Introduction
1. Peter Wilcox, Rome’s Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1986.), p.16; Gareth C. Sampson, The Defeat of Rome in the East: Crassus, the Parthians, and the Disastrous Battle of Carrhae, 53 BC (Philadelphia: Casemate, 2008), pp. 114–15.
2. Plutarch, Crassus, 18.3.
3. Plutarch, Crassus, 23.6–7.
4. Plutarch, Crassus, 24.1.
5. Philip Sidnell, Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2006), pp. 86, 143–4, 148; Peter Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 10.
6. Edward N. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), p. 277.
7. Mariusz Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii: Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World (Officya Naukowa, 1993), pp. 44–50; Peter Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 10.
8. Heliodorus, Aethiopica, 9.14–18.
9. Julian the Emperor, Panegyric in Honour of the Emperor Constantinus, Oration 1, 37C–38A.
10. Leo VI, The Taktika, 6.9–39.
11. Leo VI, The Taktika, 6.40–55.
12. Leo VI, The Taktika, 6.56–68.
Chapter 1: Origins of the Cataphracts
1. Ann Hyland, The Horse in the Ancient World (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2003), p. 3–4.
2. Christoph Baumer, The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warrior (London: I.B. Tauris, 2012), pp. 83–4.
3. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 1–2.
4. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 84.
5. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 2.
6. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 84.
7. Ann Hyland, The Horse in the Ancient World, pp. 8–9.
8. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 5–6.
9. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 84.
10. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 14.
11. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior , pp. 84–85.
12. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior , p. 85.
13. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 14.
14. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 7, 12–13.
15. Sidnell, Warhorse, p.13.
16. Arthur Cotterell, Chariot: From Chariot to Tank, the Astounding Rise and Fall of the World’s First War Machine (New York: The Overlook Press, 2004), p. 83.
17. Mark Healy, The Ancient Assyrians (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1991), pp. 3–5.
18. Healy, The Ancient Assyrians, p. 20; Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 7.
19. Healy, The Ancient Assyrians, p. 20.
20. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 14–15; Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 85.
21. Sidnell, Warhorse, p.15.
22. Healy, The Ancient Assyrians, pp. 20–21.
23. Healy, The Ancient Assyrians, pp. 3, 21.
24. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 224–6.
25. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 226.
26. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 227; E.V. Cernenko, Scythians 700–300 B.C. (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1983), pp. 5, 7.
27. Cernenko, Scythians, p. 7.
28. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 227.
29. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 228.
30. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 232–3.
31. Cernenko, Scythians, p. 7.
32. Cernenko, Scythians, pp. 7–8, 36.
33. Cernenko, Scythians, pp. 7–8, 11.
34. Cernenko, Scythians, pp. 8, 17, 35–6.
35. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 174, 199; D. T. Potts, ‘Cataphractus and kamāndār: Some Thoughts on the Dynamic Evolution of Heavy Cavalry and Mounted Archers in Iran and Central Asia’, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 21 (2007), pp. 152, 155.
36. Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 199–200.
37. Potts, ‘Cataphractus and kamāndār’, p. 152.
38. Herodotus, The Histories, 1.215.
39. Richard Brzezinski and Mariusz Mielczarek, The Sarmatians 600 BC–AD 450 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002), p. 16.
40. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 87–8.
41. The Age of the Steppe Warrior, p. 197.
42. The Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 199–203.
43. Nick Sekunda, The Persian Army 560–330 BC (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1992), p. 22.
44. Sekunda, The Persian Army, pp. 22–3, 25.
45. Nick Sekunda, The Persian Army, p. 54; Hyland, The Horse in the Ancient World, p. 30; Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 86.
46. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 7.13.1.
47. Hyland, The Horse in the Ancient World, p. 30.
48. Philip Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 86.
49. Sekunda, The Persian Army, p. 25.
50. Sekunda, The Persian Army, p. 25.
51. Xenophon, On Horsemanship, 12.
52. Xenophon, On Horsemanship, 12.
53. Xenophon, On Horsemanship, 12.
54. Sekunda, The Persian Army, pp. 26–9.
55. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 89, 93–5.
56. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 1.15.
57. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 80–85.
58. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 96–8.
59. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 99–102.
60. Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander, 3.11.
61. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 103–4.
62. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 2.11.
63. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 105–6.
64. Diodorus Siculus, Universal History, 17.53.
65. Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander, 4.9.
66. Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander, 4.9.
67. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 105–8.
68. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 108–9, based on the accounts of Arrian and Quintus Curtius Rufus.
69. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 110–11.
70. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, 3.13.
71. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 111–12.
72. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 112–13.
73. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 113–114.
74. Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, ‘The Iranian Revival in the Parthian Period’, in The Age of the Parthians: The Idea of Iran Volume II, edited by Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis and Sarah Stewart (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007), p. 7.
Chapter 2: The First Cataphracts
1. John D. Grainger, The Rise of the Seleukid Empire (323–223 BC): Seleukos I to Seleukos III (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2014), p. 200.
2. John D. Grainger, The Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III (223–187 BC) (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2015), pp. 55, 62, 66.
3. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, pp. 67–9.
4. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, pp. 70–2.
5. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 71.
6. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III , pp. 101–2, 106–7; Bezalel Bar-Kochva, The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 146.
7. Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, p.146.
8. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 109–10; Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, p. 150–152.
9. Polybius, Histories, 16.18.
10. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 68.
11. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 110.
12. Bezalel Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, p. 153.
13. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 110.
14. Polybius, Histories, 16.18.
15. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, pp. 110, 112–14; Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, p. 156.
16. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III , p. 115.
17. Livy, The History of Rome, 35.48.3.
18. Plutarch, Moralia, 197C.
19. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III , pp. 180–181; Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, pp. 165–7.
20. Livy, History of Rome, 37.40.
21. Livy, History of Rome, 37.40.
22. Livy, History of Rome, 37.42.7.
23. Appian, The Syrian Wars, 34.
24. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, pp. 181–2; Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, pp. 170.
25. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 182.
26. Livy, History of Rome, 37.42.1–2.
27. Appian, Syrian Wars, 33.
28. Appian, Syrian Wars, 34.
29. Grainger, Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III, p. 182.
30. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 143; Nick Sekunda, The Seleucid and Ptolemaic Reformed Armies, 168–145 BC (v. 1): The Seleucid Army (Montvert, 1994), p. 21.
31. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 69–71; Sekunda, Seleucid Army, p. 21.
32. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 143–4; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 72; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians , p. 10; Sekunda, Seleucid Army, p. 21.
33. In Warhorse (pp. 143–4), Sidnell makes the argument that in Livy’s description of the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, when he writes about the cataphracts and states, ‘On the right…3,000 cavalry in breastplates – cataphracti is the name for them…On the left… 3,000 cataphracti and 1,000 other cavalry, the royal squadron, with lighter protection for riders and their mounts but in their other equipment not unlike the cataphracti’ (Livy, History of Rome, 37.40), the ancient writer is implying that the cataphracts were equipped with further armour.
34. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 143–4; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p.10; Sekunda, Seleucid Army, p. 76.
35. Sekunda, Seleucid Army, p. 21.
36. Bar-Kochva, Seleucid Army, p. 74; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 69.
37. Nick Sekunda, Seleucid Army, p. 21.
38. Polybius, Histories, 31.3.
39. Sekunda, Seleucid Army, pp. 12, 21.
40. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 14.
41. M. Chahin, The Kingdom of Armenia: A History (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001), p. 197–198.
42. Asclepiodotus, Tactica, 1.3.
43. Chahin, Kingdom of Armenia, pp. 182–3, 188–90, 193.
44. Chahin, Kingdom of Armenia, pp. 197–9.
45. Strabo, Geography, 11.4.4.
46. Valerii P. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the Old Problem of their Identifications’, in Voennaia arkheologiia: Oruzhie i voennoe delo v istoricheskoi i sotsial.noi perspektive (Military Archaeology: Weaponry and Warfare in the Historical and Social Perspective), St. Petersburg (1998), p. 131.
47. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 217; Chahin, Kingdom of Armenia, p. 201.
48. Plutarch, Moralia, 203A.
49. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 217.
50. Plutarch, Life of Lucullus, 26.6.
51. Chahin, Kingdom of Armenia, p. 201.
52. Plutarch, Lucullus, 27.6.
53. Plutarch, Lucullus, 28.2–4.
54. Eutropius, Breviarium, 9.1.
55. Festus, Breviarium, 15.3.
56. Plutarch, Lucullus, 37.3.
57. Rose Mary Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia: Blood in the Sand (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2010), p. 18.
Chapter 3: The Parthian Cataphracts
1. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, p. 107.
2. Plutarch, Crassus, 24.3–4.
3. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, pp. 128–9.
4. Plutarch, Crassus, 25.4–8.
5. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 40.22.2–3.
6. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, p. 130.
7. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, p. 132–3.
8. Plutarch, Crassus, 27.1–2.
9. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, pp. 134–5.
10. Sampson, Defeat of Rome, p. 145.
11. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 10; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 57–9; Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 238.
12. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 10; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 61; Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 238.
13. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 40.24.1.
14. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 40.15.2.
15. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 10; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 59.
16. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 53–6.
17. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 55, 57.
18. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 57–58.
19. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 58.
20. Richard Alston, Rome’s Revolution: Death of the Republic and Birth of the Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 184–5.
21. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 58.
22. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 59–60.
23. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.20.1–2.
24. Sheldon, Blood in the Sand, p. 60.
25. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 65.
26. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 65–6; Alston, Rome’s Revolution, p. 186.
27. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 67; Alston, Rome’s Revolution, p. 186.
28. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 49.26.2.
29. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 67, 69–73.
30. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 73–4.
31. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 23.
32. Propertius, The Elegies, 3.12.12.
33. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians. p. 23.
34. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 125–6.
35. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 129, 132–3, 135, 137–8.
36. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 138–40.
37. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 140–43.
38. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 73.
39. Nazarius, Panegyric of Constantine, 24.6–24.
40. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 155–6.
41. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 157, 159–60.
42. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 160–61.
43. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 23–4.
44. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 171–2.
45. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 172–4.
46. Herodian, History of the Roman Empire, pp. 4.14.3.
47. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 174.
48. Herodian, History of the Roman Empire, p. 4.15.2–3.
49. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, p. 174.
50. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 174–5.
51. Sheldon, Rome’s Wars in Parthia, pp. 175–7.
Chapter 4: Cataphracts of the Minor Kingdoms
1. Baumer, Age of the Steppe Warrior, pp. 253–4.
2. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, pp. 16–17.
3. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, p. 21.
4. Strabo, Geography, 7.3.17.
5. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, pp. 20–21.
6. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, pp. 17, 21–2.
7. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, p. 22.
8. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, p. 37.
9. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, pp. 23–4.
10. The term ‘contus sarmaticus’ was even used in non-Sarmatian contexts by Roman writers, such as in the poems of Silus Italicus, Punica 15.684–5 and Statius, Achilleid 2.132–4.
11. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, p. 24. The differences between the Sarmatian lancers and the cataphracts is specifically stressed by Mielczarek in Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 95–102, and (with Brzezinski) Sarmatians, pp. 16–19.
12. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians, p. 17.
13. Tacitus, The History, 1.79.
14. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 263.
15. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 271–2.
16. Cassius Dio, Roman History, 72.16.
17. Brzezinski and Mielczarek, Sarmatians , pp. 40–41.
18. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 43–4.
19. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 86.
20. Mariusz Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 87.
21. Kaveh Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2005), p. 46.
22. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 46.
23. Sidnell, Warhorse , pp. 275–6.
24. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 276–7.
25. Zosimus, New History, 1.45.
26. Festus, Breviarium, 24.1.
27. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 277–8.
28. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 278.
29. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 278.
Chapter 5: The Sassanian Persian Cataphracts and Clibanarii
1. Touraj Daryaee, Sasanian Iran (224–651 CE): Portrait of a Late Antique Empire (Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers Inc, 2008), pp. 13–14, 19–20; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 36.
2. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 34.
3. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 132.
4. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 132.
5. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.10.8.
6. In his article, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, Nikonorov has provided concise summaries of the scholarly work written on the subject, including experts such as Eadie, Gamber, Hoffmann, Rostovtzeff, Speidel, Michalak, Mielczarek, etc.
7. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 9–11, 61.
8. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 9–10.
9. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 10–11; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 33–4, 44, 47; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 65–6.
10. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 16–17; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 65–7.
11. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 16, 35.
12. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 15–16; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 67.
13. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 18–19; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 34, 44, 47.
14. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 13–15.
15. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 14.
16. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 35, 44, 47; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 67.
17. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 11–12.
18. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 12.
19. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 12–13.
20. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 12–14.
21. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 13, 18; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 67.
22. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 17–18.
23. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Alexander Severus, 56.5.
24. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 36.
25. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 44–5.
26. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 44, 46.
27. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 18.8.7.
28. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 19.7.4.
29. Touraj Daryaee, Sasanian Iran, pp. 47, 49.
30. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 20.7.2.
31. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 47.
32. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 47–8.
33. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 48, 50.
34. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 38.
35. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 24.6.8.
36. Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 38.
37. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 25.1.12–13.
38. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 48–9; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, p. 38.
39. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 49.
40. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 50.
41. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 25.3.4
42. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 50.
43. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 25.6.2
44. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 50.
45. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 29.1.1
46. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 52–53; Wilcox, Parthians and Sassanid Persians, pp. 38–9.
47. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 50–51.
48. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 50–51.
49. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 51–52.
50. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 53.
51. Maurice, Strategikon, 11.1.
52. Maurice, Strategikon, 11.1.
53. Maurice, Strategikon, 11.1.
54. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 54.
55. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 53–4.
56. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 55–6.
57. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, pp. 57.
Chapter 6: Imperial Roman Cataphracti, Cataphractarii and Clibanarii
1. CIL XI, 5632.
2. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p.73.
3. Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, 3.253.
4. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 268–9.
5. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 262, 269.
6. Aelian, Tactics, pp. 2.12–13.
7. Arrian, Ars Tactica, 4.1.
8. Philip Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 268–9.
9. Simon MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman AD 236–565 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1995), pp. 18, 52; Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 268.
10. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 81.
11. MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman AD 236–565, pp. 18, 52, 54; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 80, 82.
12. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 75.
13. Herodian, History of the Roman Empire, 8.1.3.
14. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 75; John W. Eadie, ‘The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry’, in The Journal of Roman Studies, 57 (1967), p. 168.
15. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), pp. 132, 137.
16. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 75–6.
17. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Divus Claudius, 16.2–3.
18. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Divus Aurelianus, 11.4.
19. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 280.
20. Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Divus Aurelianus, 34.4.
21. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 132.
22. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), pp. 132, 137.
23. MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman, p. 19.
24. MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman, pp. 18–19. See also, Ambianenses: CIL XIII, 3493, 3495; Pictavenses: CIL III, 14406a.
25. Eadie, ‘Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry’, in JRS 57 (1967), p.168. The three stelae are CIL XIII, 3493, 3495, 6238.
26. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), pp. 132, 136–7.
27. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 132.
28. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p.137; MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman, pp. 19–20.
29. MacDowall, Late Roman Cavalryman, pp. 19, 54; Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 81.
30. Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007), p. 62.
31. Nazarius, Panegyric of Constantine, 22.3–24.6.
32. Julian the Emperor, The Heroic Deeds of the Emperor Constantius, or on Kingship, Oration II, 57B-C.
33. Libanius, Funeral Oration upon the Emperor Julian, pp. 186–7.
34. Mitchell, Later Roman Empire, p. 70.
35. Julian the Emperor, Panegyric in Honour of the Emperor Constantius, Oration I, 37A.
36. Mitchell, Later Roman Empire, p. 70.
37. Eadie, ‘Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry’, JRS 57 (1967), p. 172.
38. David Nicolle, Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th–9th Centuries (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1992), p. 39.
39. Libanius, Funeral Oration upon the Emperor Julian, p. 134.
40. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.2.5–6.
41. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 137.
42. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.12.7.
43. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 283–4; Mitchell, Later Roman Empire, pp. 74–5.
44. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.12.22.
45. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 284.
46. Sidnell, Warhorse, p. 284.
47. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.12.38.
48. Sidnell, Warhorse, pp. 284–5.
49. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 16.12.63.
50. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, 28.5.6–7.
51. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 132.
52. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 77; Eadie, ‘Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry’, in JRS 57 (1967), pp. 169, 171.
53. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 78; Eadie, ‘Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry’, JRS 57 (1967), p. 168.
54. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, pp. 78–9.
55. Mielczarek, Cataphracti and Clibanarii, p. 79.
56. Claudius Claudianus, In Rufinum, 2.353–365.
57. Claudius Claudianus, Panegyricus de Sexto Consulatu Honorii Augusti, 1.564–577.
58. Nicolle, Romano-Byzantine Armies, p. 39–40.
59. Vegetius, De Re Militari, 3.
60. Vegetius, De Re Militari, 3.24.
61. Vegetius, De Re Militari, 3.23.
62. Macdowall, Adrianople AD 378: The Goths Crush Rome’s Legions (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2005), p. 21.
63. Stephen Mitchell, Later Roman Empire, pp. 94, 115–16.
Chapter 7: The Byzantine Kataphraktoi and Clibanarii
1. Timothy E. Gregory, A History of Byzantium (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 61–63.
2. Eric McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth: Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth Century (Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, 1995), p. 211.
3. Nicolle, Romano-Byzantine Armies, p. 6–7.
4. John Haldon, The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era (Stroud: Tempus, 2001), p. 24.
5. Nicolle, Romano-Byzantine Armies, p. 40.
6. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 42, 53.
7. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
8. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
9. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
10. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
11. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, p. 278.
12. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 26–27.
13. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
14. Maurice, Strategikon, 1.2.
15. Luttwak, Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, pp. 277–8.
16. Mark-Anthony Karantabias, ‘The Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios and His Usage of Steppe Nomad Tactics’, in Hirundo: The McGill Journal of Classical Studies 4 (2005–2006), pp. 30–32.
17. Karantabias, ‘Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios’, in Hirundo 4 (2005–2006), p. 30.
18. Farrokh, Sassanian Elite Cavalry, p. 56.
19. Karantabias, ‘Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios’, in Hirundo 4 (2005–2006), pp. 30–31.
20. Karantabias, ‘Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios’, in Hirundo 4 (2005–2006), pp. 32, 34–5.
21. Theophanes, Chronicle, 318.25–28.
22. Karantabias, ‘Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios’, in Hirundo 4 (2005–2006), pp. 35–6.
23. Karantabias, ‘Crucial Development of Heavy Cavalry under Herakleios’, in Hirundo 4 (2005–2006), pp. 37–9.
24. Gregory, A History of Byzantium (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 176, 182.
25. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 137.
26. Nicolle, Romano-Byzantine Armies, pp. 45–6.
27. Ian Heath, Byzantine Armies 886–1118 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1979), p. 18.
28. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology (1998), p. 137.
29. Timothy Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman C. 900–1204 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2009), pp. 34–6.
30. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.34–37.
31. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 34–6, 61.
32. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 35.
33. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 37–8.
34. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.26–33.
35. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 37–8.
36. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 38.
37. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 34, 38, 61.
38. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 38.
39. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 36.
40. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 217; Raffaele D’Amato, Byzantine Imperial Guardsmen 913–1025: The Tághmata and Imperial Guard (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2012), p. 15.
41. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 42–4; Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 36.
42. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.37–45.
43. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 42–4; Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 36.
44. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.45–46.
45. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 36.
46. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 8.
47. D’Amato, Byzantine Imperial Guardsmen, p. 46.
48. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 34–6; Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 8.
49. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 10, pp. 34–5.
50. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.46–53.
51. Heath, Byzantine Armies, pp. 10, 34–35.
52. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.65–73.
53. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 37, 52.
54. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.54–65.
55. D’Amato, Byzantine Imperial Guardsmen, p. 51.
56. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 42–4.
57. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 17–20; Heath, Byzantine Armies, pp. 17–18.
58. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 17–18.
59. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 5.
60. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 17–18.
61. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 18.
62. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 20.
63. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.73–84.
64. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 19.
65. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 2.111–124.
66. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, pp. 53–4.
67. Nikephoros Ouranos, Taktika, 61.204–214.
68. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 3.1–25.
69. Nikephoros Phokas, Praecepta Militaria, 2.124–139.
70. Gregory, A History of Byzantium, pp. 255–6.
71. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 226.
72. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 179, 201, 214.
73. al-Mutanabbi, to Sayf al-Dawla.
74. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 222, 308.
75. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 226, 228, 312.
76. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 197, 228.
77. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 96.
78. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 231–2, 314.
79. Nikonorov, ‘Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii’, in Military Archaeology, p. 137.
80. Leo the Deacon, The History, 4.3.
81. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 228.
82. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 96–7.
83. Leo the Deacon, The History, 5.2.
84. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 97.
85. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 97–9.
86. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 99.
87. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 316.
88. Leo the Deacon, The History, 8.4.
89. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 99.
90. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 99.
91. Leo the Deacon, The History, 8.9.
92. Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, 100.
93. Leo the Deacon, The History, 8.10.
94. Haldon, The Byzantine Wars, 100.
95. Leo the Deacon, The History, 9.1.
96. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 100–101.
97. Leo the Deacon, The History, 9.2.
98. Leo the Deacon, The History, 9.2.
99. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 101.
100. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 101.
101. Leo the Deacon, The History, p. 9.7.
102. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 101–2.
103. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 103.
104. Leo the Deacon, The History, 9.8.
105. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 103.
106. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 103–4.
107. Leo the Deacon, The History, 9.10.
108. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, p. 104.
109. Haldon, Byzantine Wars, pp. 104–5.
110. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, pp. 316–7.
111. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 317.
112. Nikephoros Ouranos, Taktika, 63.21–24.
113. Nikephoros Ouranos, Taktika, 63.29–32.
114. McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 317.
115. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 18; Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 21.
116. Heath, Byzantine Armies, p. 36.
117. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 54.
118. Dawson, Byzantine Cavalryman, p. 12, 16; McGeer, Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth, p. 318.