public Library, 1961).
17. John Neal Hoover, The First St. Louis Library: Books and People on the Missouri Frontier, 1811–1851 (St. Louis: St. Louis Mercantile Library, 1989); McDermott, “Private Libraries in Frontier St. Louis,” Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America (March 1957), 21–37; McDermott, “The First Book Store in Early St. Louis,” Mid-America (July 1939), 21–37.
18. Hoover, The First St. Louis Library. Additional records on the history of the St. Louis Lyceum are held by the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Library.
19. McDermott, “Public Libraries on St. Louis, 1811–1839,” Library Quarterly (January 1944), 9–27; Hoover, Cultural Cornerstone, 1846–1998: The Earliest Catalogues of the St. Louis Mercantile Library (St. Louis: University of Missouri, 1998).
20. Michael Winship, A History of the Book in America, vol. 3, The Industrial Book, 1840–1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 129–130.
21. Winship, 130.
22. Records of the St. Louis Lyceum are in the Special Collection of the St. Louis Mercantile Library at the University of Missouri, St. Louis; additional bibliographical information has been gleaned from the accessions records of the Mercantile Library preserved in the Library’s archives.
23. St. Louis Mercantile Library Accession Records, St. Louis Mercantile Library Archives.
24. Peterson, Colonial St. Louis.
25. See Aubrey Starke, “Books in the Wilderness,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (January 1936), 258–270. For further examples, the St. Louis Mercantile Library alone possesses three distinct “frontier” libraries: the earliest public library collection described above, the John Mason Peck collection of books and papers, and the Ethan Allen Hitchcock collection.
Epilogue
1. John Warner Barber, History and Antiquities of New Haven, Connecticut, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time (New Haven, 1831); Leonard Bacon, Thirteen Historical Discourses, on the Completion of Two Hundred Years: From the Beginning of the First Church in New Haven (New Haven: Durrie and Peck, 1839). For more on this process, see Jean M. O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).
2. See also more modern histories such as Rollin G. Osterweis, Three Centuries of New Haven, 1638–1938 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953); and Floyd Shumway and Richard Hegel, eds., New Haven: An Illustrated History (Woodland Hills, CA: Windsor Publications, 1981).
3. Lauric Henneton, “Plots and Rumours of Plots: The Geopolitics of the Greater Long Island Sound in the Mid-Seventeenth Century,” paper given at the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Conference, New Paltz, NY, June 17, 2011, 3.
4. Charles H. Townshend, The Quinnipiack Indians and Their Reservation (New Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, 1900).
5. For the best and only modern history of these events and the reservation, see John Mehta, The Quinnipiac: Cultural Conflict in Southern New England (New Haven: Yale University Publications in Anthropology, 2003).
6. Joanna Brooks, ed., The Collected Writings of Samson Occom, Mohegan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 23, 162–164. See also John Mehta, The Quinnipiac: Cultural Conflict in Southern New England (New Haven: Yale University Publications in Anthropology, 2003), 179–180.
7. Brooks, Collected Writings of Samson Occom, 35. The town and Yale’s other famous preacher and writer, Jonathan Edwards, spent a significant portion of his career as an Indian missionary in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Though he never mastered an Indian language, his second son, also Jonathan Edwards, became fluent in Mahican and wrote a significant treatise on Indian languages. Jonathan Edwards, Jr., Observations on the Language of the Muhhekaneew Indians, in Which the Extent of that Language in North America is Shewn, its Genius is Grammatically Traced, Some of its Peculiarities, and Some Instances of Analogy between that and the Hebrew are Pointed out (New Haven: Josiah Meigs, 1787).
8. Unlike her brother and other Mohegans who joined the Brotherton movement and relocated to upstate New York. As Joanna Brooks notes, “female-headed tribal factions tended to resist removal from traditional lands.” Brooks, Collected Writings of Samson Occom, 28.
9. Brooks, Collected Writings of Samson Occom, 28. Gladys Tantaquidgeon was a descendant of Lucy Occom Tantaquidgeon.
10. See, for example, Jay Gitlin’s Introduction to Margaret Van Horn Dwight, A Journey to Ohio in 1810 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1913; Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, Bison Books, 1991).
11. New Haven merchants early on became involved with the local fur trade. By the early nineteenth century, a new generation had turned to the maritime version—a seal-hunting fleet in the South Atlantic—with such “success that one stretch of beach used to dry furs on the coast of Patagonia was known as the New Haven Green.” Pelts were taken to distant markets such as Canton and accounted for a “considerable fraction” of the city’s wealth. See Douglas W. Rae, City: Urbanism and Its End (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 44.
12. Adam S. Horowitz, “Sí se puede (bailar) / Yes we can (dance): Stories of Performance and Migration in New Haven, CT” (Senior essay, Yale College, 2009), 10–12.
13. Rosanna Ensley, “Peerless Pageant: The First Ten Years of Tampa’s Gasparilla Festival,” Tampa Bay History 21 (2007), 20–35.
14. Canter Brown, Jr., Tampa Before the Civil War (Tampa, FL: University of Tampa Press, 1999), 7; Nancy Hewitt, Southern Discomfort, Women’s Activism in Tampa, Florida, 1880s-1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 23.
15. Brown, Tampa Before the Civil War, 25–27.
16. Hewitt, Southern Discomfort, 23; Robert P. Ingalls, Urban Vigilantes in the New South: Tampa, 1882–1936 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1988), 2–3; Brown, Tampa Before the Civil War, 23 and 65.
17. W. H. Timmons, El Paso: A Borderlands History (El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1990), 12–14.
18. Marc Simmons, The Last Conquistador: Juan de Oñate and the Settling of the Far Southwest (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 99–101.
19. Timmons, 74.
20. Timmons, 183.
21. See Timmons, especially chapter 7, 169–206.
22. Yolanda Chávez Leyva, “Moments of Conformity: Commemorating and Protesting Oñate on the Border,” New Mexico Historical Review 82:3 (Summer 2007), 343–367.
23. Abraham Zamora, “Barrio de los Indios: The Tiguas and the Urban Landscape of El Paso” (M.A. paper, University of Texas at El Paso, Spring 2011).
24. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 3–13.