INDEX
Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
access, 25; as anonymous, 61, 67; to pornography, 91
activism: for netizens, 26; online and offline, 1–2; as pop, 78; pop activism as, 13; social media and, 10; state control versus, 4. See also pop activism
activism entrepreneurs, 97–99
actors: censorship and, 12–13, 46–47; discourse competition for, 96; as nonstate, 54; public opinion and, 129, 132–35; role of, 11. See also intermediary actors
adherence, 61
Administration Measures on Internet Information Services, 66
After the Internet, Before Democracy (Lagerkvist), 153–54
Ai Weiwei, 48; netizens and, 99; responses of, 97–98
alliances, 144, 171
Anderson, Lisa, 1
anonymity, 247n8; access and, 61, 67; comments and, 117; exchange of information and, 45; of online expression, 128, 144, 180; poem with, 136–37
anti-extermination campaign, 12
anti-pornography campaign of 2009, 61, 75
Arab Spring, 140; contrast to, 1–3; social media and, 176, 183
astroturfing, 14, 45; for business, 247n12; for dissidents, 133; Internet commentators and, 107–9, 123; mobilization through, 241n53; propaganda and, 180; technique for, 112
asylum, 145, 147
authoritarian regimes, 203n46; capacity of, 128; digital empowerment and, 3–6; fragmentation of, 11, 17–18, 19, 50–53, 129; images of, 178; Internet forums between netizens and, 59–69; online expression for, 104; state adaptation and, 2–3
authoritarian resilience: digital empowerment and, 16–22; in digital era, 102, 176–87; as online, 175–91
avatars, 146
backlash: enemies and, 135–43; on Mitbbs.com, 99
baidu.com, 150
Bandurski, David, 53–54
bargains, 70; platform size and, 74
BBS. See bulletin board system
Beijing Normal University, 159
Beijing Olympics, 96, 138, 166
Beijing Spring magazine, 189
Beijing University, 66, 84
Béja Jean-Philippe, 186
bias, 135; identities and, 145; in Western media, 136–38
Bingchun, Meng, 97
blacklisting, 47–49
boundary-spanning, 175; censorship as, 10; tolerance of, 13, 55–56, 74
Boxu Yang, 155
Brady, Anne-Marie, 105
bulletin board system (BBS), 6; 1984bbs.com as, 67; participation on, 10; self-censorship on, 219n40; server for, 221n56; trolling techniques for, 132; users on, 202n39
Cafferty, Jack, 138, 249n37
campaigns: anti-extermination campaign as, 12; anti-pornography campaign of 2009 as, 61, 75; online rectification campaign as, 50; propaganda as, 114–15; social media anti-rumor campaigns as, 44
campus-bound platforms, 61, 223nn70–73, 262n57; censorship and, 59–60; re-form of, 46; university relationships with, 73
capacity, 175–91; Party-state and, 123
cartoons, 106, 238n31
Castells, Manuel, 14; on technology relevance, 17
categorized governance model, 41
Ccthere forum, 75, 224n79
celebration, 168–69
censorship, 10–13; actors and, 12–13, 46–47; as boundary-spanning, 10; campus-bound platforms and, 59–60; guerrilla warfare against, 83–84; ideologies and, 98; intermediary actors and, 55–58; for netizens, 42, 189; Party-state and, 29–30; regulations and, 161; service providers and, 42; state adaptation beyond, 103–7; technical barriers to, 67; techniques for, 31
central government, 129
Central Propaganda Department, 41
Chai, Ling, 20, 139, 250n46
Changsha Public Opinion Express, 117, 122
Chen, Wang, 42–43
China: best years in, 65; birth control in, 159; constitution in, 214n71; cyberspace in, 77, 155; discourse competition in, 150–51; Internet and online forum population in, 8; Internet control regime in, 31–32, 3334, 41–45; Internet in, 103; Japan and, 148; online expression in, 175–76; Party-state in, 2; urban consumerism in, 81; world and, 190–91
China Central Television, 42
ChinaNews, 172, 253n65
China Youth Daily, 141
Chinese Communist Party, 258n27; ideological divisions within, 52; socioeconomic reformation of, 177
Chongqing Bo Xilai, 52
Cisco Systems, 56
citizens, 268n37; involvement of, 5; survey of, 80. See also netizens
Cjdby forum, 93; users on, 94
Clinton, Hillary, 135, 149
comments: anonymity and, 117; by Huang Qi, 188; by Hu Ping, 189; on QQ.com, 141, 142; samples of, 118; translation of, 119, 121
Communist Youth League, 111; Central Committee of, 52, 116, 245n85; Internet Propaganda Troop quota for, 124; Shanghai branch of, 114, 115
community, 154; as discursive, 131; voluntary fifty-cent army as identity and, 156–58, 262n62
compensation, 112
compliance: noncompliance and, 7; resistance or, 55–76. See also specific forms of compliance
conferences, 23, 63, 64, 65
conflict: functions and interests in, 50; ideologies in, 52
Consenz, 72
conspiracy, 141
constructive noncompliance, 182
content: control of, 53, 70, 131; formality and, 82; governance of Internet and, 30–40; monitoring of, 7; pluralization of, 78; as pro-regime, 15, 180; violence and erotica as, 73
content providers: screening by, 43; state as, 131
corruption, 140, 268n36
creativity: Ai Weiwei responses as, 98; criticism and, 92; of online expression, 12, 55, 157, 180
criticism, 179; creativity and, 92; of regime, 150, 186; substantiation of, 181
cross-talk (xiangsheng), 162
culture: online expression as, 79–83, 152; politics and, 78
cyberculture, 85; nationalism and, 95
cyber-narratives, 88–89
cybernetic model of organizational choice, 47
cyberpolitics: pluralism and, 1–28; pop activism and netizens in, 77–100, 234n108
Cybersecurity Law (2016), 211n43
cyberspace: in China, 77, 155; discourse competition in, 102, 185; fluidity of, 92, 170; fragmentation of, 17–18, 19, 27, 153–56, 173; Lagerkvist on, 130; state media in, 104
Cyberspace Administration of China, 41
cyber-vocabulary, 86; examples of, 87; for military forums, 93
dalian (face-slapping), 161–62
Damm, Jens, 81
data, 112; from history, 24; requests for, 218n29; from research, 22–25; sources of, 108–9; from users, 62
debates: about ideologies, 71; among netizens, 52
defamation, 16; ubiquity of, 21
democracy, 3; expectation of, 28; Internet and, 20–22; Jasmine Revolution and, 179; nationalism and, 19
deviant expression, 62
diaosi, 90
Diaoyu (Senkaku) Islands, 94, 204n54
digital contention, 80; embedding of, 82; genres of, 228n47; pop activism and, 83–95
digital empowerment: authoritarian regimes and, 3–6; authoritarian resilience and, 16–22; threat and, 183–87
digital hidden transcript, 85
disaggregation, 5; of state and Internet, 17–18
discipline, 182
discontented compliance, 13, 26, 55; forum managers and, 60–64; spectrum of, 69–75
discourse: community and identity in, 156–58, 262n62; for netizens, 85; social construction of enemies through, 143; studies on behavior and, 81
discourse competition, 14–16; for actors, 96; in China, 150–51; in cyberspace, 102, 185; multiplayer model for, 143–47; Party-state alternatives and, 19–20; perspective of, 2, 11
discursive protests, 89
dissidents: books and, 257n23; enemies as, 138; identities of, 133; idioms of, 157; magazine for, 189; from overseas, 134; perception of, 139
distrust: manufacturing of, 130–51; regime-challengers and, 20
documents, 112; as internal, 109; leak from state agencies, 25
domain names, 42, 50
duanzi, 89–90
earthquakes, 161, 258n32; in Japan (2011), 148; in Sichuan, 96m 259n37
East China Normal University, 116
e-government platforms, 104
Emperor Looks Happy series, 92–93
enemies: backlash and, 135–43; as dissidents, 138; stereotypes as, 151
engagement: as civic, 1, 155; social media and, 105
Enstad, Nan, 79
entrepreneurs, 58; censorship and, 60; Party-state and, 181–82; pop activism and, 95–99
epitaphs, 90, 229n57
Epoch Times, 133
erotica, 73
ethnography: as guerrilla, 157–58; work online, 23, 24, 109, 261n48
events, 96, 171, 260n47
Evolution of Internet Control by the State, 3334
expressive resistance, 84–90
face-slapping (dalian), 161–62
Falun Gong, 91, 99, 230n67, 247n15; asylum-seekers as, 145, 147; mobilization of, 132–34
Federation for a Democratic China (FDC), 186
“fifty-cent army”: character symbols for, 146; as paid Internet commentators, 102, 110; trolling by, 109–28; as voluntary, 5, 152–74, 186, 260n45, 261n52
filtering: Great Firewall tracking and, 4, 43; of keywords, 12; netizens and, 49
fishing (diaoyu), 162–64, 168
for-profit forums, 72; unofficial campus forums as, 73
forum management, 7, 23; bargains with, 70; discontented compliance and, 60–64; restrained discontent and, 64–69; studies on, 202n35
fragmentation, 3; of authoritarian regimes, 11, 17–18, 19, 50–53, 129; of cyberspace, 17–18, 19, 27, 153–56, 173; as internal, 26
Freegate software, 91
function, 50
Gao Jianyun, 51
Gao Yaojie, 48
goals: pleading for achievement as, 126; of voluntary fifty-cent army, 161
Google, 57, 72; government and, 135, 149; search results from, 134
governance: Internet content and, 30–40; legitimacy and crises of, 181, 188; models of, 41
grass mud horse meme, 91–92, 98, 229n49
Great Firewall, The, 201n23; construction of, 29; filtering and tracking with, 4, 43; wall-climbing and, 91
Green Dam software, 4, 48, 243n69
group identity, 15–16; voluntary fifty-cent army as, 158–60
Guangzhou Daily, 127
guerrilla warfare, 83–84
Gulia, Milena, 154
H1N1 influenza virus, 114
Heavenly Web website, 188
history: animosity throughout, 148; of Chinese Internet politics, 8; data from, 24; memorialization of, 116
homogeneity, 156–57
Hou Dejian, 130
Huang, Yasheng, 178
Huang Qi, 188
Hua Qianfang, 172
human rights, 147, 188
Hung, Chin-fu, 108; on propaganda, 110
Huntington, Samuel, 21
Huntsman, Jon, 136
Hu Ping, 189
identities: anxiety about, 178; bias and, 145; of dissidents, 133; mechanisms reinforcement of, 160; voluntary fifty-cent army as community and, 156–58, 262n62
ideologies, 269n55; conflicts and, 52; confrontation of, 100; debates about, 71; legitimacy and, 177; for netizens, 14, 185; of state, 98; trends in, 111
ideotainment, 45; strategy of, 106
imperialism, 149
impulsiveness, 97
incentives, 112; structure for, 125, 126
information: anonymous exchange of, 45; context of, 6; control and manipulation of, 178, 182; homogeneity and, 157; pop activism and, 18; technology and, 30
innovation: as local, 129, 180; in propaganda, 125
instant messengers, 7
intellectuals, 65
intelligence (zhishang wenti), 160
intermediary actors, 26, 202n35; censorship and, 55–58; state control over, 176; strategies for, 76
Internet, the: access on, 25; authoritarian regimes and, 2, 3–6; challenge and opportunity of, 187–90; in China, 103; China online forum population on, 8; democratization and, 20–22; disaggregation of state and, 17–18; expansion of, 179; governance of content and, 30–40; harmonization of, 29–54, 211n39; state control and, 57
Internet Administration Center of Wenzhou report, 113–14
Internet commentators: in action, 113–22; astroturfing and, 107–9, 123; “fifty-cent army” as, 102, 110, 152; introduction of, 110–12; as paid, 27; students as, 116, 125; system evaluation of, 123–28
Internet forums, 219n36; categorization of, 23–24, 70; diversity and number of, 76; management of, 7, 23; military forums as, 93, 170, 173; public expression on, 6–10, 11; server for, 220n54; between state and netizens, 59–69; user accounts for, 247n10
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, 7
Japan, 148
Jasmine Revolution, 136; as pro-democracy, 179
Jiang, Min, 30
Jiang Zemin, 133
Jincheng News Online, 127
Jones, Mark A., 137
keywords: blacklisting of, 48–49; censorship system and, 84; cyber-vocabulary and, 86; filtering of, 12
King, Gary, 25; methods by, 108
Kuomintang fans, 163, 170, 259n39
labeling, 144–47, 205n71, 2577n25; fifty-cent army and, 157; labeling wars as, 160–61
Lagerkvist, Johan, 18, 269n46; on acquiescence to control, 185; After the Internet, Before Democracy, 153–54; on anonymity, 247n8; on Chinese cyberspace, 130; on entrepreneurs, 58; on regime delegitimization, 21, 52
Laojiang (old general), 145–46
law, 4, 31, 211n43
Le, Yuan, 155
leadership: as ideational, 117, 126; Internet comment activity on, 122
legitimacy: crises of governance and, 181, 188; ideologies and, 177; of Party-state, 27, 184
Leibold, James, 81
Lessig, Lawrence, 4
Lhasa riot (2008), 96, 136
Li, Yonggang, 32; on censorship, 57; on content control, 131; on governance models, 41
liberalization, 5; liberalization-control and, 100
licensing. See registration and licensing
Li Guanghua, 122
Li Keqiang, 106
literature, 56, 206n72; depictions in, 58; dissidents and, 257n23; on implications of online expression, 82
little red guard (Xiaojiang), 145–46
Liu, Yawei, 72
Liu Huaqing, 94; aircraft carrier and, 93, 231n82
Liu Xiaobo, 138, 220n54
Liu Yuan, 141
Li Xiaolin, 97
Li Xiaolu, 98
Li Yizhong, 51, 75
loyalty, 111, 181, 267n30
Lu Xiaobo, 48
Ma Huateng, 60
Mao Tse-Tung, 77
Mao Xinyu, 97
Maoyan forum, 155, 256n17
market, 4, 31
mass media, 253n69; monopoly on, 104, 179
mechanisms, 4, 31, 160, 250n40, 253n70, 254n77
memes, 88; grass mud horse as, 91–92, 98, 229n49; politicization of, 92
Mertha, Andrew, 56
microblog services, 7
Microsoft, 57, 216n10
migrant workers, 122
Miller, Blake, 108
Ministry of Education, 46, 51
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, 51, 208n13, 243n69
Min Jiang, 81, 131
Mitbbs.com, 262n57; backlash on, 99; boards on, 262n59; policy and, 234n109; trolling on, 226n27; user avatars on, 146
mobilization: through astroturfing, 241n53; as collective, 179; of Falun Gong, 132–34; of netizens, 137; Party-state and, 123; at universities, 115
models, 47; categorized governance as, 41; multiplayer model as, 143–47; statist model as, 56
monitoring: agency directives for, 44; of content, 7; prevention through, 62; on Qiangguo Luntan forum, 70–71; by service providers, 46; of taboo words, 47
monopoly, 253n69; mass media as, 104, 179
multimedia commentary, 88
multiplayer model: complications with, 148–50; discourse competition and, 143–47
music, 79
Nanfang Zhoumo (Southern Weekend), 53
National Campus Bulletin Board System Managers Conference, 64; in Beijing 2010, 63; in Suzhou 2009, 65
National Day for Nanjing Massacre Victims, 115, 116
nationalism: bias and, 136; cyberculture and, 95; cyber-nationalism as, 92; democracy and, 19; for netizens, 150, 159, 170
Netease, 142
netizens, 2; activism for, 26; allies for, 144; ambition for, 205n64; animosity among, 178; attention of, 82; censorship for, 42, 189; complaints of, 122, 181, 182, 230n63; in cyberpolitics and pop activism, 77–100, 234n108; debates among, 52; discourse for, 85; diversity of, 11; filtering and, 49; group identity for, 15–16; ideologies for, 14, 185; interactions with, 117; Internet forums between state and, 59–69; learning from, 109; manipulation and, 134; mobilization of, 137; nationalism for, 150, 159, 170; online expression for, 13; product reviews by, 204n52; as pro-liberal, 143; as pro-regime, 93; regulations and, 258n27; strategy for, 226n27; term use by, 148, 231n78
NewSmth, 262n57; MilitaryJoke board on, 93, 172, 173 248n20
1984bbs.com, 67
Ning Caishen, 140
Nobel Peace Prize, 48, 138
noncompliance, 7
norms: as social, 4, 31; state and erosion of, 21
Nü Wa goddess, 92
Obama, Barack, 143
old general (Laojiang), 145–46
One-Percent Population Survey (2005), 159
online: authoritarian resilience as, 175–91; ethnography work as, 23, 24, 109, 261n48; political opposition as, 130–51; propaganda, 106
online crisis management, 44; Internet commentators for, 113–14
online expression, 101, 204n55; anonymity of, 128, 144, 180; authoritarian rule and, 104; in China, 175–76; culture and politics of, 79–83, 152; dominance in, 142; format convergence in, 78; Internet forums and, 6–10, 11; for netizens, 13; party-state challenges by, 45–49; pluralization of, 102; as policy feedback, 103; propaganda troops for, 111; representativeness of, 206n75; state adaptation and, 15, 19; state control over, 13, 28, 29–54; volume and creativity of, 12, 55, 157, 180
online news portals, 10
online rectification campaign, 50
online surveillance, 219n32; screenings as, 43
opportunity, 112; Internet as challenge and, 187–90
organizational adaptation, 3738
Otaku, 94, 232n85
parody, 85–86; of epitaph, 90
Party-state: capacity of, 123; censorship and, 29–30; challenges of, 187–90; in China, 2; discourse competition discredits alternatives to, 19–20; entrepreneurs and, 181–82; fragmentation across levels of, 53; institutional framework of, 76; Internet commentators for, 152; invisibility to users, 59; legitimacy of, 27, 184; online expression challenges to, 45–49; transformation of, 177; trolling for the, 101–29
patriotism, 144; fifty-cent army and, 159
Peking University, 61, 68; motto of, 65
People’s Daily Online, 127, 210n36
perspective: of discourse competition, 2, 11; liberalization-control as, 100; as state-centric, 29
platforms: bargains and size of, 74; new types of, 7; survival of, 68
pluralism, 1–28
poetry, 136–37
policy: for BBS, 220n52; Mitbbs.com and, 234n109; online expression as feedback on, 103; for registration and licensing, 66; regulations and enactment of, 3536
politics: culture and, 78; in cyberspace, 92; cyber-vocabulary for, 87; history of, 8; Internet impact on, 5; labeling and, 161; literature on, 56; online expression and, 79–83, 152; opposition online, 130–51; participation in, 184; PR techniques for, 107; studies on Internet and, 101; YouTube and, 3, 227n36
pop activism, 13, 232n88; analysis of, 184; digital contention and, 83–95; information and, 18; netizens in cyberpolitics and, 77–100, 234n108
pop culture, 82. See also culture; pop activism
pornography: access to, 91; campaign of 2009 against, 61, 75
PR. See public relations
Pravda newspaper, 133–34
preventive measures, 43, 62
Priors, Mark, 184
profit, 71
pro-liberal media, 142
promotion-and-protection strategy, 72
propaganda: antipathy toward, 127; astroturfing and, 180; campaigns for, 114–15; challenge of online, 106; Hung on, 110; ineffectiveness of, 15, 123; innovation and, 125; official language codes for, 117; parody of, 85–86; troops for, 111
public opinion, 44–45; actors and, 129, 132–35; Internet commentators and, 113, 125–26; universal elites and, 140; as weapon, 132–35
public relations (PR), 51; astroturfing as, 107; strategies for, 15
Public Security Bureau, 112
public sphere, 184, 269n46; Yang on, 153
Qiangguo Luntan forum, 65, 155, 226n24
QQ.com, 206n79; comments on, 141, 142; groups on, 24, 63; reprimand of, 71–72
RAND global policy think tank, 133
Ranxiang microblogger, 139
Rao Jin, 136
rationality, 159
recognition, 126, 205n64
regime: critics of, 150, 186; defense of, 152–74; delegitimization of, 21, 52, 133–34; Internet control for, 31–32, 3334, 41–45; Lagerkvist on delegitimization of, 21, 52. See also authoritarian regimes
regime challengers, 27; distrust and, 20
regime defenders, 5, 152–74, 186, 260n45, 261n52
registration and licensing, 211n46, 218nn26–27; policy for, 66
regulations: censorship and, 161; expansion of, 32; forums and, 62–63; implementation of, 66; netizens and, 258n27; policy enactment and, 3536
Repnikova, Maria, 105
research: data from, 22–25; site included in, 23–24; on social consensus, 174
resistance: compliance or, 55–76; as expressive, 84–90
restrained discontent, 64–69
revenge, 95–99
riots, 14, 31. See also specific riots
road-leading party, 145
satire: netizens and, 89–90. See also parody
scandals, 67; forum management and, 68; Wen and, 86–88
scholars, 80, 264n1, 267n24
screening, 43; taboo words and, 63
Selected Most Frequently Used Online Services (2009-2016), 9
self-censorship, 64, 215n84, 219n40
service providers: censorship and, 42; enforcement by, 55; monitoring by, 46
servo-mechanistic pattern, 47, 54
Shambaugh, David, 177
Shengjun, Zhang, 159
Shinichi Nishimiya, 95
Singapore, 183
Sinovel, 88
Skype, 57
slacktivism, 13. See also activism
social consensus, 174
social media, 1; activism and, 10; anti-rumor campaigns on, 44; Arab Spring and, 176, 183; engagement through, 105; new platforms of, 7
software, 227n30; Discuz! as, 72; Freegate software as, 91; Green Dam software, 4, 48, 243n69
Sora Aoi, 94–95
Southern Clique media group, 141, 251n53
Southern Media Group, 141–42, 162
Southern Metropolis Daily, 127
Southern Weekend (Nanfang Zhoumo), 53; Obama interview with, 143
spontaneity, 95–99
standpoint (lichang wenti), 160
state, the: as content providers, 131; tools of, 26
state adaptation: authoritarian regimes and, 2–3; authoritarian resilience and, 178; beyond censorship, 103–7; Internet commentators as, 110; online expression and, 15, 19; organizational adaptation as, 3738
State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television, 51, 213n67
state agencies, 53; documents leak from, 25; Internet forums and, 61; monitoring directives for, 44; role of, 17; state control and, 11, 208nn21–23
state-capitalist cooperation, 58
state control: acquiescence to, 185; activism versus, 4; agencies and, 11, 208nn21–23; intermediary actors and, 176; Internet and, 57; over online expression, 13, 28, 29–54; studies on, 80
State Council Information Office, 66
state-society interaction, 153
statist model, 56
Stockmann, Daniela, 76
students, 116, 125
studies, 202n35; on astroturfing, 108; on digital empowerment, 183; on discourse and behavior, 81; on Internet politics, 101; by Repnikova, 105; on stability maintenance, 215n82; on state control, 80
subcultures, 94, 232nn85–86
Sunstein, Cass, 154
surveys, 159; of citizens, 80
taboo words and topics, 62; discussion of, 253n66; list of, 210n29; monitoring of, 47; as playful, 89; screening for, 63
tactics, 160–69
Tang, Fang, 155
Tarrow, Sidney, 79
Technical and Administrative Control, 3940
technical architecture (code), 4, 31
technical barriers, 67
technology: Castells on relevance of, 17; information and, 30
Tencent, 262n60; QQ.com by, 71–72
Thornton, Patricia, 187
threat, 175–91
Three Gorges Dam Project, 164, 259n37
Tiananmen Square, 130; 1989 movement in, 48, 49, 98, 139
Tiananmen: The Gate of Heavenly Peace, 130, 246n1
Tianya, 74, 219n36; Free board on, 132; Grassroots Voices board on, 224n77; Outlook board on, 172; users on, 89
Tibet, 134, 137–38
tools: pop activism as, 78, 82, 100; of state, 26
training, 127
trolling: on Mitbbs, 226n27; for the Party-state, 101–29; techniques for, 132
trust, 183, 186, 268n37
Tsai Ing-wen, 172
Tsinghua University, 61, 68
Tugong, 149, 159
tweets, 139, 140
United Nations (UN), 145
United States, 146, 149
universal elites, 140
universities, 43; campus forum relationships with, 73; “fifty-cent army reserve” at, 111; mobilization at, 115. See also specific universities
University of California, Berkeley, 25
users: accounts for, 247n10; avatars of, 146; on BBS, 202n39; data from, 62; invitations to, 67; party-state invisibility to, 59; profit generation through, 71; sample profile of, 120; Tianya for, 89
values, 141
violence, 14; as content, 73
wall-climbing, 91
Wall Street Journal, 177
Wang, Dan, 20
Wang Juntao, 139
Wang Zhidong, 60
websites: registration for, 50; for research, 23–24; shut down of, 75, 213n59
Weibo microblog service, 58, 74, 244n79; national memorial day on, 116; Ning Caishen on, 140; Ranxiang, 139
Wellman, Barry, 154
Wen, Jiabao, 85, 190; scandal of, 86–88
Weng’an riot, Guizhou, 108, 113
Western media, 136–38
world, 190–91
xiangsheng (cross-talk), 162
Xiaojiang (little red guard), 145–46
Xiao Zengjian, 60
Xi Jinping, 101, 106; “Chinese Dream” of, 115; image of, 117; online commenting on, 126
Xilai, Bo, 44, 72, 86, 113, 270n59
Xinhua News Agency, 49
Xue, Charles, 44
Xu Zhiyong, 66, 84
Yang, Guobin, 23; on activism online, 79, 81; on genres of digital contention, 228n47; on public sphere, 153; on regulatory evolution, 32; on rightful resistance, 85
Yao Jiaxin, 143
YouTube, 249n32; politics and, 3, 227n36
Ytht forum, 11, 59, 69, 74, 221n60
Yuezhi Zhao, 105
Zheng, Yongnian, 21, 30; on mutual transformation, 32
zhishang wenti (intelligence), 160
Zhou Xiaoping, 172
Zine, al-Abidine Ben Ali, 1