1101. Tallqvist, Assyrian Personal Names, 217; CAD, 17/2, 86.
1102. S. A. Strong, “A Hymn of Nebuchadnezzar,” Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology 20 (1898): 156; CAD, 10/1, 168.
1103. COS, 1.86; del Olmo Lete and Sanmartín, Dictionary, 552.
1104. COS, 1, 86; see Niehaus, God at Sinai, 86–91.
1105. CAD, 13, 88–89.
1106. COS, 1.132.
1107. AEL, 2:97–98.
1108. COS, 1.6.
1109. Richardson, Hammurabi’s Laws, 87:146; 107:226, 227.
1110. B. Porten and A. Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt (Jerusalem: Hebrew Univ. Press, 1989), 2, 51.
1111. COS, 2.85.
1112. Del Olmo Lete, Dictionary, 523.
1113. AEL, 1:186.
1114. S. J. Sherwin, “In Search of Trees: Isaiah 44:14 and its Implications,” VT 53 (2003): 519–21.
1115. Dick, “Prophetic Parodies,” 43.
1116. Sherwin, “In Search of Trees,” 521–25.
1117. Heb. leḥem; Akk. akalu, derived from the verb “to eat,” akālu, CAD, 1/1, 238–245.
1118. COS, 1.113.
1119. King and Stager, Life, 65–67.
1120. See 1:29–30; 17:8; A. Lemaire, “Les inscriptions de Khirbet el-Qôm et L’Ashérah de YHWH,” RB 84 (1977): 595–608; Z. Meshel, Kuntillet ʿAjrud: A Religious Centre from the Time of the Judaean Monarchy on the Border of Sinai (Catalogue 175; Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1978), unnumbered pages; idem, “Did Yahweh have a Consort? The New Religious Inscriptions from the Sinai,” BAR 5 (1979): 24–34; F. Stolz, “Monotheismus in Israel,” in Monotheismus im alten Israel und seiner Umwelt, ed. O. Keel (Biblische Beiträge 14; Fribourg: Verlag Schweizerisches Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1980), 167–72; M. Weinfeld, “Kuntillet ʿAjrud: A Sacred Site of the Monarchic Period,” Shnaton 4 (1980): 280–84 (Hebrew); A. Lemaire, Les écoles et la formation de la Bible dans l’ancien Israël (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 25–33; J. A. Emerton, “New Light on Israelite Religion: The Implications of the Inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud,” ZAW 94 (1982): 2–29; D. Chase, “A Note on an Inscription from Kuntillet ʿAjrud,” BASOR 246 (1982): 63–67; W. G. Dever, “Recent Archaeological Confirmation of the Cult of Asherah in Ancient Israel,” Hebrew Studies 23 (1982): 37–44; idem, “Asherah, Consort of Yahweh? New Evidence from Kuntillet ʿAjrud,” BASOR 255 (1984), 21–27; A. Lemaire, “Who or What Was Yahweh’s Asherah?” BAR 10 (1984): 42–51; Z. Zevit, “The Khirbet el-Qôm Inscription Mentioning a Goddess,” BASOR 255 (1984): 39–47; J. Day, “Asherah in the Hebrew Bible and Northwest Semitic Literature,” JBL 105 (1986): 385–408; D. N. Freedman, “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah,” BA 50 (1987): 241–49; J. Hadley, “The Khirbet el-Qom Inscription,” VT 37 (1987): 50–62; M. Gilula, “To Yahweh Shomron and His Asherah,” Shnaton 3 (1978–1979): 129–37 (Hebrew); R. North, “Yahweh’s Asherah,” in To Touch the Text: Biblical and Related Studies in Honor of Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S. J., ed. M. P. Horgan and P. Kobelski (New York: Crossroad, 1989), 118–37; B. Margalit, “Some Observations on the Inscription and Drawing from Khirbet El-Qom,” VT 39 (1989): 371–78; R. Pattai, The Hebrew Goddess, 3rd ed. (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1990); Binger, Asherah; Keel and Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, 210–48; K. van der Toorn, “Goddesses in Early Israelite Religion,” in Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence, ed. L. Goodison and C. Morris (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1998), 83–97, especially 89–90; W. G. Dever, “Archaeology and the Ancient Israelite Cult: How the Kh. el-Qôm and Kuntillet ʿAjrud ‘Asherah’ Texts Have Changed the Picture,” ErIsr 26 (1999): 9–15; B. Becking, Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah (Biblical Seminar 77; London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001).
1121. CAD, 2, 121–25.
1122. J. L. Koole, Isaiah III/I (HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 1997), 418.
1123. AHw, 95.
1124. COS, 2.35.
1125. Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 68–92.
1126. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, 109–10.
1127. COS, 2.124.
1128. ANET, 306.
1129. Ibid.
1130. W. Eiler, “Der Keilschrifttext des Kyros-Zylinders,” in Festgabe deutscher Iranisten zur 2500-Jahrfeier Irans, ed. W. Eiler (Stuttgart: Hochwacht, 1971), 156; Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 76.
1131. Frame, Rulers of Babylonia, 148.
1132. Holloway, Aššur Is King!, 238–54, lists 54 such cases.
1133. KAI, 1, text 4; COS, 2.29.
1134. Among those considering Cyrus here simply designated in his royal role, see A. Laato, The Servant of YHWH and Cyrus: A Reinterpretation of the Exilic Messianic Programme in Isaiah 40–55 (ConBOT, 35; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1992); B. S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 353–54.
1135. AEL, 3:37; on Udjahorresnet, see Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 105–8.
1136. COS, 2.124.
1137. Restoration of the gods of captured people is a common practice; see Holloway, Aššur Is King! 277–83 for 21 examples.
1138. L. S. Fried, “Cyrus the Messiah? The Historical Background of Isaiah 45:1,” HTR 95 (2002): 373–93.
1139. See CAD, 16, 30–32; J. A. Black, “The New Year Ceremonies in Ancient Babylon: ‘Taking Bel by the Hand’ and a Cultic Picnic,” Religion 11 (1981): 39–59.
1140. ANET, 315.
1141. R. H. Pfeiffer, State Letters of Assyria (New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1935), 164–65; pers. trans.
1142. Pers. trans.; COS, 2.23; H. M. Barstad, “On the So-Called Babylonian Literary Influence in Second Isaiah,” SJOT 2 (1987): 97–98.
1143. AEL, 3:97.
1144. Ibid., 2:176.
1145. R. G. Kent, Old Persian, 2nd ed. (New Haven, Conn. American Oriental Society, 1953), 147; Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 153.
1146. W. H. Shea, “A Date for the Recently Discovered Eastern Canal of Egypt,” BASOR 226 (1977): 31–38.
1147. CAD, 17/III, 287.
1148. Ibid., 11/II, 290–92; 21, 19–20.
1149. ANET, 322.
1150. CAD, 2,191–98.
1151. In this it parallels the Canaanite/Hebrew baʿal, which also means “lord, master” and is used of the Canaanite storm god (e.g., 1 Kings 18:26), as well as of Yahweh, the God of Israel (e.g., Hos. 2:18; cf. Bealiah, “Baal = Yahweh,” 1 Chron. 12:5).
1152. CAD, 2, 193:2’; see Nissinen and Parpola, “Marduk’s Return,” 201–2.
1153. See A. Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis: The Story of Creation, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1963); COS, 1.111.
1154. J.-C. Margueron, “Babylon,” ABD, 1:564.
1155. Tallqvist, Assyrian Personal Names, 53–63.
1156. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works, 209, 215.
1157. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, 127; Dick, “Mesopotamian Cult Statue,” 53.
1158. A. R. Millard, “Nabû,” DDD, 607–10; Koole, Isaiah III/1, 496.
1159. Tallqvist, Assyrian Personal Names, 142–65.
1160. COS, 2.82.
1161. B. Porten and A. Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt (Jerusalem: Hebrew Univ., 1999) 4, 178: D7.30; COS, 3.87E.
1162. Millard, “Nabû,” 607.
1163. ANEP, 470–74. An Akkadian seal has a god standing with one foot on a lion, and in another, holding a lion over his head; Watanabe, Animal Symbolism, fig. 19, 69.
1164. ANEP, 486, 522; T. Ornan, “Ištar as Depicted in Finds from Israel,” in Mazar, Studies in the Archaeology, 235–56.
1165. ANEP, 500–501, 531; Watanabe, Animal Symbolism, fig. 64–66. See also W. Orthmann, Die Alte Welt (Berlin: Propyläen, 1975), 234, where the large lamassu statues are being transported.
1166. ANEP, 537. See Lewis, “Syro-Palestinian Iconography,” 93–97.
1167. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 187; T. W. Mann, Divine Presence and Guidance in Israelite Traditions: The Typology of Exaltation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1977), 76–89; Berlejung, “Washing the Mouth,” 67–68.
1168. ANEP, 538.
1169. CAD, 16, 75–76.
1170. Ibid., 17/2, 390–92; Harris, Gender and Aging, 50–51.
1171. Foster, Before the Muses, 604.
1172. Dated 427 B.C.; E. Kraeling, The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press for the Brooklyn Museum, 1953), 180–81; COS, 3.74; see J. Rabinowitz, “A Note on Isa 46:4,” JBL 73 (1954): 237.
1173. CAT, 1.114:17–19; COS, 1.97.
1174. Pritchard, Ancient Near East, 1, 161.
1175. COS, 1.99.
1176. See S. Parpola, “The Assyrian Cabinet,” in Vom Alten Orient Zum Alten Testament: Festschrift für Wolfram Freiherrn von Soden zum 85. Geburtstag am 19. Juni 1993, ed. M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (AOAT 240; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1995), 385, n. 17.
1177. COS, 1.28.
1178. Ibid., 1.111.
1179. Ibid.
1180. Dalley, Myths, 203–21.
1181. CAT, 1.5 vi:12–14; COS, 1.86, pers. trans.
1182. Ibid.
1183. G. A. Anderson, A Time to Mourn, a Time to Dance (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1991), 60–69, where he also mentions other deities descending in mourning into the underworld. See C. A. Franke, “Reversals of Fortune in the Ancient Near East: A Study of the Babylon Oracles in the Book of Isaiah,” in New Visions of Isaiah, ed. R. F. Melugin and M. A. Sweeney (JSOTSup 214; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006), 111.
1184. P. L. Day, “Anat,” DDD, 36–43; N. H. Walls, The Goddess Anat in Ugaritic Myth (Atlanta: Scholars, 1992).
1185. King and Stager, Life, 94–95.
1186. ANEP, 149.
1187. M. Tsevat, “The Husband Veils a Wife (Hittite Laws §§ 197–98),” JCS 27 (1975): 235–40; K. van der Toorn, Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria and Israel: Continuity and Change in the Forms of Religious Life (SHCANE 7; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 43–45; V. H. Matthews, “Marriage and Family in the Ancient Near East,” in Marriage and Family in the Biblical World, ed. K. M. Campbell (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 11–12.
1188. George, Epic of Gilgamesh, 65.
1189. See also the last day’s rituals of the installation ceremony for the high priestess at Emar; COS, 1.122.
1190. Tsevat, “Husband Veils,” 237, n. 12; K. van der Toorn, “The Significance of the Veil in the Ancient Near East,” in Pomegranates and Golden Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob Milgrom, ed. D. P. Wright et al. (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1995), 327–39.
1191. Pers. trans.; Driver and Miles, The Assyrian Laws, 408–11.
1192. Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 42–45.
1193. ANET, 183; CAD, 12, 218.
1194. CAD, 4, 320.
1195. ANEP, 3, 187.
1196. Ibid., 208, 209.
1197. COS, 1.108.
1198. R. Bauckham, “Descent to the Underworld,” ABD, 2:146.
1199. T. Abusch, “Ishtar,” DDD, 453.
1200. CAD, 10/1, 304, 315; del Olmo Lete and Sanmartín, Dictionary, 227, 245.
1201. AEL, 1:119.
1202. Ibid., 1:86.
1203. Grayson, ARI II, 121. See also his lengthy paean of self-praise in S. M. Paley, King of the World: Ashur-nasir-pal II of Assyria 883–859 B.C. (New York: The Brooklyn Museum, 1976), 125–26.
1204. See Seux, Épithètes royales; W. W. Hallo, Early Mesopotamian Royal Titles: A Philological and Historical Analysis (New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1957).
1205. COS, 1, 276, n. 13.
1206. Ibid., 1.87.
1207. COS, 2.4D.
1208. B. Albrektson, History and the Gods: An Essay on the Idea of Historical Events as Divine Manifestations in the Ancient Near East and Israel (ConBOT 1; Lund: Gleerup, 1967), 11–12. See the review by W. G. Lambert in Or 39 (1970): 170–77.
1209. Ibid., 17–22.
1210. Among many examples, see COS, 2.89, 91, 113, 114E, 118D, 118F, 119B, 124. See Weinfeld, “Divine Intervention in War,” 121–47.
1211. W. G. Lambert, “Ištar of Nineveh,” in Collon and George, ed., Nineveh, 1:35. See also B. N. Porter, “Ishtar of Nineveh and Her Collaborator, Ishtar of Arbela, in the Reign of Assurbanipal,” in ibid., 41–44.
1212. E.g., Acco: M. Dothan, “Acco,” ABD, 1:51; Mahanaim: D. V. Edelman, “Mahanaim,” ABD, 4:473; Tel ed-Dibai: C. J. Davey, “Tell edh-Dhibaʾi and the Southern Near Eastern Tradition,” in The Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys: Paper from the Second International Conference on the Beginnings of the Use of Metals and Alloys, Zhengzhou, China, 21–26 October 1986, ed. R. Maddin (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988), 63–68.
1213. T. Özgüç, Kültepe/Kaneš II (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimev, 1986), 39–51; J. N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History (New York: Routledge, 1992), 228–29; P. R. S. Moorey, Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), 216–301; idem, Metals and Metalwork, Glazed Materials and Glass (International Series 237; Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1985); Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 291–95.
1214. ANEP, 133; OEANE, 4, 12.
1215. Nissinen, References to Prophecy, 111; pers. trans.; see 118, 122.
1216. Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 184–85, lists seven ranging in date from the twelfth through the sixth centuries; also CAD, 1/1, 146.
1217. Pers. trans.; cf. Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 185.
1218. CAD, 21, 18.
1219. AEL, 1:36.
1220. AEL, 1:99.
1221. Luckenbill, Annals of Sennacherib, 48.
1222. COS, 2.107B.
1223. Ibid., 2.108.
1224. Seux, Épithètes royales, 210–12; CAD, 12, 30.
1225. See M. Rivaroli, “Nineveh: From Ideology to Topography,” in Collon and George, ed., Nineveh, 1:199–205.
1226. Grayson, Early First Millennium, 1:26.
1227. ANEP, 450.
1228. ANET, 653.
1229. G. Lambert, “Le livre d’Isaïe parle-t’il des Chinois?” La nouvelle revue théologique 85 (1953): 967–72; A. Betz, “Syene,” ABD, 6:250.
1230. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 316; B. Porten, “Elephantine Papyri,” ABD, 2:445–55.
1231. COS, 3.60.
1232. J. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55 (AB; New York: Doubleday, 2002), 311.
1233. ANEP, 749; J. Aruz, Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003), 427; J. J. Coulton, Ancient Greek Architects at Work (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1977), 52.
1234. AEL, 2:62; see ibid., 1:104.
1235. COS, 1.122.
1236. E.g., Moran, Amarna Letters, 93; King and Stager, Life, 55, 278.
1237. COS, 1.94, using the same word; CTU, 1.100:61.
1238. Gordon, Sumerian Proverbs, 281.
1239. Winter, Frau und Göttin, 397–404, pict. 404–12.
1240. CTU, 68–69; see Lewis, “Syro-Palestinian Iconography,” 98.
1241. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works, 217.
1242. Parpola, Assyrian Prophecies, 39.
1243. Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works, 404–13, pict. 413–19.
1244. ANET, 533; see also the Vassal Treaty of Esarhaddon, ibid, 538; CAD, 1/I, 250.
1245. M. Streck, Assurbanipal und die letzten assyrischen Konige bis zum Untergange Ninivehs. II. Teil: Texte. Die Inschriften Assurbanipals und der letzten assyrischen Könige (Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 7/2; Leipzig:, 1916), 74; CAD, 3, 78; pers. trans.
1246. ANET, 298.
1247. AEL, 1:36.
1248. M. A. Dandamayev, “Slavery (ANE and OT),” ABD, 6:58–65.
1249. Moran, Amarna Letters, 156. See M. A. Dandamaev, Slavery in Babylonia from Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great (626–331 B.C.) (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Univ. Press, 1984); Chirichigno, Debt Slavery.
1250. King and Stager, Life, 20–23.
1251. CAD, 1/I, 56.
1252. COS, 1.86; pers. trans. See P. D. Miller Jr. and J. J. M. Roberts, The Hand of the Lord: A Reassessment of the “Ark Narrative” of 1 Samuel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1977), 45–46; D. Bonatz, “Ashurbanipal’s Headhunt: An Anthropological Perspective,” in Collon and George, ed. Nineveh 1:93–101; C. E. Watanabe, “The Continuous Style in the Narrative Scheme of Assurbanipal’s Reliefs,” in ibid., 109–14, fig. 9–17; R. Dolce, “The ‘Head of the Enemy’ in the Sculptures from the Palaces of Nineveh: An Example of Cultural Migration?” in ibid., 121–32.
1253. Nissinen, References to Prophecy, 23; pers. trans.
1254. COS, 1.21. See van der Toorn, “Rahab,” 684–86.
1255. COS, 1.86. See J. Day, God’s Conflict with the Dragon; C. Kloos, Yhwh’s Combat with the Sea: A Canaanite Tradition in the Religion of Ancient Israel (Leiden: Brill, 1986); Stolz, “Sea,” 737–42.
1256. Grayson and Lambert, “Akkadian Prophecies,” 22.
1257. Seux, Épithètes royales, 210–11; CAD, 15, 163.
1258. AEL, 2:141.
1259. COS, 1.111.
1260. Ibid., 1.103.
1261. Pers. trans.; Livingstone, Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works, 117, see 119.
1262. COS, 1.99.
1263. Keel, Symbolism of the Biblical World, fig. 342; ANEP, 524.
1264. See what appears to be a circumcision ritual for Egyptian boys, ANEP, 629, and the description of a circumcision of 120 in ANET, 326. See R. G. Hall, “Circumcision,” ABD, 1:1025–31.
1265. COS, 2.7.
1266. R. Border, Die Inscriften Asarhaddons Königs von Assyrien, AfOB. 9 1956 (reprinted Osnabrück: Biblio Verlag, 1967), 5.
1267. CAD, 9, 104–7; Meier, Messenger, 83.
1268. Pers. trans.; CAD, 4, 260.
1269. Grayson, Assyrian Royal Inscriptions 2, 128, 130, 140; see COS, 2, 161, n. 5.
1270. CAD, 1, 317.
1271. COS, 2.39.
1272. Thureau-Dangin, Rituels accadiens, 144–45. See Abusch, Babylonian Witchcraft Literature, 92, n. 13.
1273. Pers. trans.; Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia, 159.
1274. ANET, 422.
1275. Ibid., 435.
1276. Pers. trans.; Meier, Die assyrische Beschwörungssammlung Maqlû 8; CAD 10/I, 75.
1277. Ibid.
1278. Moran, Amarna Letters, 61–62; “Egypt: Internal Affairs from Thuthmosis I to the Death of Amenophis III,” in CAH, II/1, 345–46.
1279. CAD, 2, 58; Black and Green, Gods, Demons and Symbols, 101.
1280. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 181–82.
1281. AEL, 2:219, where Hathor heals Horus; ibid., 3:104–5.
1282. CAD, 1/2, 336.
1283. COS, 1.99.
1284. AEL, 2:123.
1285. COS, 3.87B.
1286. Van Hecke, “Pastoral Metaphors,” 216.
1287. COS, 1.99.
1288. Ibid., 1.111.
1289. King and Stager, Life, 37.
1290. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, 75; CAD, 1/2, 225–26. For Ugaritic, see CTA, 1.10 II:20.
1291. COS, 2.59.
1292. AEL, 1:215; see 2:221, 223.
1293. Ibid., 3:19.
1294. COS, 1.159.
1295. COS, 3.101B, C.
1296. ANET, 564.
1297. A. G. Lie, The Inscriptions of Sargon II, King of Assyria I, The Annals (Paris: Geuthner, 1929), 413; CAD, 8, 601.
1298. King and Stager, Life, 53; H. A. Hoffner, “
(ʾlmānâ),” TDOT, 1:288–89.
1299. Gordon, Sumerian Proverbs, 197.
1300. Richardson, Hammurabi’s Laws, 98.
1301. Driver and Miles, Babylonian Laws, 1:356–58.
1302. COS, 3.44; pers. trans.
1303. See Winter, Frau und Göttin, 630–39.
1304. CAD, 2, 191–94.
1305. Ibid., 10/II, 314.
1306. Gordon, Sumerian Proverbs, 120.
1307. AEL, 1:44.
1308. Ibid., 1:91.
1309. COS, 2.53.
1310. CAD, 17, 149, pers. trans.
1311. ANEP, 97–100.
1312. G. Boyer, Contribution à l’histoire juridique de la 1re dynastie babylonienne (Paris: Geuthner, 1928), 147; CAD, 14, 260–63; Nissinen, Prophets and Prophecy, 168; Nissinen and Parpola, “Marduk’s Return,” 206.
1313. AEL, 1:100.
1314. Ibid., 1:228.
1315. COS, 3.42.
1316. COS, 1.95.
1317. CAD, 14, 292–96.
1318. J. Reade, Assyrian Sculpture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983), 31.
1319. COS, 1.159.
1320. Y. Yadin, Hazor I (1958), fig. 29:1; ANEP, 871; M. Delcor, “Two Special Meanings of the Word yd in Biblical Hebrew,” JSS 12 (1967): 230–34.
1321. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 176–77.
1322. Ibid., 180.
1323. Ibid., 181–82.
1324. Dick, “Neo-Assyrian Royal Lion Hunt,” 244–45.
1325. CAD, 1, 109.
1326. King and Stager, Life, 118–19.
1327. Ornan, The Triumph of the Symbol, 49–50, 121; M. Gibson, “Nippur, 1990: Gula, Goddess of Healing and an Akkadian Tomb,” available at http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/nn/sep90_nip.html; OEANE, 2, 166.
1328. Steinkeller, “Early Semitic Literature,” 248–58, pl. 1–2.
1329. L. E. Stager, “Why Were Hundreds of Dogs Buried at Ashkelon?” BAR 17 (1991): 26–42; P. Wapnish and B. Hesse, “Pampered Pooches or Plain Pariahs? The Ashkelon Dog Burials,” BA 56/2 (1993): 55–80.
1330. A. K. Grayson, “Murmuring in Mesopotamia” in Wisdom, Gods and Literature, 305.
1331. R. O Faulkner, The Book of the Dead (New York: Macmillan, 1972); Currid, Ancient Egypt, 96–103.
1332. Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia, 150. For other examples, see CAD, 10/II, 317.
1333. COS, 1.132.
1334. Katz, Image of the Netherworld, 227.
1335. See RIA, 7/1–2, 115, 151, 139–40 respectively.
1336. Steinkeller, “Early Semitic Literature,” 269–72 and pl. 6. Steinkeller (p. 269) suggests all three are of Semitic origin.
1337. AEL, 2:122, 124, 216, 219; 3:81; Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 168–69.
1338. A. R. W. Green, The Role of Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East (ASOR Dissertation Series 1; Missoula, Mont.: Scholars, 1975).
1339. O. Eissfeldt understands mlk not as a personal or divine name, but rather a technical Phoenician/Punic word for a child-sacrifice cult; O. Eissfeldt, Molk als Opferbegriff im Punischen und Hebräischen und das Ende des Gottes Moloch (Beiträge zur Religionsgeschichte des Altertums 3; Halle: Niemeyer, 1935); P. G. Mosca, “Child Sacrifice in Canaanite and Israelite Religion: A Study of Mulk and mlk” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975); Day, Molech, 4–14; K. A. D. Smelik, “Moloch, Molech or Molk-Sacrifice?” SJOT 9 (1995): 133–92; G. C. Heider, “Molech,” DDD, 581–82.
1340. Listed as an element of several names; G. C. Heider, The Cult of Molek: A Reassessment (JSOTSup 43; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1985), 94–101, 409–15; see M. Dahood, “Are the Ebla Tablets Relevant to Biblical Research?” BAR 6/5 (1980): 56.
1341. Heider, Cult of Molek, 102–13, 416–17.
1342. S. H. Horn, “The Ammān Citadel Inscription,” BASOR 193 (1969): 8; Heider, Cult of Molek, 169–70.
1343. Green, Role of Human Sacrifice, 59–65.
1344. Pro: M. H. Poe, “Notes on the Ugaritic Rephaim Texts,” in Essays on the Ancient Near East in Memory of Jacob Joel Finkelstein, M. de Jong Ellis, ed. (Hamden: Archon Books, 1977), 169–72; con: Day, Molech, 50–51.
1345. Day, Molech, 50–52. See also M. Weinfeld, “The Worship of Molech and the Queen of Heaven,” UF 4 (1972): 133–54; D. Edelman, “Biblical Molek Reassessed,” JAOS 107 (1987): 727–31.
1346. Heider, Cult of Molek, 185–88.
1347. M. Almagro-Gorbea, “Les reliefs orientalisants de Pozo Moro (Albacete, Espagne),” in Mythe et personification: actes du Colloque du Grand Palais (Paris), 7–8 mai, 1977, ed. J. Duchemin (Paris: Belles lettres, 1980): 123–36 and 8 plates; C. A. Kennedy, “The Mythological Reliefs of Pozo Moro, Spain,” SBLSP 20 (1981): 209–16; Heider, Cult of Molek, 189–92; Kempinski, “From Death to Resurrection,” 56–65, 82, especially 63.
1348. S. Moscati, “Il sacrificio dei fanciulli: Nuove scoperte su un celebre rito cartaginese,” Rendiconti: Atti delle pontificia Accademia romana di Archeologia 38 (1965–1966): 68, translated in Mosca, “Child Sacrifice,” 39; see L. E. Stager, “The Rite of Child Sacrifice at Carthage,” in New Light on Ancient Carthage: Papers of a Symposium, ed. J. G. Pedley (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1980), 1–11; L. E. Stager and S. R. Wolff, “Child Sacrifice at Carthage—Religious Rite or Population Control?” BAR 10/1 (1984): 30–51; Heider, Cult of Molek, 196–97; S. S. Brown, Late Carthaginian Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monuments in their Mediterranean Context (JSOT/ASOR Monograph Series 3; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press Press, 1991); M. H. Fantar, L. E. Stager, and J. A. Greene, “An Odyssey Debate: Were Living Children Sacrificed to the Gods in Punic Carthage?” Archaeology Odyssey 3/6 (2000): 28–31.
1349. K. Spronk, Beatific Afterlife in Ancient Israel (AOAT 219; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1986), 233.
1350. Mesopotamia: ANEP, 525, 600, 626, 689; Egypt, ibid., 640.
1351. AEL, 1:92.
1352. R. Deutsch and M. Heltzer, Forty New West Semitic Inscriptions (Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publications, 1994), 23–26; Zevit, Religions of Ancient Israel, 298.
1353. H. G. May, “The Fertility Cult in Hosea,” AJSL 48 (1931–1932): 73–98; W. F. Albright, “The High Place in Ancient Palestine,” Volume de Congrès: Strassbourg, 1956 (VTSup 4; Leiden: Brill, 1957): 242–58; E. Yamauchi, “Cultic Prostitution: A Case Study in Cultural Diffusion,” in Orient and Occident: Essays Presented to Cyrus H. Gordon on the Occasion of his Sixty-fifth Birthday, ed. H. A. Hoffner Jr. (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1973), 213–22; Oswalt, Isaiah: Chapters 40–66, 478–80; see J. Renger, “Heilige Hochzeit. A. Philologisch,” RlA 4 (1972–1975), 251–59; R. A. Henshaw, Female and Male: The Cultic Personnel: The Bible and the Rest of the Ancient Near East (Princeton Theological Monograph Series 31; Allison Park: Pickwick, 1994), 120–233; J. Assante, “The kar.kid/[kh]arimtu, Prostitute or Single Woman? A Reconsideration of the Evidence,” UF 30 (1998): 5–96.
1354. COS, 1.173; S. N. Kramer, The Sacred Marriage Rite: Aspects of Faith, Myth, and Ritual in Ancient Sumer (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana Univ. Press, 1969); M. Wakeman, “Sacred Marriage,” JSOT 22 (1982): 21–31; J. S. Cooper, “Sacred Marriage and Popular Cult in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Official Cult and Popular Religion in the Ancient Near East, ed. E. Matsushima (Heidelberg: Winter, 1993), 81–96; P. Lapinkivi, The Sumerian Sacred Marriage in the Light of Comparative Evidence (SAAS XV; Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus, 2004).
1355. Not everyone is agreed that the term refers either to cultic functionaries or to prostitutes; see M. I. Gruber, “Hebrew Qĕdēšāh and her Canaanite and Akkadian Cognates,” UF 18 (1986): 133–48.
1356. Henshaw, Female and Male, 228–33; J. Assante, “From Whores to Hierodules: The Historiographic Invention of Mesopotamian Female Sex Professionals,” in Ancient Art and Its Historiography, ed. A. A. Donahue and M. D. Fullerton (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003), 13–47.
1357. See P. Bird, “ ‘To Play the Harlot’: An Inquiry into an Old Testament Metaphor,” in Gender and Difference in Ancient Israel, ed. P. L. Day (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989), 75–94.
1358. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook, §19:1072; Delcor, “Two Special Meanings,” 234.
1359. Delcor, “Two Special Meanings,” 230–34; J. L. Koole, Isaiah III/3: Isaiah Chapters 56–66 (HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 2001), 71.
1360. See H. Ringgren, Religions of the Ancient Near East (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973); also note the entire dictionary on deities, Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (abbreviated DDD).
1361. Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 74–79.
1362. See D. B. Redford, Akhenaten, the Heretic King (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984); J. Assmann, Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom: Re, Amun and the Crisis of Polytheism (London: Kegan Paul, 1995); E. Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1999); D. P. Silverman et al., Akhenaten and Tutankhamun: Revolution and Restoration (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006).
1363. COS, 1.113.
1364. Zevit, Religions of Ancient Israel, 648–58.
1365. AHw, 994; CAD 14, 414–415.
1366. J. Muddiman, “Fast, Fasting,” ABD, 2:773–74; see S. Parpola, Letters from Assyrian Scholars to the Kings Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal: Part 2A: Commentary and Appendices (AOAT 5/2; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Butzon & Bercker, 1971), 58–59.
1367. AEL, 1:142.
1368. M. Boyce, “Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism,” ABD, 6:1171.
1369. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 119; AHw, 1326.
1370. CAD, 2, 213.
1371. COS, 1.86.
1372. AEL, 1:117.
1373. ANET, 320.
1374. M. J. Fretz, “Weapons and Implements of Warfare,” ABD, 6:894.
1375. AEL, 3:153.
1376. Ibid., 2:32. See ibid., 2:61, where Ramesses II’s armor makes him look like powerful Seth.
1377. CAD, 1/II, 177.
1378. COS, 1.111; CAD, 1/II, 177.
1379. Ibid., 1.72.
1380. Ibid., 2.47B.
1381. See also P. Grelot, “Un parallèle babylonien d’Isaïe LX et du Psaume LXXII,” VT 7 (1957): 319–21.
1382. CAD, 2, 35; ANET, 283; cf. 286; Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 184.
1383. F. V. Winnett, “The Arabian Genealogies in the Book of Genesis,” in Translating and Understanding the Old Testament: Essay in Honor of Herbert Gordon May, ed. H. T. Frank and W. L. Reed (Nashville: Abingdon, 1970), 194; Smith, “Arabia,” ABD, 1:326; E. A. Knauf, “Kedar,” ABD, 4:9–10.
1384. S. Parpola, Neo-Assyrian Toponyms (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1970), 285–86, 254–55.
1385. ANET, 298–300.
1386. D. W. Manor and G. A. Herion, “Arad,” ABD, 1:335; W. J. Dumbrell, “The Tell el-Maskhuṭa Bowls and the ‘Kingdom’ of Qedar in the Persian Period,” BASOR 203 (1971): 33–44.
1387. NRSV—a translation preferable to the “nests” of the NIV; see Gen. 7:8; 8:2, where the same term is used.
1388. See W. C. Bouzard III, “Doves in the Windows: Isaiah 60:8 in Light of Ancient Mesopotamian Lament Traditions,” in David and Zion: Biblical Studies in Honor of J. J. M. Roberts, ed. B. Batto and K. L. Roberts (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2004), 307–18; quote from 311.
1389. Sass, “Pre-Exilic Hebrew Seals,” 218–19:101, though the owner, interestingly enough, is named “Raven.” See also Keel and Uehlinger, Altorientalische Miniaturkunst, 126–27.
1390. Baker, “Tarshish (Place),” ABD, 6:331; King and Stager, Life, 183–84.
1391. Pers. trans.; H. Shanks, “The ‘Three Shekels’ and ‘Widow’s Plea’ Ostraca: Real or Fake?” BAR 29/3 (2003): 40–44; COS, 2.50.
1392. CAD, 2, 327; Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 183, where he also suggests identifications of the next two trees as well, based on Akkadian and Talmudic usage.
1393. AEL, 1:103
1394. Moran, Amarna Letters, 337; see also e.g., COS, 3.92A-C, F, G.
1395. COS, 1.111. See CAD, 17/1, 470–473; 17/2, 297–98.
1396. COS, 1.160.
1397. See D. I. Block, “Divine Abandonment: Ezekiel’s Adaptation of an Ancient Near Eastern Motif,” in The Book of Ezekiel: Theological and Anthropological Perspectives, ed. M. S. Odell and J. T. Strong (SBLSymS 9; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000), 18–24.
1398. Luckenbill, Ancient Records, 2:243.
1399. See M. Cogan, Imperialism and Religion: Assyria, Judah and Israel in the Eighth and Seventh Centuries B.C.E. (SBLMS 19; Missoula, Mont.: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974), 9–15; H. Tadmor, “Sennacherib’s Campaign in Judah” (Heb), Zion 50 (1986): 66–80; J. A. Dearman and G. L. Mattingly, “Mesha Stele,” ABD, 4:708–9; Levine, “Assyrian Ideology and Israelite Monotheism,” 422; Block, “Divine Abandonment,” 24–34.
1400. COS, 2.23.
1401. CAD, 17/I, 327–328; Meier, Messenger, 222–29; Anderson, A Time to Mourn, 45–47.
1402. CAD, 17/I, 325.
1403. Ibid., 1/I, 154.
1404. Stummer, “Einige keilschriftliche Parallelen,” 186.
1405. Moran, Amarna Letters, 143, 145, 151.
1406. CAD, 10/2, 314.
1407. Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia, 77.
1408. CAD, 8, 56, see 55–56.
1409. COS, 1.123.
1410. Ibid., 1.99.
1411. T. J. Lewis, “Death Cult Imagery in Isaiah 57,” HAR 11 (1987): 267–84; idem, Cults of the Dead, 143–60.
1412. W. Houston, Purity and Monotheism: Clean and Unclean Animals in Biblical Law (JSOTSup 140; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 136–40; see U. Hübner, “Schweine, Schweineknochen und ein Speiseverbot im alten Testamant,” VT 39 (1989): 225–36.
1413. Keel and Oehlinger, Altorientalische Miniaturkunst, 32.
1414. COS, 1.19.
1415. Houston, Purity and Monotheism, 149–50, 176. There is inconclusive evidence of their use in offerings to the dead; ibid., 161–65.
1416. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 215.
1417. Postgate, Fifty Neo-Assyrian Legal Documents, 37–43.
1418. CAD, 17/1, 226–227.
1419. COS, 3.43A, 43F.
1420. See Moran, Amarna Letters, 5.
1421. AEL, 1:65.
1422. COS, 1.122.
1423. S. Rabichini, “Gad,” DDD, 339–41; O. Keel, “La glyptique du Tell Keisan (1971–1976),” Studien zu den Stempsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel III, Die frühe Eisenzeit: Ein Workshop (OBO 100; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1990), 248–52.
1424. Avigad and Sass, Corpus, 54:12; 87:117, 118; 188:454; 191:467; 232:628, 629; 238:649. Also Arad ostracon 71:3; Samaritan ostracon 2.
1425. K. Van der Toorn, “Min,” DDD, 577; R. H. Wilkinson, The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt (London: Thames & Hudson, 2003), 115–17. For both, see Koole, Isaiah III/3, 435–36.
1426. ANET, 249–50; see the discussion there.
1427. COS, 1.132; pers. trans.
1428. Avigad and Sass, Corpus, 100:163; they take it as a hypocoristic form.
1429. Ibid, 431:1138.
1430. Koole, Isaiah III/3, 443.
1431. Pers. trans.; J. A. Fitzmyer, The Aramaic Inscriptions of Sefîre (BibOr 19; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1967), 98–99; COS, 2.82.
1432. ANET, 582–83; J. D. Levenson “The Temple and the World,” JR 64 (1984): 282–91.
1433. J. M. Lundquist, “What Is a Temple: A Preliminary Typology,” in The Quest For the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E. Mendenhall, ed. H. Huffmon, F. Spina. and A. R. W. Green (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 208; Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 123–24.
1434. Hurowitz, I Have Built, 245; Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 126.
1435. COS, 1.111. See G. K. Beale, “Cosmic Symbolism of Temples in the Old Testament,” in his The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (New Studies in Biblical Theology 17; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2004), 29–80.
1436. CAD, 3, 125.
1437. COS, 1.86; CTA, 2 iii: 7; pers. trans.
1438. COS, 1.86; CTA, 4 v:38–39.
1439. ANET, 315.
1440. COS, 1.111 vi:65–75; see Hurowitz, I Have Built, 93–96.
1441. Green, Role of Human Sacrifice, 88–91; CANE, 1885.
1442. Taylor, Death and the Afterlife, 99–100.
1443. J. M. Sasson, “Isaiah lxvi 3–4a,” VT 26 (1976): 204.
1444. Pers. trans.; C.-F. Jean, Lettres diverses (ARM II; Paris: Imprimerie national, 1950), 82; ANET, 482; G. E. Mendenhall, “Puppy and Lettuce in Northwest-Semitic Covenant Making,” BASOR 133 (1954): 26–30.
1445. E. D. Oren, “The Kingdom of Sharuhen and the Hyksos Kingdom,” in The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, ed. E. D. Oren (Philadelphia: Univ. Museum, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1997), 264 and figure 8.14; King and Stager, Life, 44.
1446. J. C. Moyer, “Hittite and Israelite Cultic Practices: A Selected Comparison,” in Scripture in Context II: More Essays on the Comparative Method (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 31–33; B. J. Collins, “The Puppy in Hittite Rituals,” JCS 42 (1990): 211–26.
1447. Sasson, “Isaiah lxvi 3–4a,” 205.
1448. R. de Vaux, “Les sacrifices de porcs en Palestine et dans l’Ancient Orient,” in Von Ugarit nach Qumran: Beiträge zur alttestamentlichen und altorientalischen Forschung: Otto Eissfeldt zum 1. September 1957 dargebracht von Freunden und Schülern, ed. J. Hempel and L. Rost (BZAW 77; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1958), 250–65.
1449. ANET, 10.
1450. P. C. Schmitz, “Phoenician Religion,” ABD, 5:360.
1451. E.g., G. Beckman, Hittite Birth Rituals: An Introduction (Malibu: Undena, 1978); K. van der Toorn, “The Prestige of Motherhood: Pregnancy and Birth,” in van der Toorn, ed., From her Cradle, 77–92; M. Stol, Birth in Babylonia and the Bible: Its Mediterranean Setting (Groningen: Styx, 2000); R. D. Biggs, “Conception, Contraception, and Abortion in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in George and Finkel, ed., Wisdom, Gods and Literature, 1–13.
1452. N. Veldhuis, A Cow of Sîn (Groningen: Styx, 1991), 9.
1453. COS, 2.34; A. Abou-Assaf et al., La statue de Tell-Fekherye et son inscription bilingue assyro-araméenne (Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les civilisations, 1982), 14.
1454. COS, 1.111.
1455. Pers. trans.; Luckenbill, Annals of Sennacherib, 142.
1456. COS, 1.86; del Olmo Lete, Dictionary, 739–40.
1457. CAD, 11/I, 357.
1458. Keel and Uehlinger, Altorientalische Miniaturkunst, 45:50.
1459. Sass, “Pre-Exilic Hebrew Seals,” 225–26:119.
1460. The Hebrew term (prd) is not cognate to the Akkadian (parû), but is semantically synonymous; Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 184, n. 45.
1461. Pers. trans.; ibid., 183–84, n. 44.
1462. See Paul, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 184.
1463. See Keel, Goddesses and Trees, 104–9; fig. 9, 10; Lewis, “Syro-Palestinian Iconography,” 75 and fig. 4.9.
1464. Y. Aharoni, Arad Inscriptions (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1981), 22; Keel, Goddesses and Trees, 105; S. E. Loewenstamm, From Babylon to Canaan: Studies in the Bible and its Oriental Background (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1992), 131–35.
1465. AEL, 1:203.
1466. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 109; see CAD, 8, 144–148.
Sidebar and Chart Notes
A-1. G. E. Wright, “The Lawsuit of God: A Form-Critical Study of Deuteronomy 32,” in Israel’s Prophetic Heritage: Essays on Honor of James Muilenburg, ed. B. Anderson and W. Harrelson (New York: Harper, 1962), 26–67; J. Limburg, “The Root riv and the Prophetic Lawsuit Speeches,” JBL 88 (1969): 291–304; K. Nielsen, Yahweh as Prosecutor and Judge: An Investigation of the Prophetic Lawsuit (Rîb-Pattern) (JSOTSup 9; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1978); J. C. Laney, “The Role of the Prophets in God’s Case against Israel,” BSac 138 (1981): 313–24. See also H. J. Boecker, Law and the Administration of Justice in the Old Testament and Ancient East (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1980); R. R. Wilson, “Israel’s Judicial System in the Pre-exilic Period,” JQR 74 (1983): 229–48; H. Niehr, Rechtsprechung in Israel: Untersuchungen.zur Geschichte der Gerichtsorganisation im Alten Testament (SBS 130; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1987).
A-2. For the religion of Egypt, see, e.g., S. Morenz, Egyptian Religion (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1973); A. R. David, The Ancient Egyptians: Religious Beliefs and Practices (New York/London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982); A. I. Sadek, Popular Religion in Egypt during the New Kingdom (Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1987); B. E. Shafer, ed., Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991). For Mesopotamia, see É. Dhorme and R. Dussaud, Les religions de Babylone et d’Assyrie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1949); G. van Driel, The Cult of Aššur (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1969); T. Jakobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1976). For the entire ancient Near Eastern area, see, e.g., H. Ringgren, Religions of the Ancient Near East (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1973); CANE, 1685–2094.
A-3. E.g., K. R. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1998), 186–89.
A-4. Ibid., 189–90.
A-5. Ibid., 194–96.
A-6. Ibid., 190–94, 196–212; R. A. Henshaw, Female and Male: The Cultic Personnel: The Bible and the Rest of the Ancient Near East (Princeton Theological Monograph Series 31; Allison Park, Pa.: Pickwick, 1994).
A-7. F. E. Deist, The Material Culture of the Bible: An Introduction (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 217.
A-8. King and Stager, Life, 172–76.
A-9. U. K. Westenholz, Babylonian Liver Omens (CNI 25; Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, Univ. of Copenhagen, 2000); U. Jeyes, “A Compendium of Gall-Bladder Omens Extant in Middle Babylonian, Nineveh, and Seleucid Versions,” in George and Finkel, Wisdom, Gods and Literature, 345–74; W. Hallo, “Before Tea Leaves: Divination in Ancient Babylonia,” BAR 31/2 (2005): 32–39.
A-10. For a discussion of various different sorts of divination, see the proceedings of the 14th Rencontre assyriologique internationale (Strasbourg), La divination en Mésopotamie ancienne et dans les régions voisines (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1966); A. Caquot, La divination: études recueilles par André Caquot et Marcel Leibovici (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1968); A. L. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1964), 207; F. H. Cryer, Divination in Ancient Israel and its Near Eastern Environment (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994); for divination among the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Hittites, Canaanites, and Israelites, see CANE, 1775–85, 1895–909, 2007–19, 2071–81 respectively; A. K. Guinan, “A Severed Head Laughed: Stories of Divinatory Interpretation,” in Magic and Divination in the Ancient World, ed. L. Ciraolo and J. Seidel (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 7–40; for Egypt, J. Gee, “Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context,” ibid., 83–88.
A-11. R. K. Ritner, “Necromancy in Ancient Egypt,” in Magic and Divination in the Ancient World, 89–96.
A-12. J. Seidel, “Necromantic Praxis in the Midrash on the Séance at En Dor,” in Magic and Divination in the Ancient World, 97–106.
A-13. O. Neugebauer, Astronomical Cuneiform Texts: Babylonian Ephemerides of the Seleucid Period for the Motion of the Sun, the Moon, and the Planets (London: Lund Humphries, 1955); A. L. Oppenheim, “Divination and Celestial Observation in the Late Assyrian Empire,” Centaurus 14 (1969): 97–135; F. Rochberg-Halton, Aspects of Babylonian Celestial Divination: The Lunar Eclipse Tablets of Enuma Anu Enlil (Horn: Ferdinand Berger & Söhne, 1988); N. M. Swerdlow, The Babylonian Theory of the Planets (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1998); Cryer, Divination, 142–44; N. M. Swerdlow, Ancient Astronomy and Celestial Divination (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999); H. Hunger and D. Pingree, Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia (Leiden: Brill, 1999); D. Brown, Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy/Astrology (Groningen: Styx, 2000); F. Rochberg, The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004).
A-14. Cryer, Divination, 145–47.
A-15. See E. Leichty, The Omen Series Šumma Izbu (Locust Valley, N.Y.: Augustin, 1970); Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 206–27; S. M. Moren, “Šumma Izbu XIX: New Light on the Animal Omens,” AfO 27 (1980): 53–70; R. R. Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 90–98; Cryer, Divination, 148–54; also from Ugarit, M. Dietrich et al., “Der keilalphabetische Šumma Izbu-Text RS 24.247+265+268+328,” UF 7 (1979): 134–40; M. Dietrich et al., Mantik in Ugarit: Keilalphabetische Texte der Opferscha—Omensammlungen.-Necromantie (Münster: Ugarit Verlag, 1990), 87–165; COS, 1.90
A-16. ANET, 328.
A-17. ANET, 592–93.
A-18. S. Dalley, Myths From Mesopotamia, “Erra and Ishum” (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1991), 304; cf. COS, 1.113 IV:40–42, 44.
A-19. After E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech Used in the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1968 [1898]), 313. More recent discussion of Hebrew wordplay is found in S. B. Noegel, ed. Puns and Pundits: Word Play in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Literature (Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 2000), 137–248.
A-20. V. A. Hurowitz, “Alliterative Allusions, Rebus Writing, and Paronomastic Punishment: Some Aspects of Word Play in Akkadian Literature” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 68. Further on Akkadian see A. D. Kilmer, “More Word Play in Akkadian Poetic Texts,” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 89–102; S. W. Greaves, “Ominous Homophony and Portentous Puns in Akkadian Omens,” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 103–13.
A-21. A. Loprieno, “Puns and Word Play in Ancient Egyptian” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 3–20.
A-22. J. Klein and Y. Sefati, “Word Play in Sumerian Literature” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 23–61.
A-23. W. G. E. Watson, “Puns Ugaritic Newly Surveyed” in Noegel, ed., Puns and Pundits, 117–34.
A-24. COS, 2.285.
A-25. Millard, Eponyms.
A-26. J.-J. Glassner, Mesopotamian Chronicles (SBLWAW 19; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004), 171.
A-27. COS, 2.117A, along with Menahem, an earlier Israelite king.
A-28. Ibid., 2.117C; “[I/they killed] Pekah, their king, and I installed Hoshea.”
A-29. Dubovský, “Tiglath-pileser III’s Campaigns,” 154–56.
A-30. COS, 1.136.
A-31. Ibid., 2.117D.
A-32. Dubovský, “Tiglath-pileser III’s Campaigns,” 153–70, see 163.
A-33. M. E. W. Thompson, Situation and Theology: Old Testament Interpretations of the Syro-Ephraimite War (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1982).
A-34. For a discussion of the meaning of the term and related ones, see J. H. Walton, “
,” NIDOTTE, 1:781–84; “
,” 3:415–19.
A-35. CAT, 1.15 II:22 (Wyatt, Religious Texts, 209); 1.14 IV:41 (ibid., 201); in both cases the girl in question is introduced in marriage into the king’s house.
A-36. COS, 2.117B; cf. 2.117A; an incident recorded in 2 Kings 15:19.
A-37. ANET, 283.
A-38. Tiglath-pileser III Summary Inscription 4 lines 15’-19’, H. Tadmor, The Inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III, King of Assyria (Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1994), 141; cf. COS 2.117C. Who killed Pekah is missing in the Akkadian fragment, but the biblical text attributes it to “them,” i.e., his fellow Israelites.
A-39. Ibid., 2.117; ANET, 282–84.
A-40. COS, 2.118; ANET, 284–87.
A-41. COS, 2.119; ANET, 287–88.
A-42. COS, 2.120; ANET, 289–94.
A-43. ANET, 294–301.
A-44. Grayson, Early First Millennium, 2:14, also 8, 9, 10, etc.
A-45. J. C. Trever, Scrolls from Qumran Cave I: The Great Isaiah Scroll, The Order of the Community, The Pesher to Habakkuk (Jerusalem: Albright Institute/ Shrine of the Book, 1974), 6–63.
A-46. The form could also indicate a past tense; N. Wyatt, Religious Texts from Ugarit, 2nd ed. (London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2002), 264 n. 57.
A-47. COS, 1.103 ii:8 ff.
A-48. Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12, 400.
A-49. See also M. Malul, Knowledge, Control and Sex: Studies in Biblical Thought, Culture and Worldview (Tel Aviv-Jaffa: Archaeological Center Publications, 2002), 278–312.
A-50. J. M. Myers, Ezra, Nehemiah (AB 14; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), 149, though others take the two names as linguistic variants, e.g., H. G. M. Williamson, 1 and 2 Chronicles (NCBC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982), 333–34.
A-52. Using the Qal prefix indicative, “he will call his name.”
A-53. Supported by the Niphal, passive reading proposed in BHS.
A-54. Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12, 402.
A-55. CAT, 7, 63:4–7; del Olmo Lete, Canaanite Religion, 176.
A-56. Seux, Épithètes royales, 156.
A-57. Ibid., 67–70, 96. See a much earlier, late third-millennium inscription of Shar-kali-sharri, designating him as “heroic god” (ibid., 106).
A-58. Ibid., 229–31, qarrādu, cf. the Hebrew gibbor.
A-59. Ibid., 297, expressed as a wish or desire, “may the king be eternal.”
A-60. This term is surprisingly rare and could indicate an official in a position lower than king; CAD, 1/1, 72–73.
A-61. Seux, Épithètes royales, 91, 161.
A-62. Ibid., 182–83, 281–82.
A-63. ANET, 165.
A-64. Ibid., 177.
A-65. Ibid., 523.
A-66. Ibid., 159.
A-67. Ibid., 526.
A-68. COS, 1.136.
A-69. ANET, 241.
A-70. Ibid., 262.
A-71. Ibid., 275.
A-72. Ibid., 277–79.
A-73. Ibid., 283.
A-74. Ibid., 285.
A-75. Ibid., 242, 253.
A-76. Ibid., 278–80.
A-77. Ibid., 282.
A-78. Ibid., 284.
A-79. See the treaty entered into between Assyria and Arpad at this time; ibid., 532–33.
A-80. COS, 1.136.
A-81. Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12, 419.
A-82. ANET, 242, 248.
A-83. Ibid., 278–81.
A-84. Ibid., 285; COS, 1.136, where Damascus is mentioned in the eponyms of 733 and 732 B.C.
A-85. A. K. Grayson and W. G. Lambert, “Akkadian Prophecies,” JCS 18 (1964): 13–14; cf. T. Longman III, Fictional Akkadian Autobiography: A Generic and Comparative Study (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1991), 149–63, for a study of the text. A similar rule is described in the Marduk prophecy, see 9:7.
A-86. Grayson and Lambert (“Akkadian Prophecies,” 10) suggest that this type of text was written because of the Akkadian cyclical view of history, that what goes around will again come around. Thus, a description of the past is also ipso facto a prediction of the future.
A-87. ANET, 627.
A-88. ANET, 38.
A-89. http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/section1/tr1823.htm.
A-90. B. Batto, “Paradise Reexamined,” in Younger, The Biblical Canon, 58. See S. N. Kramer, Enki and Ninhursag: A Sumerian “Paradise” Myth (New Haven, Conn.: American Schools of Oriental Research, 1945); B. Alster, “Dilmun, Bahrain, and the Alleged Paradise,” in Dilmun: New Studies in the Archaeology and Early History of Bahrain, ed. D. T. Potts (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1983), 39–74; T. Jacobsen, The Harps that Once. . .: Sumerian Poetry in Translation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1987), 182.
A-91. See M. Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return (New York: Pantheon, 1954).
A-92. COS, 1.46.
A-93. ANET, 329.
A-94. See the map of the extent of its empire in Aharoni, Macmillan Bible Atlas, 147.
A-95. A question might be why the more minor power of Babylon is mentioned in Isaiah prior to the more major Assyria (14:24–27). There is no evidence that the oracles are uniformly placed in chronological order, and at the time of subsequent editors of the text, Babylon could have attained superiority. Assyrian kings held the throne of Babylon from the time of Tiglath-pileser III (B. T. Arnold, Who Were the Babylonians? [Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004], 89), so at the time of Isaiah, the two could have been coterminous (see K. L. Younger Jr., “Recent Study on Sargon II, King of Assyria: Implications for Biblical Studies,” in Chavalas and Younger, Mesopotamia and the Bible, 319 n. 94. Assyria’s fall has already been described by Isaiah (10:5–19).
A-96. NBD2, 180.
A-97. J. A Brinkman, “Notes on Arameans and Chaldeans in Southern Babylonia in the Early Seventh Century B.C.,” Or 46 (1977): 306–7; CAH3, 288–90; RLA, 5, 291–92; M. van de Mieroop, A History of the Ancient Near East: ca. 3000–323 B.C. (Malden: Blackwell, 2004), 198–99.
A-98. Arnold, Who Were the Babylonians? 87–91.
A-99. See J. H. Hayes and S. A. Irvine, Isaiah The Eighth Century Prophet: His Life and Times (Nashville: Abingdon, 1987), 24.
A-100. J. A. Brinkman, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 B.C. (AnOr 43; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 168), 260–85.
A-101. B. T. Arnold, “Babylonians,” in Hoerth, Peoples, 58–59.
A-102. Ibid., 60–66; P.-A. Beaulieu, “King Nabonidus and the Neo-Babylonian Empire,” CANE, 969–79.
A-103. See Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 69–124; CANE, 2068–70; J. H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 314–29, especially 320–21.
A-104. CANE, 1763–74.
A-105. COS, 2.8–12; R. O. Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts (Oxford: Clarendon, 1969); idem, The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts, 3 vols. (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1973–1978); idem, The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1990); D. Meeks and C. Favard-Meeks, Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1996), 141–50; E. Hornung, The Ancient Egyptian Books of the Afterlife (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 1999); J. H. Taylor, Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2001); M. Müller, “Afterlife,” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, ed. D. B. Redford (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001), 1:32–37.
A-106. Taylor, Death and the Afterlife, 46–91.
A-107. E. Otto, Das altägyptische Mundöffnungsritual (Ägyptologische Abhandlungen 3; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1960); J. C. Goyon, Rituels funéraires de l’ancienne Égypte: le rituel de l’embaument, le rituel de l’ouverture de la bouche, les livres de respiration (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1972); AEL, 2:120.
A-108. Taylor, Death and the Afterlife, 190–92.
A-109. J. Zandee, Death as an Enemy according to Ancient Egyptian Conceptions (Studies in the History of Religions 5; Leiden: Brill, 1960); P. S. Johnston, “Death in Israel and Egypt: A Theological Reflection,” in The Old Testament in Its World, ed. R. P. Gordon and J. C. de Moor (OTS 52; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 100–104.
A-110. CANE, 1886–88; D. Katz, The Image of the Netherworld in the Sumerian Sources (Bethesda, Md.: CDL, 2003).
A-111. George, Epic of Gilgamesh, 187. See also the description in Ishtar’s Descent to the Netherworld in Foster, Before the Muses, 499.
A-112. ANET, 110.
A-113. Aharoni, Macmillan Bible Atlas, 52; MacDonald, “East of the Jordan,” 171–83; Routledge, Moab, 48–57.
A-114. See also the Moabite Stone, COS, 2.23; Routledge, Moab, 41–48, 133–53.
A-115. ANET, 282.
A-116. Ibid., 287.
A-117. See P. M. Michèle Daviau and P.-E. Dion, “Moab Comes to Life,” BAR 28/1 (2002): 38–49, 63.
A-118. KTU, 1.14 I:26–27. See also COS, 1.86.
A-119. D. W. Baker, Joel, Obadiah, Malachi (NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 44. On mourning in general in Israelite society, see R. N. Boyce, The Cry to God in the Old Testament (SBLDS 103; Atlanta: Scholars, 1988); G. A. Anderson, A Time to Mourn, A Time to Dance: The Expression of Grief and Joy in Israelite Religion (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1991); P. W. Ferris Jr., The Genre of Communal Lament in the Bible and the Ancient Near East (SBLDS 127; Atlanta: Scholars, 1992).
A-120. COS, 1.86. See also AEL, 2:206.
A-121. Ibid., 1.86.
A-122. Dalley, Myths from Mesopotamia, 91–92.
A-123. Ibid., 93. Special mourning garments are also worn in Egypt, see AEL, 3:132.
A-124. E.g., ANET, 455–63; COS, 1.118–19, 166; S. N. Kramer, “The Temple in Sumerian Literature,” in Temple in Society, ed. M. V. Fox (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1988), 1–16.
A-125. AEL, 1:152.
A-126. Ibid., 3:5.
A-127. SSS, I, 2.
A-128. See ANET, 283.
A-129. Ibid., 285.
A-130. NBD2, 295–99; K. A. Kitchen, “Egypt, History of (Chronology),” ABD, 2:325–31; A. Spalinger, “Egypt, History of (Dyn. 21–26),” ABD, 2:358–60.
A-131. Rainey and Notley, Sacred Bridge, 42.
A-132. Aharoni, Macmillan Bible Atlas, 11.
A-133. COS, 1.45.
A-134. AEL, 3:95
A-135. Jacob and Jacob, “Flora,” 2:815.
A-136. Pers. trans.; ANET, 320.
A-137. King and Stage, Life, 148–52; Jacob and Jacob, “Flora,” 2:815.
A-138. H. T. Wright, “Mesopotamia, History of (Chronology),” ABD, 4:721.
A-139. AEL, 1:207.
A-140. Ibid., 2:172.
A-141. CAD, 8, 473–75.
A-142. Ibid., 7, 254.
A-143. AEL, 1:153.
A-144. Del Olmo Lete, Dictionary, 688.
A-145. Younger, “Recent Study on Sargon II,” 313–18.
A-146. ANET, 286.
A-147. Ibid.
A-148. NEAEHL, 1:100.
A-149. Amiran, “Water Supply,” 75–78.
A-150. See map in Watts, Isaiah 1–33, 283.
A-151. COS, 2.28; pers. trans. See also K. L. Younger Jr., “The Siloam Tunnel Inscription: An Integrated Reading,” UF 26 (1994): 543–56.
A-152. Grayson, Early First Millennium, 2:247.
A-153. Ibid.
A-154. See King and Stager, Life, 233–39; Hasel, Military Practice, 51–93.
A-155. COS, 1.166.
A-156. ANET, 445.
A-157. Cf. T. Hiebert, “Theophany in the OT,” ABD, 6:505–11.
A-158. J. Niehaus, God at Sinai: Covenant and Theophany in the Bible and Ancient Near East (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995), 125–36.
A-159. D. D. Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib (OIP 2; Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1924), 45; CAD, 13, 246.
A-160. COS, 1.102.
A-161. Ibid., 1.103.
A-162. Budge and King, Annals, 42.
A-163. COS, 1.86.
A-164. T. G. H. James, “Egypt: The Twenty-Fifth and Twenty-Sixth Dynasties,” in CAH, III2, 2, 682–89.
A-165. CAH, III2, 1, 576–77; Grayson, “Assyria: Tiglath-pileser III,” 2:89; Spalinger, “Egypt, History of (Dyn. 21–26),” ABD, 2:359–60.
A-166. H. R. Hall, Catalogue of Egyptian Scarabs, etc. in the British Museum I (London: British Museum, 1913), numbers 2775, 2776; James, “Egypt,” 693.
A-167. James, “Egypt,” 693.
A-168. Wiseman, Vassal-Treaties, 38; cf. Nissinen, References to Prophecy, 156.
A-169. Nissinen, References to Prophecy, 111, 120–50; see also 156, 160–61.
A-170. COS, 3.80.
A-171. Day, “Baal (Deity),” ABD, 1:546; del Olmo Lete, Dictionary, 788.
A-172. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 53; see CAD, 17/I, 52, 55.
A-173. CAD, 17/I, 55–56.
A-174. Ibid., 57.
A-175. See R. E. Averbeck, “Sumer, the Bible, and Comparative Method: Historiography and Temple Building,” in Chavalas and Younger, ed., Mesopotamia and the Bible, 120.
A-176. Roaf, Cultural Atlas, 104–7; Bienkowski and Millard, Dictionary, 327–28; J. H. Walton, “The Mesopotamian Background of the Tower of Babel Account and Its Implications,” BBR 5 (1995): 155–75.
A-177. Hurowitz, I Have Built, 335–36.
A-178. Ibid., 66.
A-179. Borger, Inschriften Asrhaddons, 5; translation Hurowitz, I Have Built, 245.
A-180. See King and Stager, Life, 247–51.
A-181. COS, 2.119B; pers. trans.
A-182. King and Stager, Life, 247–51; see D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish, 5 vols. (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Univ. Press, 2004); P. J. King, “Why Lachish Matters: A Major Site Gets the Publication It Deserves,” BAR 31/4 (2005): 36–47.
A-183. There is also a suggestion that there were two campaigns by Sennacherib and that vestiges of both are found in the Bible. See W. Shea, “Jerusalem Under Siege: Did Sennacherib Attack Twice?” BAR 25/6 (1999): 36–44, 64.
A-184. On this genre in Sumerian literature, see W. W. Hallo, “Individual Prayer in Sumerian: The Continuity of a Tradition,” in Hallo, Essays, 75–80. Another text identified as a “letter to god” is rather an account of a conquest, being a different literary genre; N. Naʾaman, “Sennacherib’s ‘Letter to God’ on his Campaign to Judah,” in Ancient Israel and Its Neighbors: Interaction and Counteraction: Collected Essays: Volume 1, ed. N. Naʾaman (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 135–52, originally BASOR 214 (1974): 25–39.
A-185. See a similar lament by the king of Sidon; COS, 2.57.
A-186. Ibid., 1.164.
A-187. Hallo, “Individual Prayer,” 75.
A-188. See Holloway, Aššur is King, 80–216.
A-189. Moran, Amarna Letters. More broadly, see B. U. Schipper, Israel und Ägypten in der Königszeit: Die kulturellen Kontakte von Salomo bis zum Fall Jerusalems (OBO 170; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999).
A-190. For treaties, see ANET, 199–206, 529–41; COS, 2.17–18, 82, 127–29. For discussion, see Holloway, Aššur is King, 217–319; CANE, 964–65.
A-191. Holloway, Aššur is King, 338–88.
A-192. CANE, 1380–81.
A-193. Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 93.
A-194. N. Yoffee, Explaining Trade in Ancient Western Asia (MANE, 2/2; Malibu: Undena, 1981); J. G. Dercksen, ed., Trade and Finance in Ancient Mesopotamia: Proceedings of the First MOS Symposium (Leiden 1977) (MOS Studies, 1; Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1999); Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 269–81.
A-195. For maps from several periods, see Roaf, Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia, 34, 79, 98, 113; CANE, 1373–497; M. T. Larsen, The Old Assyrian City-state and its Colonies (Mesopotamia 4; Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1976); B. G. Wood, The Sociology of Pottery in Ancient Palestine: The Ceramic Industry and the Diffusion of Ceramic Style in the Bronze and Iron Ages (JSOTSup, 103; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990); M. Elate, “Phoenician Overland Trade within the Mesopotamian Empires,” in M. Cogan and I. Ephʾal, Ah Assyria, 21–35; T. E. Levy, ed., The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land (New York: Facts on File, 1995); Schipper, Israel und Ägypten, 35–83, 159–85, 247–65.
A-196. D. Dorsey, Roads and Highways of Ancient Israel (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1991); Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 119.
A-197. CAD, 6, 231–232.
A-198. ANET, 82; CAD, 6, 107; pers. trans.
A-199. A paved street is noted in EB III Beth-Yerah, D. Ussishkin, “Beth Yerah,” RB 75 (1968): 267.
A-200. ARM, 2.78 (CAD, 6, 107–8); pers. trans.
A-201. CAD, 6, 232.
A-202. Grayson, Assyrian Rulers, 2:8.
A-203. Ibid., 2:13.
A-204. CAD, 6, 108; K. Kessler, “ ‘Royal Roads’ and Other Questions of the Neo-Assyrian Communication System” in Parpola and Whiting, Assyria 1995, 129–36.
A-205. Wiseman, Vassal-Treaties, 54.
A-206. See Kramer, The Sumerians, 115–16; G. Farber-Flügge, Der Mythos “Inanna und Enki” unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Liste der me (Studia Pohl 10; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1973), 116–213; idem., “ME,” in RlA,7, 610–613; Berlejung, Die Theologie der Bilder, 20–30.
A-207. COS, 1.161.
A-208. ANEP, 561; Lurker, Illustrated Dictionary, 78; E. Teeter, The Presentation of Maat: Ritual and Legitimacy in Ancient Egypt (SAOC 57; Chicago: Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago, 1997).
A-209. ANEP, 639.
A-210. ANET, 213.
A-211. AEL, 2:125.
A-212. See S. G. F. Brandon, Creation Myths of the Ancient Near East (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1963); R. J. Clifford, Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible (CBQMS 26; Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association, 1994); R. S. Hess and D. T. Tsumura, I Studied Inscriptions from before the Flood: Ancient Near Eastern, Literary, and Linguistic Approaches to Genesis 1–11 (SBTS 4; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1994), especially the introduction, 27–44.
A-213. AEL, 2:96.
A-214. Ibid., 3:112.
A-215. COS, 1.15. In 1.14 he is called “father of the gods . . . who begot himself by himself.”
A-216. Ibid.
A-217. V. H. Matthews and D. C. Benjamin, Old Testament Parallels: Law and Stories from the Ancient Near East, rev. ed. (New York: Paulist, 1997), 8; J. D. Currid, Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997), 57–59, where Atum is the actor. On expectoration as a creation means, see also ANET, 3.
A-218. L. Oakes and L. Gahlin, Ancient Egypt (New York: Barnes and Noble, 2003), 301.
A-219. COS, 1.111.
A-220. Ibid.
A-221. Ibid., 1.157.
A-222. ANET, 100.
A-223. COS, 1.86
A-224. See Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought, 97–99.
A-225. COS, 1.111; T. Jacobsen, “The Battle Between Marduk and Tiamat,” JAOS 88 (1968): 104–8.
A-226. Ibid. See a seal inscription showing Ishtar in her warrior’s regalia, B. N. Porter, “The Anxiety of Multiplicity: Concepts of Divinity as One and Many in Ancient Assyria,” in One God or Many? Concepts of Divinity in the Ancient World, ed. B. N. Porter (Chebeague, Me.: Casco Bay Assyriological Institute, 2000), 244.
A-227. CAD, 8, 52.
A-228. Moran, Amarna Letters, 107.
A-229. See Lurker, Illustrated Dictionary, 101; van der Toorn, Dictionary, 701–2.
A-230. COS, 1.86.
A-231. Ibid.; van der Toorn, Dictionary, 37–38.
A-232. J. Leclant, “Anat,” Lexikon der Ägyptologie I (1973), 253–58; van der Toorn, Dictionary, 38–40.
A-233. M. Lind, Yahweh Is a Warrior: The Theology of Warfare in Ancient Israel (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald, 1980); S.-M. Kang, Divine War in the Old Testament and in the Ancient Near East (BZAW 177; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1989); T. Longman III and D. G. Reid, God Is a Warrior (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995).
A-234. A. George, House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia (Mesopotamian Civilizations 5; Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1993), 139–40.
A-235. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, 13; B. Landsberger, Brief des Bischofs von Esagila an König Asarhaddon (Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandische Uitg. Mij., 1965), 20–27; van de Mieroop, “Revenge, Assyrian Style,” 3–21, especially 17; idem, “A Tale of Two Cities: Nineveh and Babylon,” in Nineveh: Papers of the XLIXe Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale London 7–11 July 2003, ed. D. Collon and A. George (London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2005), 1–7; see J. Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16 (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 350; J. A. Brinkman, “Through a Glass Darkly: Esarhaddon’s Retrospects on the Downfall of Babylon,” JAOS 103 (1983): 35–42; G. Frame, Babylonia 689–627 B.C.: A Political History (Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul 69; Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut, 1992), 52–63.
A-236. H. Tadmor, B. Landsberger, S. Parpola, “The Sin of Sargon and Sennacherib’s Last Will,” State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 3/1 (1989): 3–51; Longman, Fictional Akkadian Autobiography, 231–33 (text), 117–18 (discussion); A. M. Weaver, “The ‘Sin of Sargon’ and Esarhaddon’s Reconception of Sennacherib: A Study in Divine Will, Human Politics and Royal Ideology,” in Collon and George, ed., Nineveh, 1:61–66.
A-237. J. A. Brinkman, Prelude to Empire: Babylonian Society and Politics, 747–626 B.C. (Occasional Publications of the Babylonian Fund, 7: Philadelphia: The Univ. Museum, 1984), 67–84; Frame, Babylonia 689–627 B.C, 64–101; B. N. Porter, Images, Power, and Politics: Figurative Aspects of Esarhaddon’s Babylonian Policy (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1993); Nissinen and Parpola, “Marduk’s Return,” 213.
A-238. M. Nissinen, Prophets and Prophecy in the Ancient Near East (SBLWAW 12; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), 157.
A-239. See O. Negbi, Canaanite Gods in Metal: An Archaeological Study of Ancient Syro-Palestinian Figurines (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv Univ., 1976); Keel and Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses; C. Uehlinger, “Anthropomorphic Cult Statuary in Iron Age Palestine and the Search for Yahweh’s Cult Images,” in van der Toorn, ed., Image and the Book, 97–155.
A-240. See 4 Kingdoms 18:34 LXX; M. Anbar, “Kai pou eisin hoi theoi tēs chōra Samareias, ‘et où sont les dieux du pays de Samarie,’ ” BN 51 (1990): 7–8.
A-241. COS, 2.118D. For a picture of captured deities being transported away, see ANEP, 538. See A. Spycket, La statuaire du Proche-Orient ancien (Leiden: Brill, 1981).
A-242. H. Niehr, “In Search of YHWH’s Cult Statue in the First Temple,” in van der Toorn, ed., The Image and the Book, 73–95, especially 79; Uehlinger, “Anthropomorphic Cult Statuary,” 125; B. Becking, “Assyrian Evidence for Iconic Polytheism in Ancient Israel,” ibid., 157–71; regarding Yahweh representations, see Sass, “Pre-Exilic Hebrew Seals,” 234; B. B. Schmid, “The Aniconic Tradition: On Reading Images and Viewing Texts,” in The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms, ed. D. V. Edelman (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 75–105; D. V. Edelman, “Tracking Observance of the Aniconic Tradition through Numismatics,” in ibid., 185–225. For an opposing view, see, e.g., S. Timm, “Die Eroberung Samarias aus assyrisch-babylonischer Sicht,” WO 20/21 (1989/1990): 77.
A-243. T. Mettinger, “The Veto on Images and the Aniconic God in Israel,” in Religious Symbols and Their Functions, ed. H. Biezais (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1979), 15–29; S. Olyan, Asherah and the Cult of Yahweh in Israel (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988); M. Smith, The Early History of God, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 2002); idem, The Origins of Biblical Monotheism (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).
A-244. T. N. D. Mettinger, “Israelite Aniconism: Developments and Origins,” in van der Toorn, ed., The Image and the Book, 173.
A-245. Keel and Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, 294–309.
A-246. C. Uehlinger, “Gab es eine joschijanische Kultreform? Plädoyer für ein begründetes Minimum,” in Jeremia und die “deuteronomistische Bewegung, ed. W. Gross (BBB 98; Weinheim: Beltz Athenäum, 1995), 65–67; Mettinger, “Israelite Aniconism,” 178–79.
A-247. COS, 1.124.
A-248. M. Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), 19–20; Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 395–466.
A-249. Boyce, Zoroastrians, 50–53; idem., A History of Zoroastrianism (Leiden: Brill, 1982), 2, 41–43; M. Mallowan, “Cyrus the Great (558–529 B.C.),” in The Median and Achaemenian Periods: Vol. 2, Cambridge History of Iran, ed. I. Gershevitch (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), 416. Denying this early an appearance of worship, see Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible, 419–30.
A-250. See I. T. Abusch, Babylonian Witchcraft Literature: Case Studies (BJS 132; Atlanta: Scholars, 1987); W. Farber, “Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in CANE, 1895–909; G. Cunningham, “Deliver Me from Evil”: Mesopotamian Incantations 2500–1200 B.C. (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1997); T. Abusch and K. van der Toorn, ed. Mesopotamian Magic: Textual, Historical and Interpretative Perspectives (Groningen: Styx, 1999); M.-L. Thomsen, “Witchcraft and Magic in Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Biblical and Pagan Societies, ed. F. H. Cryer (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 1–91; T. Abusch, Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Toward a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature (Leiden: Brill, 2002).
A-251. E.g., J. Baines, “Society, Morality, and Religious Practice,” in Shafer, Religion in Ancient Egypt, 164–72; R. K. Ritner, The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice (Chicago: Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago, 1993); Meeks and Favard-Meeks, Daily Life, 187–98; G. Pinch, Magic in Ancient Egypt (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1994); J. F. Borghouts, “Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Egypt,” in CANE, 1775–85.
A-252. COS, 1.94; see del Olmo Lete, Canaanite Religion, 360–78; J.-M. de Tarragon, “Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Canaan and Ancient Israel,” in CANE, 2071–81.
A-253. Bienkowski and Millard, Dictionary, 186–87. Even allegations of witchcraft needed to be investigated, according to the Code of Hammurabi (Richardson, Hammurabi’s Law, 43).
A-254. For a listing of comparisons between the servant of the Lord and the ideal royalty of Isa. 11 and 61–62, see J. H. Walton, “The Imagery of the Substitute King Ritual in Isaiah’s Fourth Servant Song,” JBL 122 (2003): 742.
A-255. As one of his exploits, Tiglath-pileser I tells of releasing captured kings (CAD, 12, 293).
A-256. See comment on 42:7.
A-257. Sin-shar-ishkun chosen by the gods for kingship, CAD, 11/II, 22; Seux, Épithètes royales, 188.
A-258. Kings needed to undertake irrigation projects to supply water for crop growth, Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 84–85; Saggs, Might, 131–32; CAD, 17/III, 95–96; O. Borowski, “Irrigation,” OEANE, 3, 1–184. See Sennacherib making improvements to Nineveh, including waterworks, Luckenbill, Annals, 96, 98.
A-259. S. Parpola, Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars (SAA X; Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1993), 12.
A-260. Ibid., 287.
A-261. Ibid., 288; Walton, “Imagery,” 738; see J. Bottéro, “The Substitute King and his Fate,” in Bottéro, Mesopotamia, 151 (“in order to save them”).
A-262. Parpola, Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars, 352:17–19.
A-263. CAD, 4, 162–164.
A-264. Ibid., 4, 170.
A-265. Moran, Amarna Letters, 219, 306; CAD, 4, 164–65.
A-266. J. M. Hadley, “Two Pithoi from Kuntillet ʿAjrud,” VT 37 (1987): 187; P. D. Miller Jr., “El, the Creator of the Earth,” BASOR 239 (1980): 45.
A-267. ANET, 380.
A-268. See Leick, Sex and Eroticism, especially 30–41.
A-269. See Wilkinson, Complete Gods and Goddesses, 141.
A-270. Ibid., 115–17.
A-271. Dalley, Myths, 32.
A-272. Ibid., 113.
A-273. COS, 1.111.
A-274. Ibid., 1.88.
A-275. AEL, 1:37.
A-276. E. A. W. Budge, The Book of the Dead: The Hieroglyphic Transcript of the Papyrus Ani (New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1960), 461.
A-277. AEL, 3:179.
A-278. J. L. Foster, Hymns, Prayers, and Songs: An Anthology of Ancient Egyptian Lyric Poetry (SBLWAW 8; Atlanta: Scholars, 1995), 77.
A-279. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, 86; CAD, 11/II, 185.
A-280. Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 143–44.
A-281. Hornung, Ancient Egyptian Books; Hornung and Bryan, Quest for Immortality.
A-282. S. Sauneron, The Priests of Ancient Egypt, new ed. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press, 2000), 108–9.
A-283. AEL, 2:122.
A-284. T. J. Lewis, Cults of the Dead in Ancient Israel and Ugarit (HSM 39; Atlanta: Scholars, 1989), 2. See Alster, Death in Mesopotamia.
A-285. CAD, 8, 427.
A-286. Ibid., 8, 425; see 426–27 where oil, water, wine, and beer are also poured out.
A-287. Lewis, Cults of the Dead, 5–97. An alternative interpretation of the Ugaritic material reflecting burial practice rather than ancestor veneration is presented by B. B. Schmidt, Israel’s Beneficent Dead: Ancestor Cult and Necromancy in Ancient Israelite Religion and Tradition (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1996), 47–122.
A-288. C. F. A. Schaeffer, The Cuneiform Texts from Ras Shamra-Ugarit (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1939), 50; Lewis, Cults of the Dead, 97–98.
A-289. R. E. Cooley, “Gathered to His People: A Study of a Dothan Family Tomb,” in The Living and Active Word of God: Studies in Honor of Samuel J. Schultz, ed. M. Inch and R. Youngblood (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1983), 50–52; Lewis, Cults of the Dead, 179–80; Johnston, Shades of Sheol, 62.
A-290. See Lewis, Cults of the Dead, 99–181; Schmidt, Israel’s Beneficent Dead, 132–293; King and Stager, Life, 376–80.
A-291. Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 107, from W. G. Lambert, “A Further Attempt at the Babylonian ‘Man and his God,’ ” in Language, Literature, and History: Studies presented to Erica Reiner, ed. F. Rochberg-Halton (AOS 67; New Haven, Conn.: American Oriental Society, 1987), 192.
A-292. AEL, 1:17.
A-293. ANET, 627.
A-294. Van der Toorn, Family Religion, 106–7.
A-295. ANET, 627.
A-296. Moran, Amarna Letters, 195–96, n. 1.
A-297. AEL, 1:64; see also 106, 126, 175, etc.
A-298. Ibid., 2:111.
A-299. COS, 1.149.
A-300. S. N. Kramer, “Dilmun, the Land of the Living,” BASOR 96 (1944): 18–24; idem, Enki and Ninhursag; N. Sarna, Understanding Genesis (New York: Schocken, 1966), 24–25.
A-301. T. Jacobsen, The Harps That Once, 185–86.
A-302. ANET, 38–40.
A-303. Kramer, Enki and Ninhursag; idem, Sumerians, 147–49.
A-304. Alster, “Dilmun, Bahrain,” 52–74; Batto, “Paradise Reexamined,” 33–66.
A-305. See J. Baines, “Society, Morality,” in Shafer, Religion in Ancient Egypt, 147–49.