Note: ‘n’ means footnote
a priori and a posteriori 62–4, 98 & n, 125, 244n, 259, 322, 389–94
absolute: — motion see under motion; — space see under space; — time see under time
action: — at a distance 143; — at vanishing distances 143n; — by contact 98, 143n; — (Handlung) schema 511–14
ad hoc, ad hocness, ad hoc hypotheses 48, 81, 100, 124, 135, 144, 152–3, 327, 331 & n, 280, 387, 389 & n, 432
Agassi-predicate 383 & n
ambivalence: — in psycho-analysis 49n; — of social institutions see under institutions
American Revolution 238, 490, 504
analytic-synthetic dichotomy 98 & n, 280–2, 285–8, 533–4, 390, 392–3
anamnēsis, Plato’s theory of 13–16, 37
anticipatio mentis (Bacon) 17–19, 344–5, 502
antinomies: — of Kant 240, 241, 438–40; logical — see paradox, logical
apeiron (‘boundless’ or ‘inexhaustible’ of Anaximander) 191, 193
appearance vs reality see under reality
argumentative function of language 173–4, 180–2, 398–401, 515
arithmetization, Gödel’s method of 417–18; — of geometry 118, 122n
arrhētos 111n, 115; see also number
astrology as a typical pseudoscience 44, 48–9, 50n, 53, 70, 255 & n, 310, 345, 378, 455
Atlantic Community 489, 493, 496, 504
atomic: — fact see atomic statement; — proposition see atomic statement; — statement 52, 352, 376n, 384, 391n (see also basic statements; observation statement; protocol statement); — theory see atomism; ‘relative —’ statement 518–19
atomism 89, 98n 109 & n, 134, 196–7, 230, 324, 327, 356, 359; Greek — 99–103, 104–10, 196–7, 214, 347, 556 & n; modern — see quantum theory
attitude: — of reasonableness 67, 478–81, see also rationalism, critical; — of tolerance see under tolerance; critical — (see rationalism, critical; tradition, rationalist); dogmatic — see dogmatism
authoritarianism: epistemological — 10, 20–3, 32–5, 293, 465, 479, 503; moral — 34, 246–7, 479; political — 7, 14, 33, 293, 503–4
authority: — of language 23, 83, 90, 181–2, 460, see also language analysis; — of the intellect see intellectual intuition; — of the senses see observation as a source of knowledge
autonomy, Kant’s doctrine of 34–5 & n, 246–8
background knowledge 151, 319, 323, 325, 330, 334, 388, 524–6
bacteriostasis 512
basic statements 28, 315 & n, 360 & n, 375n, 518–22; see also atomic statement; empirical basis; observation statement; protocol statement
behaviourism 83, 289, 358, 360n, 396–7, 405, 466
Berkeley’s razor 232
Bible 6n, 131n, 132, 268, 454, 496, 502
‘block-universe’: — in relativity theory 50, 106; — of Parmenides 50, 106–7, 195–6
body: — -mind problem see mind-body problem; many- — problem 82n; two- — problem 82 & n
‘Buridan’s Ass’ 186n
calculus (differential and integral) 93 & n, 94, 109 & n, 143n, 225; — of classes 78, 272, 275; — of contents see under content; — of natural numbers 285–8; — of probability see under probability; — of propensities see probability, propensity interpretation of; — of propositions 78, 272, 275, 364n; — of real numbers 285–8; — of relations 273–6; dual-intuitionist — 431n; logical — (see calculus of classes; calculus of propositions; calculus of relations); problem of the applicability of a logical — 272, 283–8
Categorical Imperative (Kant) 246–7
category mistakes 94, 351 & n, 355, 396, 407–8
causal: — chain 50n, 400–1; — model of the name-relation 401–2, 405–6
causality: Descartes’ push theory of — 143–4 & n, 402, see also motion in vortices; law of — 63, 257–8
chance see probability; — discoveries 37, 158, 172–3, 298–9
change: invisible — (Heraclitus) 14, 193–5, 198–200, 214–22; problem of — 105–9, 184, 191–7, 215, 218, 221
Christianity 488, 496, 501, 503–4
combustion, theories of 191n, 298
competition between hypotheses 421–4
complementarity, Bohr’s principle of 135, 153, 431
‘complexes of elements’ (Mach) 234
confirmation: — as corroboration see corroboration; — as weak verification 46–7, 76–7, 309, 338, 373 & n, 377 & n, 378–87; see also degree of confirmation vs probability; degree of — vs probability 376n, 380, 384–9; paradoxes of — 380n, 383 & n; ‘qualified instance’ — (Carnap) 380–2
conspiracy theory: — of ignorance 3–4, 9, 503;— of society 165–8, 459–60
constitution of concepts (Carnap) 350, 355 & n, 375
content: calculus of — 78, 296, 313–15, 387, 517, 524–6, 535–7; ‘— condition’ 377n, 386n; empirical — 77n, 294 & n, 295–7, 314–15, 336, 385–6, 448n, 517–22, 524, 526–7, see also explanatory power; falsity — 316–19, 333–4, 529, 531 (formula 12) 532–5; high probability vs high empirical — see under probability; logical — 77, 295, 315 & n, 316, 322, 518, 524–7; truth — (Wahrheitsgehalt) 316, 333, 527, 529 (formula 9) 530–5
continental drift, theory of 185, 190
contradiction: dialectical view of — 424–6, 431–2, 439, see also dialectic; from a — everything follows 425–35, 532; law of — 106n, 425–31
conventionalism 49, 98n, 127, 325, 359, 549 & n; linguistic — see language, conventionalist philosophy of
Copernican: — system see heliocentric theory; — Revolutions of Kant 126–8, 244–6
correspondence: Bohr’s — principle 136; — theory of truth see truth, objective theory of
corroborability, degrees of see testability, degrees of
corroboration 48, 76–7, 211, 230, 318, 328–30, 334–5, 346, 376n, 542; degrees of — 76–7n, 150 & n, 294n, 299, 309, 389 &n, 526 & n, see also tests, severity of; degree of — vs probability 76, 260–1, 385–6, see also probability vs content; examples of scientific — 47–8, 136, 151–2, 299, 330, 333–4, 346
cosmology 98, 240–2, 245; — of Copernicus see heliocentric theory; — of Einstein see relativity theory; — of Newton see Newtonian physics; — of Plato 104n, 117–18; — of the Presocratics 184–5, 548; — of Ptolemy see Ptolemaic theory
counter-factual conditionals, problem of 374n
criterion: — of demarcation see under demarcation; — of meaning see under meaning; — of relative potential satisfactoriness of a theory 295–7, 307, 312, 526; — of truth see under truth
critical rationalism see rationalism
critical testing 54, 66, 420–1; see also tests
criticism 66–7, 169–72, 188–90, 201–2, 268–71, 330, 420–3, 474, 504, 516
crucial experiments 150–1 & n, 152, 235, 255, 294, 298, 319, 333–4; see also observation as tests of theories; tests, independent
custom in Hume see induction, Hume on
definitions: creative and non-creative — 338, 522–3; enumerative — 353–4; essentialist — 16, 26–7, 178 & n, 372 & n, 542, see also essentialism; extensional — see definitions, enumerative; implicit vs explicit — 98n, 286, 326, 358, 371, 522, see also conventionalism; operational — see operationalism; recursive — 524
demarcation between science and non-science: confirmability as a criterion of — 338, 343–4, 369, 378; — vs demarcation between sense and nonsense 51–5, 80, 338, 341, 356–8, 372–3, see also meaning; inductive method as a criterion of — 44, 69–71, 189, 344, 378–9; problem of — 44, 51–2, 69–71, 77, 341–5; testability as a criterion of — 48, 51–4, 68, 266, 337–8, 345; verifiability as a criterion of — 53, 337, 341, 350–3, 369, 378
demarcation between good and bad metaphysics 261–71
derivation see inference
descriptive: — facts see under facts; — function of language (Bühler) 180–1, 398; — signs 285–6; — view of science see instrumentalism
determinism: historical — see historicism; physical — 81, 84, 106, 108, 165, 261–4, 268–70, 397, 402, 466; theological — 166, 466
dialectic: — of Hegel 435–44; — triad 421–2, 433–5, 547
dialectical materialism 373, 445–51; see also Marxism
Dikē (as goddess of Truth) 12, 456–7
dispositional: degrees of — character 159, 376, 521; — statements as inference licences 146; — words 147, 159, 374, 521; universals are — 159, 374, 521
dogmatism 65–8, 201–3, 238, 420 & n; reinforced — 440–1, 449; see also Hegelianism; Marxism
doubt: Descartes’ method of systematic — 19–20; see also intellectualism; Socratic — (maieutic) 16–17, 206, 247
doxa see epistēmē vs doxa
Dyad, indeterminate 122n
Ego, Super-ego and Id 50; see also psycho-analysis
electricity: Hegel on — 442, 446n; occultness of — 359
electro-magnetic theory 108, 144, 153, 192, 197, 298, 359
emancipation through knowledge 7, 238 & n, 503
empirical: — basis 55n, 360 & n, 520–1, see also basic statements; — content see under content
empiricism: classical — 5, 28–31, 185–6, 222, 238, 435–6, 507n, 550–7; critical — see rationalism, critical; principle of — 71, 109 & n, 331n, 369, 377n, 393–4
epistēmē vs doxa 14, 19, 22, 34, 104, 125–7, 138n, 139, 204, 244n, 508, 510, 539–56
epiphenomenalism 398
epistemological: — holism see under holism; — irrationalism see under irrationalism; — optimism 7–11, 37, 468–9, 503; see also truth, theory of manifest; — pessimism 7, 11–15, 37, 503; — pragmatism see pragmatism; — problem 63–4, 127, 194, 244, 250, 258, 437, 512; — relativism 5, 88 & n, 109 & n, 505, 507; — traditionalism 7–8
error: conspiracy theory of — see under ignorance; problem of — 8, 21, see also truth, theory of manifest; sources of — see ignorance, sources of
essence 13, 16, 19, 88, 139–44, 227–31, 368, 471; — of matter as extension 26–7, 142, 154–5
essentialism 16, 26–7, 88, 108n, 138–44, 154, 228 & n, 234, 349 & n, 351n, 368, 372, 374n, 463; see also definitions, essentialist; — of Hegel 95n, 446n; Pythagorean — see Pythagoreanism
ether, theory of 108, 117n, 192
evolution: Empedocles’ theory of — 50; non-existence of a law of — 457; modern theory of — 434, 457
evolutionary epistemology 62
exclusion principle (Pauli) 118n
exhaustion, method of 109 & n
existentialism 95n, 262 & n, 466, 480n, 487
existential statements see under statement
expectations: — prior to observations 19, 30, 37, 46, 50n, 55n, 59, 209, 301, see also observation, true interpretative nature of; ‘horizon of —’ 62–3
experiments see crucial
experiments; tests explanation: deductive view of — 67, 73, 84, 109, 139, 143, 181n; — as an aim of science 140 & n, 154, see also instrumentalism; — of the known by the unknown 83, 119–24, 127, 137, 235; historical — 84; problem of — 83, 181n, 301; ultimate — by essences see essentialism
explanatory power 45, 77 &n, 83, 189, 209, 238, 260, 294 & n, 298, 309–13, 319, 335–6, 526; see also content, empirical; hypotheses, levels of explanatory; testability, degrees of
explication (Carnap) 377n, 380, 381n, 392
expressive function of language (Bühler) 181, 398–401
facts: correspondence with the — see truth, objective theory of; descriptive vs quasi — 404; existence of — 289–90
fallibilism 22, 309–13, 323–4; see also rationalism, critical
falsifiability see testability; — as a criterion of demarcation see demarcation, testability as a criterion of
falsificationism 309–13, 323–4, 336 & n; see also rationalism, critical
falsifications see refutations; tests
fanaticism 11
Fascism 477
forces 155, 160, 226, 231, 359; attractive — 82 & n, 108, 124, 143, 146, 158, 186 & n, 228, 234–5, 251, 255, 326; centrifugal — 232, 236; fields of — 108, 115, 160, 197, 359; repulsive — 144, 229
formal and material modes of speech (Carnap) 368
Forms, Plato’s theory of 99–100 & n, 104, 108, 116, 119–24, 538, 539–40
free-will 165
French Revolution 128, 162, 238, 454, 503
functions of language see language, functions of
Galileo’s terrestrial mechanics 81, 268, 298, 319, 333
geometrization of arithmetic 118 & n, 120–4, 123n
geometry: arithmetization of — 117n, 123; Euclidean — as a theory of the world 116–18, 123–4, 133n, 244, 250, 299; — as an organon of a theory of the world 117–18
gnMmMn (Pythagoras) 101–3, 113
God 142, 166, 358, 458, 465–6, 488, 503; Berkeley on — 140, 231, 233; — as a source of knowledge 9, 12, 20–1, 33, 39, 141, 204–5, see also veracitas dei; Heraclitus on — 195; Kant on — 35 & n, 132–3, 240, 246–7; Xenophanes on — 196, 205
Goldbach’s conjecture 154, 364n, 414
gravity see forces, attractive; Einstein’s theory of — see relativity theory; Newton’s theory of — see Newtonian physics
habit in Hume see induction, Hume on
Hegelianism 91 & n, 94, 106n, 469; see also dialectic of Hegel
heliocentric theory 131, 137, 186, 190, 240, 244–5, 254, 333, 345, 347, 356
historicism 84, 167n, 293 & n, 446, 452–3
historicist doctrine: — of the social sciences 455–8; — of politics 455–8
historiography 27, 31, 36, 185, 190, 198–9, 206, 211–12, 217
history: Marx’s theory of — 45, 49, 51, 466, see also Marxism; prophecy in — see prediction vs prophecy; racialist theory of — 51; testability in — 30–1, 36
Hoare-Laval plan 468, 476, 499
holism: epistemological — 150 & n, 322–3, 329; — in social science see social wholes
‘horizon of expectations’ see under expectations
hypotheses: ad hoc — see under ad hoc; levels of explanatory — 81, 88n, 234–5; ‘mathematical —’ 132, 145, 225n, 228, 235, see also instrumentalism
hypotheticism 72, 83; see also rationalism, critical
hypothetico-deductive system: axiomatized — 300, 324, 327n; — of Parmenides 105–7, 196
idealism 156n, 157, 158, 243, 262–3, 268, 444, 513; German —243, 437; — of Berkeley 157, 228, 232–3, 261, 269 & n; — of Hume 269 & n; transcendental — of Kant 243 & n
ideas: clear and distinct — 5, 9, 23, 435; Plato’s theory of — see forms, Plato’s theory of; power of — 7, 502
identity: Boolean — 523; Hegel’s philosophy of — 438, 443–5, 450, 513
ignorance: conspiracy theory of — 3–4, 9, 502; sources of — 3–4
incompleteness theorems (Gödel) 284, 362, 364–5
individual psychology (Adler) 45–6
indivisible distances (amerēs) of Democritus 111 & n
induction: Aristotle’s theory of — (epagMgē) 16 & n, 19; enumerative — 16n; Bacon’s theory of — (interpretatio naturae) 17–20, 185; Hume on — 55–61, 125, 256–7, 270, 389; — as a criterion of demarcation see under demarcation; — machine 64, 270; logical problem of — 53, 55–6, 69–71, 343, 390; myth of — 60, 67–9, 84, 140, 205, 207–8, 251–2, 254–5, 271, 362; metaphysical principle of — 71, 389–94; probabilistic theory of — see probability cannot be established by induction; reformulations of the problem of — 59–60, 74–5, 84–5
inductive procedures see induction, myth of
inductivism 207–8, 325, 329, 335–6, 362, 389–90, 444; see also induction
inertia 143
inference 26, 74; applicability of the rules of — 273, 276–8; principle of — see modus ponendo ponens; rules of — 273–6, 281–2, 284, 426–32
influence (as an astrological concept) 50, 255
infinite regress: — in Carnap’s theory of confirmation 384–5, 389; — in definitions 26, 376; — in formulating the requirement of simplicity 326; — in logically justifying induction 55–6, 390; — in proofs 26; — in psychologically justifying induction 59–60; — in testing 141, 521; — in Thales’ cosmology 187; — in tracing sources of knowledge in observation 28–31
initial conditions 73, 139, 382, 389, 524
institutions: ambivalence of social — 179, 472; social — 168, 178–9, 447, 475, 480, 493; theory of political — 33, 463–4, 471–2
instrumentalism 83, 131–8, 144–53, 175, 225–31, 234–5, 302, 306 & n, 319, 332, 336, 513
intellectual intuition as a source of knowledge 5, 9, 11–12, 22, 37, 189, 208–11, 244, 436
intellectualism 4–5, 13, 16, 34, 208–11, 222, 239 & n, 436, 548–56
interactionism 395–7, 402; see also mind-body
intuitionism: Cartesian — see intellectualism; — in mathematics 93, 118n, 348n
invisible change see under change
irrational numbers, problem of see under numbers
irrationalism: epistemological — 5, 208n, 263, 270, 309, 336, 468, 480, 505, 507n, 515; — of Hume 59–60, 67–8, 75, 270, see also induction, Hume on; political — 458
justificationism 28–31, 39, 67, 305, 310, 521; see also verificationism
Kant-Laplace hypothesis 124 & n, 240 & n, 250
Kepler’s laws 54n, 82 & n, 125 & n, 235, 251, 254, 268, 298, 318, 319, 329, 333, 345
‘knowing how and knowing that’ (Ryle) 272–3, 288
knowledge: background — see background knowledge; growth of — 36–7, 292–4, 516, 526; inborn — 13–16, 36, 62, see also expectations; problem of — see epistemological problem; requirements for the growth of — 326–36; sociology of — 84 & n; sources of — 3–4; theory of — 542–56
language: artificial vs formalized — 281–2, 303, 364, 416, 537; artificial vs natural — 94, 98n, 289, 338, 349, 357, 416; conventionalist philosophy of — 24–7, 94, 281–2, 350, 355–6; enumerative — 354; functions of — (argumentative, expressive, descriptive, signal functions of —) 83, 174, 180–1, 397–8, 514–15; growth of — 174; — analysis 23, 93–4, 184, 342, 368, 395–6, 466; — as an authority see authority of language; — as an institution 180; — of categorical propositions 282–3; — of science 338, 348, 354, 356–68, 372–3, 382; nominalist philosophy of — see nominalism; object vs meta- — 275, 283, 303, 365–8, 371n, 527, 537; origins of — 25–6, 174; physicalistic causal theory of — 396–7, 406; physicalistic — 358–62, 370–7; purely nominalistic — see language, enumerative; semantical — system see semantic system
Learned Elders of Zion, myth of the 166, 167, 459
learning: inductive — see induction, myth of; — from our mistakes see method of trial and error
levels or functions of language see language, functions of
liberal razor 471
liberalism 6–7, 137, 464, 467–74, 501–2
light: corpuscular theory of — 47n, 143n, 347, 423; velocity of — 232–3; wave theory of — 423
linguistic: — philosophy see language analysis; — relativism 84 & n
logic: alternative — 281, 315–16, 431 & n; calculi of — see calculus, logical; deductive — as an organon of criticism 67, 74, 85, 260, 425; inductive — see induction; — as rules of language 280–1; — not laws of nature 280; — not laws of thought 84, 280, 440–1; multi-valued — 315; rules of — see inference, rules of
logical: — constructions 155, 289; ‘— correlation coefficient’ 391–2n — form see logical vs descriptive signs; — improbability see probability vs content; — positivism see under positivism; — vs descriptive signs 282–3, 286 & n, 287, 353; — syntax 343 & n; — truisms see tautologies
‘logician’s hypotheticals’ (Ryle) 276–7
manifest truth see under truth
Marxism 9, 106n, 167n, 446–50, 453–6, 460–4, see also history, Marx’s theory of; — made irrefutable 45–6, 49, 447–8; — refuted 49 & n, 448
materialism 359, 398, 496; dialectical — see dialectical materialism
‘mathematical hypotheses’ see under hypotheses
mathematics, philosophy of 54n, 61, 94, 117n, 154–5, 267, 284–8, 311, 324, 372, 376, 444; Kant’s — 243n, 244; Wittgenstein’s — 98, 119, 364 & n
meaning: extensional theory of — 353–6, 378n; intensional theory of — 354, 378n; — analysis 343, 375n (see also language analysis; positivism, logical); naturalistic approach to — 349–52, 354–5, 364–6; nominalist theory of — see nominalism; problem of — 24–7, 54, 147 & n, 149 & n, 348, 409–18; verifiability as a criterion of — 51–4, 82, 89, 341, 352–4, 365, 366, 396, see also demarcation
‘measure’ (Heraclitus) 194, 214–21, 221, see also Logos; (Protagoras) 555
measurement 45, 82; — as counting of natural units 112–15
memory-images (Berkeley and Hume) 232, 269
metaphysical: arch- — assertion 370–2, 373n, 379 & n; — character of pure existential statements 264–5, 337–8, 346–7, 370–7; — principle of induction see under induction
metaphysics: demarcation between science and — see demarcation; demarcation between good and bad metaphysics 261–71; positivist doctrine of the meaninglessness of — 52, 73, 89–91, 208, 341–4, 364, 366–8, 378; problem of the irrefutability of — 48, 99, 261–71; status of — 95–9, 250–3, 448n
method: dialectic — see dialectic; inductive — see induction; — of conjecture and refutation 19, 60, 68, 74, 127–8, 204, 421, see also rationalism, critical; — of doubt see doubt; — of exhaustion 109 & n; — of maieutic see doubt, Socratic; — of trial and error 61, 68, 84, 260, 292, 394, 419–23, 434, 441, 449, 516
mind-body: — dualism 288–9, 403–8; — problem 351, 395–7, 403–8; two-language solution of the — problem 396, 404
modus ponendo ponens 275, 431, 456
motion: absolute — 148, 226–7, 231–2; — in vortices 107, 117 & n; — of the sun 131 & n, 148
multiple hypothesis, method of 420–4
Muses as a source of knowledge 12–15, 538
myths, the origins of science in 50 & n, 66–7, 137, 169–78, 254, 257, 347 & n, 509 & n
Nature: Book of — 9, 18, 502; essential — see essence; laws of — 56, 75, 139, 227–30, 234, 352 & n, 458, 465–6, see also universal laws; — vs Convention 20, 23, 549 & n; principle of the uniformity of — 377, 390
Nazism 166, 460, 473, 477, 493
neuroses 65
Newtonian physics 45, 70, 82 & n, 108, 235, 238, 247, 251, 255 & n, 257, 268–9, 294n, 298, 318, 319, 325, 329, 333, 345; essentialist interpretation of — 143, 235; instrumentalist interpretation of — 132, 145, 152, 225; occultness of — 50n, 124 & n, 142–4, 146, 158, 187n, 226, 252, 255; philosophical influence of — 35, 63n, 124–8, 132, 240, 244 & n, 247, 250–3, 258, 270, 299 & n, 325–6; philosophical origins of — 50n, 186 & n, 254; tests of — 152, 251, 319, 346
nihilism 262–3, 474; see also existentialism
Noetian heresy 219
nominalism 27, 348n, 353–6; — of Berkeley 146–8, 226, 231, 348n
numbers: Plato’s generation of — 122n; mysticism about — see Pythagoreanism; oblong — 102–3; problem of irrational — 100, 110–15 (arrhētos: 111n; 115), 115–18, 121–4, 133n, 201; sets of natural — 117n; square — 100–1; triangular — 101–2
objectivity: problem of scientific — 39, 84 & n, 361; see also under truth
observation: clinical — 46, 49; — as a source of knowledge 5, 16–19, 28–31, 49n, 55–61, 67–9, 165, 171–4, 185–6, 222, 227, 230, 244–5, 251–7, 269, 292, 345, see also induction; — as tests of theories 26, 47, 49n, 61, 67, 70–2, 171–4, 204, 210, 255, 260, 262, 292, 298–9, 336, 346; — statement 52, 54n, 56, 74, 251–7, 353, 361, 387, 517 (see also atomic statement; basic statements; protocol statement); systematic — 171; true interpretative nature of — 30, 49n, 54, 58–9, 61–4, 158, 209, 234, 254–7, 520, 547
observationalism 28–31, 165, 171–4, 185, 549–56; see also observation as a source of knowledge; sensation
Oedipus: — complex 46; — effect 50n, 166
operationalism 82, 152, 226, 375, 513
panlogism see identity, Hegel’s philosophy of
paradox: Grelling’s — 417; logical — 91, 351 & n, 363, 412–18; — of change see change, problem of; — of confirmation see under confirmation; — of heterological adjectives see paradox, Grelling’s; — of the liar 306, 411, 415
parallelism, psycho-physical 398
parity, refutation of 153, 299, 324, 330
perihelion of Mercury 54n, 319
phenomenalism: modern — 23, 375n; — of Husserl 95n; — in physics 82, 119, 137, 233
philosophical problems: existence of — 6, 73, 78, 88–9, 109, 125–6, 183; — have roots in science 88–9, 95–9, 210; see also metaphysics
philosophy: prima facie method of teaching — 96, 100, 118
prima facie method of teaching philosophy see philosophy
phlogiston theory see combustion
physicalism 358–62, 373, 394, 397; thesis of — 357–8, 369
physicalistic language see under language
positivism: legal —466 & n; logical — 6, 23, 28–9, 34, 94, 109 & n, 119, 208, 211, 225, 234, 310, 342, 297, 400, 466; — of Comte 93 & n
potential falsifier 48, 54n, 518; see also basic statements
potentiometer 359 & n, 360, 521
pragmatism 5, 69, 74, 133, 302, 332, 507, 513; see also truth, pragmatic theory of
prediction: — of new events vs — of known events 47–8, 157–8, 298, 329–30, 334; — vs prophecy 83, 448, 452–66, 490; scientific laws as instruments for — see instrumentalism; scientific — see tests
probability: absolute logical — 78 & n, 297, 322 & n, 387–8, 522, 523; calculus of — 76–8, 261, 296–7, 320, 338n, 385, 522, 535–45; frequency theory of — 78, 308, 320–1, 384–5; high — vs high empirical content 77, 296, 320, 346, 376n, 386, 524–7; logical — 78, 321, 373n, 384–5; — cannot be established by induction 71, 76, 85, 261, 296–7, 308, 380–1, 388, see also confirmation as weak verification; propensity interpretation of — 78–9, 160 & n; relative logical — 78 & n, 297, 322 & n, 388, 522, 534; statistical theory of — see probability, frequency theory of; subjective theory of — 307 & n, 338, 535–45
problems: philosophical — see philosophical problems; scientific — see science progresses from problems to problems
problem-situations 73, 105n, 172–3, 177, 214, 268–70, 326
problem solving 37, 73, 88–9, 172–3, 209, 268–70, 326, 420
progress in science see scientific progress
prophecy see under prediction propaganda 181, 447, 471, 475, 478, 484
proportions, Eudoxus’ theory of 122n
protocol statement 28, 53n, 352, 359–61; see also observation statement
psycho-analysis 45–6, 49–50, 65–6, 370n, 480
Ptolemaic theory 131n, 235, 333
public opinion 464, 467–76, 499; avant-garde theory of — 470
Pythagoreanism 100–3, 110–15, 120–2, 190, 201, 253 & n
qualities: occult — 226, 359 (see also ‘hypotheses, mathematical’; Newtonian physics, occultness of); primary vs secondary — 155, 233
quantum theory 118n, 155, 276, 324, 328–9, 432; instrumentalist interpretation of — 135, 152n, 153; problem of interpreting — 80, 135, 153, 160; propensity interpretation of — 160 & n; tests of — 88
quid facti vs quid juris 60, 84
rationalism: classical — see intellectualism; critical — 8, 34, 66–9, 139, 162, 209, 263, 271, 292, 300, 317, 345, 394, 420, 453, 478–88, 501, 504–5, 515–16, 547; see also tradition, rationalist
realism 83, 157, 263, 269, 288, 437, 514, see also reality; naïve — 134, 289; political — 501
reality 154–7, 286–8, 513–14; — vs appearance 14–15, 37, 104, 132, 137–8, 145, 154–5, 196–200, 202, 214, 226–31, 233, 550–6
reason as a source of knowledge see intellectual intuition
reasonableness, attitude of 67, 477–88, 504; see also under attitude
reductio ad absurdum 115, 404, 412, 415
reduction: — sentence (Carnap) 352n, 371n, 372, 375, 376n; rule of indirect — see under syllogisms
refutability see testability; criteria of — 49n, 288; problem of the — of statistical statements 80, 160
refutations see tests are attempted refutations; examples of scientific — 54n, 151, 153, 254, 299, 318, 324, 328, 329
relativism: epistemological — see under epistemological; historical — 84 & n; linguistic — see under linguistic; philosophical — 109 & n, 505
relativity theory 44–5, 98, 106, 109n, 235, 241, 287n, 290, 294n, 298, 330, 334, 344–5, 513–14; instrumentalist interpretation of — 148, 153, 232; philosophical influence of — 35, 125, 258–9; tests of — 44, 47 & n, 152, 298, 330, 345
Renaissance 6, 118, 204, 502, 506
repetition: Hume’s theory of inductive — see induction, Hume on; typical result of — 57–60
‘saving the phenomena’ 109, 127, 138, 230, 334, 421
scepticism 309, 324, 544; — of Hume see induction, Hume on
schools 201
science: aims of — 81, 128, 131–4, 139, 165–8, 235, 299 & n, 310–13, 333, see also probability vs content; pure vs applied — see technology vs pure science; — and non-science see demarcation; — progresses from problems to problems 38, 73, 88, 172–3, 209, 268, 300–1, 327 & n, 420–1; ‘searchlight’ theory of — 171–2; social — 166–8, 319, 446–7, 452–66, 460; Kant’s riddle of natural — 125–9, 249–61
scientia see epistēmē vs doxa
scientific progress: criterion of — 152, 292–301, 312, 329, 336, 526–7 (see also knowledge, requirements for the growth of; truth, approach to the; verisimilitude); non-existence of a law of — 293
self-reference see statement, self-referring
semantic: — category 351n, 371n; — system 282, 285 & n, 308; — theory of truth see truth, objective theory of
semantics 308, 317, 342 & n, 351n, 366
sensation, sensationalism 547–56; see also observation; observationalism
sense: — -data 109n, 127, 245, 374n, 520; — impressions 269, 374n; see also observation as a source of knowledge
signal function or release function of language (Bühler) 180–1, 397–9
similarity 59
simplicity: instrumentalist use of — 232; problem of — 81, 326–7 & n; requirement of — 326–7 & n; — equals testability 81, 157, 327
simultaneity, operational analysis of the concept of 153 & n
social: — ‘canvas-cleaning’ 177, 462; — collectives see social wholes; — institutions see under institutions; — wholes 165, 459; — science see under science
society, conspiracy theory of 165–8, 459–60
solipsism 261, 269, 400; methodological — (Carnap) 358, 361, 375n
‘soluble’ 375; see also dispositional words
space: absolute — 82, 142n, 225, 29, 232; empty — see void; Kant’s theory of — 242
speech, formal and material modes of 368
statement: atomic see atomic statement; basic — see basic statements; conditional — 274–5, 519, 533; contradictory — see contradiction; dispositional — see under dispositional; modal — 431n; observation — see observation statement; protocol — see protocol statement; strict or pure existential — 264–5, 337–8, 347, 370–2; restricted existential — 264–5, 348n; self-referring — 367, 409–18; universal — see universal laws
subjectivism 21, 304–8, 516; see also probability, subjective theory of; truth, subjective theories of
substances, Aristotle’s theory of 108 & n
substitution, principle of 275
Suez adventure 498n surreptitious change of theories 201
survival of the fittest 69
syllogisms 16n, 284, 430; rule of indirect reduction of — 430
‘Table of Opposites’ 104, 120n
tabula rasa 36, 222, 462, 550–6
tautologies 97, 119, 275, 281, 285–8, 322, 348n, 379, 528n, 530, 534
technology (technē) vs pure science 84, 138, 149–53, 306 & n, 508–10; see also instrumentalism
testability: degrees of — 48, 77n, 81, 154–5, 157, 294 & n, 297, 309, 313, 327, 336, 345–6, 385n, 388, 393 (see also content, empirical; corroboration); — as a criterion of demarcation see under demarcation
tests 54n, 68, 80, 98n, 139, 141, 158–9, 267, 309, 314–15, 420; crucial — see crucial experiments; independent — 88n, 143, 327, 331, 334, 387; severity of — 298, 325, 336, 346, 376 & n, 385, 386–7, 524–7; — are attempted refutations 48, 49n, 71, 150–1, 260, 267, 299, 325, 329, 346, 386, 520
theoreticism 83; see also rationalism, critical
thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, see dialectic triad
‘things-in-themselves’ see reality vs appearance; — as will see voluntarism; — as nothingness see nihilism
time: absolute — 226, 229, 231; empty — 241; Kant’s theory of — 126, 242
tolerance: attitude of — 10, 22, 480; tradition of — 178, 238
totalitarianism 450
Tower of Babel 474
tradition: critical — see tradition, rationalist; irrational theory of — 161; problem of — 161–2; rational theory of — 161–5, 462, 473, 505; rationalist — 34–5, 67, 136–8, 161–5, 168–72, 185–6, 201–4, 208, 474, 501, 515, 547–56; — and schools 201, see also rationalism, critical; scientific — see tradition, rationalist; — as a source of knowledge 36, 323
traditionalism 7, 37, 162, 178, 503–5
transcendence of ourselves 516; see also knowledge, growth of
transcendental: — argument 243, 259, 392; — idealism of Kant see under idealism
truth: approach to the — 203, 235, 293, 306–7, 311, 313–15, 322, 326–36, 393, 432, 504, 536, see also verisimilitude; coherence theory of — 37, 264, 304–9; correspondence theory of — see truth, objective theory of; epistemic theories of — see truth, subjective theories of; evidence theory of — 304; getting nearer to the — see truth, approach to the; no criteria of — 37, 306; objective theory of — 21, 35, 38–9, 74, 156 & n, 181, 211, 281, 303–8, 313–14, 363n, 365, 377n, 504–5, 515, 527, 541–5; picture or projection theory of — 289 & n, 302 & n; pragmatic theory of — 5, 133, 147n, 304; similarity to the — see verisimilitude; subjective theories of — 306–8, 311, 538–45, see also truth, coherence, evidence, and pragmatic theories of; theory of manifest — 7–11, 12, 21–4, 30, 46, 468, 473–4, 502–5; — a property of statements 527; — a regulative principle 39, 306, 311, 333–4, 503–4, 515–16; — content see under content; — likeness see verisimilitude
type see semantic category; — mistake see category mistakes
types, Russell’s theory of 91–4, 350–1 & n, 355, 395–6
uniformity of nature see under Nature
unintended consequences 167–8, 177, 461; see also science, social
universal concepts see universals
universality, levels of — 55n, 83, 155; see also hypotheses, levels of explanatory
universal laws: indispensability of — 347, 380–3, 389n, 394; — as rules permitting inference 145–8, 225, 353, 380–3; — cannot be verified 46–7, 53, 76–7 & n, 154, 353 & n, 377, 379–90; — have probability zero 77, 261, 379, 380–1, 386, see also probability vs content
universals: indispensability of — 159, 354–5, 374; — are dispositional see under dispositional
utilitarianism 465; methodological — 141n; negative — 465, 485–6
utopianism 8, 472, 482–7; see also social ‘canvas-cleaning’
veracitas: — dei of Descartes 9, 11, 21; — naturae of Bacon 9, 23
verifiability: non- — of universal laws see under universal laws; — as a criterion of demarcation see under demarcation; — as a criterion of meaning see under meaning
verification: see verificationism; asymmetry between — and falsification 54n, 72, 150 & n, 154, 260; weak — see confirmation as weak verification
verificationism 47, 52–4, 66, 76, 150 & n, 210, 307 & n, 324, 336 & n, 350–6, 376–7, 380, 382
‘verisimilar’ (eikos, verisimilis, wahrscheinlich) 15 & n, 131 & n, 320–1, 538–41
verisimilitude 297, 309, 315–20, 334, 527–35 (formula 23); — is not a probability 131n, 297, 320–1, 538–41
Vienna Circle 53–4, 208, 311, 343 & n, 348n, 353n, 363 & n, 366, 373; see also positivism, logical
void (vs theory of the full world) 12, 107, 117 & n, 556; see also atomism, Greek
volonté générale 469
wars of religion 6, 479, 492, 502–5
wave: Schrödinger’s — mechanics 80, 94 & n, 117n; — theory of light see under light
world, theory of the: Copernican — see heliocentric theory; Heraclitus’ — in flux 194–7, 214–23; Milesian — as a house 190–1, 193–4; see also cosmogony; cosmology; void