| STRIPED SKUNK Mephitis mephitis |
HB 17–40cm; T 15–47cm; W ♀ 0.6–3.6kg, ♂ 0.7–5.5kg
Domestic cat-sized skunk with highly variable white markings, usually variations of a V-shaped cape or double stripe along the back. Some individuals are almost entirely black; brown, reddish and albino forms also occur. The most common skunk in North America, and the species typically encountered in urban areas. Distribution and Habitat Southern half of Canada, throughout the USA and N Mexico. Occurs in almost every habitat in its range, to 4,200m, provided there is shelter and food. Thrives in disturbed habitats, and has probably benefited from forest conversion to pasture and fields. Common in urban areas. Feeding Ecology Omnivorous and highly opportunistic, feeding on all kinds of invertebrates, small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, eggs, fruits, vegetables, grains and nuts. Eats carrion and readily scavenges from dumps, pet bowls and bird feeders. Sometimes raids domestic beehives and (rarely) poultry coops. Not a true hibernator as it feeds throughout the winter, but it overwinters in dens in its northern range; in severe winters, subsists entirely on fat stores for as long as 3 months. Mainly nocturno-crepuscular. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary, but adults (especially females) sometimes den together. Ranges fluctuate geographically and seasonally, depending on food availability; estimates 0.5–12km2. Urban skunks typically have very small ranges, while the largest ranges are from the Canadian prairies. Density estimates vary widely, depending on food availability and associated disease outbreaks, typically 1.8–4.5/km2, but varying from 0.7/km2 to 38/km2, with the highest numbers recorded from urban parkland. Reproduction and Demography Seasonal. Mating February–early March; births April–June. Gestation 59–77 days; longer gestations probably involve a short period of delayed implantation in females that mate early. Litters average 5–9, exceptionally to 18. Independence and dispersal by late August–September. MORTALITY Populations naturally have high turnover rates, with frequent crashes (and rapid recovery) from disease cycles associated with starvation in harsh winters. Natural predators include large raptors (1 Great Horned Owl nest contained the remains of 57 skunks), as well as cats and canids. LIFESPAN Averages 2–3.5 years in the wild, to 12 in captivity. Status and Threats Widespread, adaptable and common, and considered very secure in most of its range. Susceptible to rabies, although populations recover quickly. Red List LC, population trend Stable.
| HOODED SKUNK Mephitis macroura |
HB 27.8–36cm; T 27.5–43.5cm; W ♀ 0.7–1.2kg, ♂ 0.8–2.7kg
Small to medium-sized skunk with variable white markings, typically 1 or 2 narrow stripes along the flanks, sometimes with a white cape. Cape and especially the tail often appear greyish or silvery due to intermixing of black hairs. Smaller than Striped Skunk, with a more slender face and snout, and a proportionally longer, luxuriant tail. Individuals increase in size from south to north. Distribution and Habitat SW USA (possibly excluding Texas) through Meso-America to NW Costa Rica. Occupies a wide variety of habitats to 3,110m, including grassland, shrubland, arid lowland, dry and deciduous forests, rocky areas and riverine habitats. Occurs in agricultural areas and close to human settlements. Feeding Ecology Feeds mainly on invertebrates grubbed from the soil and leaf litter, as well as rodents, shrews, fruits (e.g. prickly pear) and eggs. Chiefly nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary, but ranges overlap extensively, and adults congregate amicably at food patches, e.g. artificial feeding stations. Ranges in Mexico are 2.8–5km2. Density estimates typically 1.3–4/km2, although densities to 25/km2 are reported in Mexico. Reproduction and Demography Thought to be seasonal; assumed to mate February–March, and to give birth mid-April–June. Gestation approximately 60 days. Litter size 3–8 (typically 3–5). MORTALITY Annual adult mortality in Arizona 44–76%, mostly due to predation by Coyote, Bobcat and raptors. LIFESPAN 8 years in captivity. Status and Threats Secretive and inconspicuous, but probably more common than widely assumed. Can survive in human-modified habitats, and abundant in parts of its range, e.g. much of Mexico. Thought to have declined in Texas, with no recent records, but otherwise considered secure. Red List LC, population trend Increasing.
| AMERICAN HOG-NOSED SKUNK Conepatus leuconotus |
COMMON HOG-NOSED SKUNK
Includes WESTERN HOG-NOSED SKUNK C. mesoleucus
HB 34–51cm; T 12–41cm; W 2–4.5kg
Largest of the hog-nosed skunks, with a white cape rather than 2 white dorsal stripes as in other species. Tail usually completely white, occasionally with a black underside at the base. Formerly classified as 2 species, Eastern (C. leuconotus) and Western (C. mesoleucus) hog-nosed skunks, but recent molecular data indicate a single species. Distribution and Habitat SW USA, Mexico, and throughout Central America to N Nicaragua; records into N Costa Rica are equivocal. Occurs in desert scrub, rocky areas, grassland, cacti/thorn brush, marshland, woodland and various forest types to 3,000m. Apparently absent from evergreen forest and true desert. Inhabits pastures and ranchland, but is less tolerant of open agriculture and urban landscapes. Feeding Ecology Invertebrates, especially soil-living insects, grubs and larvae, comprise 50–90% of the diet. Also eats small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, carrion and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. Drinks when water is available, but appears independent of water in dry habitats. Largely nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary. Terrestrial (but capable and rapid climbers to >6m when pursued). Males have larger ranges than females, with extensive intra- and inter-sexual overlap (i.e. no evidence of territoriality). Adults often den together, including same-sex, and intersexual pairs outside the breeding period. Range estimates 0.3–1.04km2 (♀s) and 1.1–2.5km2 (♂s; ranchland, WC Texas). Density estimates 0.2–2.6/km2. Reproduction and Demography Seasonal in the USA (probably true generally). Mating February–early March; births April–May. Gestation 60–70 days. Litter size 1–5. Independence and dispersal by late August at 12–16 weeks. MORTALITY Poorly known: observed mortality is largely anthropogenic, especially roadkill. LIFESPAN 16 years in captivity. Status and Threats Despite being considered a low conservation priority, it has declined sharply in the USA, thought to be from habitat loss to agriculture, pesticide use, roadkill, indiscriminate predator control and competition with feral pigs. Status poorly known in its Meso-American range, although subject to similar threats, especially in Mexico. Red List LC, population trend Decreasing.
Plate 69
| MOLINA’S HOG-NOSED SKUNK Conepatus chinga |
ANDEAN HOG-NOSED SKUNK
Includes HUMBOLDT’S HOG-NOSED SKUNK OR PATAGONIAN SKUNK C. humboldtii
HB 20–49cm; T 13–29cm; W 0.5–3kg
A recent comprehensive analysis, including of genetic samples, found no significant differences between Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk and Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk (C. humboldtii), and grouped them as the same species. Subsequent analysis, still unpublished at the time of writing, shows those populations formerly classified as Humboldt’s (i.e. in Patagonia) are distinct, but it is still unclear whether the differences warrant species-level delineation. It is black or brownish-black furred with 2 parallel white stripes that meet on the crown and may extend to the base of the tail; some specimens lack stripes entirely. Bushy, mostly white tail is infused variably with black and brown hairs. Albinism and leucism are recorded. Fur is long and shaggy, especially in winter in temperate parts of the range, e.g. Patagonia. Humboldt’s specimens were formerly distinguished by having dark brown, rufous-brown or creamy-brown fur on the back and base of the tail, extending variably down the flanks; however, these variants occur widely throughout the range. Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk is very similar in appearance to Striped Hog-nosed Skunk and there is also some dispute over whether these comprise separate species; however, the genetic differences between them are marked, and evidence to combine them is weak. Distribution and Habitat C Peru to SE Brazil, and south to Straits of Magellan; Patagonia is the range of the former Humboldt’s Hog-nosed Skunk. Inhabits a wide variety of pampas grassland, steppe, rocky desert, bush, scrub and forested habitat, from sea-level to the Bolivian altiplano (>4,000m). Apparently avoids moist dense rainforest, and tolerates secondary forest, agricultural areas and degraded livestock pastures with cover. Feeding Ecology Omnivorous, feeding mainly on invertebrates (especially ground beetles and their larvae), rodents, and small reptiles and their eggs. Insects peak in the diet during summer, while rodents and carrion are more important in autumn–winter (especially in Patagonia). Eats fruits and vegetables, sometimes raiding vegetable gardens and refuse dumps. Scavenges from carrion, including the carcasses of hares, Guanacos and livestock. Primarily nocturno-crepuscular, but becomes more diurnal, especially in winter in the southern part of the range. Social and Spatial Behaviour Poorly known. Solitary. Male ranges are larger than female ranges. Range size averages 1km2 (♀s) to 2.6km2 (♂s; S Brazil). Density estimates 1.4/km2 (Atlantic forest grasslands) to 3.8/km2 (pampas grasslands, S Brazil). Reproduction and Demography Poorly known, but thought to resemble other hog-nosed skunks in breeding seasonally; juveniles are mostly recorded in spring in Patagonia. Gestation estimated at 42–60 days. Litter size 2–5. MORTALITY Poorly known. Sometimes killed by domestic dogs on ranches; known natural predators include Puma, Great Horned Owl, Crowned Eagle and Black-chested Buzzard-eagle. LIFESPAN 6.6 years in captivity. Status and Threats Status poorly known, but thought to be reasonably secure. Heavy fur harvests (mainly for blankets) until the early 1980s led to inclusion on CITES in 1983, banning exports from Chile and Argentina. No longer harvested commercially, but localised hunting and capture for the pet trade occurs. Has disappeared from habitat that has been severely degraded by overgrazing and soil erosion caused by livestock and feral exotic ungulates, but is able to occupy well-managed ranchland. Due to its predilection for scavenging, it is often killed in poisoning campaigns targeting Culpeo in livestock areas. Red List LC, population trend Decreasing.
| STRIPED HOG-NOSED SKUNK Conepatus semistriatus |
HB 33–50cm; T 13.5–31cm; W 1.4–3.5kg
The larger of the South American hog-nosed skunks. Two parallel white stripes of very variable length and width run alongside the spine from the crown towards the base of the tail. Distal end of the tail is white, sometimes extending the length of the tail except for black fur at the tail’s base. There is preliminary genetic evidence distinguishing the disjunct Brazilian population, possibly as a separate species, C. amazonicus; this awaits further study. Distribution and Habitat S Mexico to Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia and N Peru, absent from the Amazon Basin, with a disjunct population in E and C Brazil. There is uncertainty over the range limits in Brazil of both Conepatus species, with a possible area of sympatry where their respective ranges meet in SE Brazil; Striped Hog-nosed Skunk inhabits deciduous forest, woodland savannah, shrubland and grassland with shrubby cover; it is the Conepatus species of Brazil’s cerrado savannahs, including in key protected areas (e.g. Emas NP), replaced by Molina’s Hog-nosed Skunk in pampas. Appears absent from rainforest. Tolerates disturbed habitats, including secondary forest, plantations, and pastures and clearings at forest edges. Recorded from suitable habitat in peri-urban areas near large cities, e.g. forest patches near Bogotá. Feeding Ecology Omnivorous and thought to eat mainly invertebrates grubbed from the soil surface, supplemented with small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fruits, including introduced avocado and mulberry (Emas NP). Scavenges, including from refuse dumps near settlements or tourist camps in protected areas; skunks are apparently drawn to night lighting and attendant insects at the administrative headquarters of Emas NP. Chiefly nocturno-crepuscular. Social and Spatial Behaviour Poorly known. Solitary. Very few range estimates are available; a radio-collared female in Venezuela covered 0.18km2 in the wet season, expanding to 0.53km2 in the dry season. Ranges of 3 collared males in Brazil 0.6–2.3km2 (Emas NP). Thought to reach high densities, calculated at 6–12/km2, although figures have not been validated by modern survey techniques. Reproduction and Demography Thought to be seasonal, although few data exist. Gestation approximately 60 days. Litter size 2–5. MORTALITY Poorly known. Known natural predators include Jaguar and Puma, and there is one record of a Crane Hawk killing a juvenile. One of the most hunted bushmeat species by local people in NE Brazil. LIFESPAN 6.5 years in captivity. Status and Threats Status poorly known, but widespread, tolerant of some habitat conversion and thought to be reasonably secure. Localised declines are likely to occur from overhunting by people and by the presence of feral dogs; skunks are >50% less abundant in areas with dogs compared to areas without in Cayambe Coca NP, Ecuador. Red List LC, population trend Unknown.
Plate 70
| SOUTHERN SPOTTED SKUNK Spilogale angustifrons |
CENTRAL AMERICAN SPOTTED SKUNK
HB 20–25cm; T 10–14.5cm; W 0.24–0.54kg
Formerly classified with Eastern Spotted Skunk, but recent molecular data indicate that they are separate species, although this is still disputed by some authorities and they are virtually indistinguishable by appearance. Southern species is most easily differentiated by range as it is the only spotted skunk in Central America. Overlaps the very similar Western Spotted Skunk in N Mexico, and much smaller Pygmy Spotted Skunk on Mexico’s Pacific coast. Distribution and Habitat N Mexico to C Costa Rica. Inhabits bushland, grassland, scrub, thickets and various forest types to 2,800m. Occurs in agricultural and settled areas with cover. Feeding Ecology Diet dominated by invertebrates, with around 50% of prey made up of insects and larvae from leaf litter and the soil surface. Balance of the diet is made up of small rodents, lizards, amphibians, birds’ eggs and plant matter, including fruits and grains. Foraging is almost entirely nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Poorly known, but assumed to be similar to that of other spotted skunks. Sightings are largely of single animals. Recorded denning in groups, the composition of which is unclear but most likely comprises mothers with large young. Reproduction and Demography Poorly known. Litter size 2–9. MORTALITY and LIFESPAN Unknown. Status and Threats Widespread and relatively common in much of its range. Tolerant of some human activity and able to occupy farmland and settlements. Some populations test positively for exotic carnivore diseases, probably transmitted by domestic dogs and cats, although there is no evidence of population-level effects. Red List LC, population trend Stable.
| EASTERN SPOTTED SKUNK Spilogale putorius |
HB 23–33cm; T 7–28cm; W ♀ 0.2–0.48kg, ♂ 0.28–0.9kg
The spotted skunks are very similar in appearance, with some controversy over their classification. The Eastern species generally has less white than the Western species, with discontinuous white stripes broken into discrete blotches, and less white to the tail tip. The 2 species are separated by range except along the E Rocky Mountains through C Texas. When threatened, both employ a distinctive handstand display before spraying. Distribution and Habitat E USA to the Canadian border with Minnesota, and extreme NE Mexico. Inhabits forest, woodland, rocky habitat, brushland, vegetated dunes, and scrubby strips along canals and fences. Avoids very open habitats and wetland. Readily adapts to farmland, using outbuildings, haystacks and woodpiles for shelter. Feeding Ecology Feeds mainly on insects and rodents, the importance of which shifts seasonally; rodents become very important in winter when insect availability is low. Also eats birds, eggs, fruits, vegetables and carrion. Occasionally raids domestic poultry and grain stores. Does not hibernate, but winter activity diminishes in colder parts of its range. Almost entirely nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary, but sometimes dens in small groups during winter. Occupies loosely defined home ranges that are not defended as territories. Male home ranges are 2.5–6.4 times larger than female ranges, and expand significantly during the spring breeding season. Range estimates include 0.3–1.9km2 (♀s, all seasons), 0.2–4km2 (♂s, non-breeding seasons) and 2.2–18.2km2 (♂s, spring, breeding). Density estimates 9/km2 (farmland, Iowa) to 40/km2 (protected coastal habitat, Florida). Reproduction and Demography Seasonal. Mating March–April; births May–early June. In productive years, sometimes breeds again July–September, producing a second litter. Gestation 50–65 days, with 2 weeks of delayed implantation. Litter size 2–9, averaging 5–6. Mothers provision kits in the den with food, including 1 recent (2017) record of live prey (Northern Slimy Salamander). Females first breed at 10 months. MORTALITY Humans and domestic carnivores are the main causes of death in studied populations. Natural predators include Coyote, Red Fox, Bobcat and large owls. LIFESPAN 9.8 years in captivity. Status and Threats Despite reaching high abundances locally, the species has declined significantly in much of its range, particularly in the US Midwest, where it is very rare or possibly absent entirely. Causes are unclear, but may be due to a combination of historical fur overharvest (which has declined significantly since the 1970s) and intensification of farming, including widespread use of agro-pesticides. Red List VU, population trend Decreasing.
| WESTERN SPOTTED SKUNK Spilogale gracilis |
HB ♀ 24–37cm; T 8.5–20.3cm; W ♀ 0.27–0.57kg, ♂ 0.26–1kg
Very similar to Eastern species in appearance, behaviour and ecology. Generally has broader, more continuous white stripes, with a larger white spot between the eyes and more white to the tail tip. Distribution and Habitat W USA, N Mexico and extreme SW Canada. Inhabits a variety of broken or vegetated habitats, including forest, woodland, thickets, vegetated watercourses, rocky outcrops, dry valleys, cliffs and lava fields. Occurs on farmland and in other modified habitats in association with natural or anthropogenic cover, including buildings. Feeding Ecology Diet similar to that of Eastern Spotted Skunk. Insects and small mammals are the main prey items, supplemented with birds, small lizards, amphibians, eggs, fruits, vegetables and carrion. Does not hibernate, but is sometimes inactive and den-bound for weeks in areas with cold winters, e.g. British Columbia. Largely nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary. Less studied than Eastern species; most information comes from island populations off the California coast, where it does not defend territories and ranges are small; seasonal ranges of males (average 0.47km2) are larger than those of females (0.31km2). Density reaches 9–19/km2 on Californian islands. Reproduction and Demography Seasonal. Mating September–October; births April–May. Gestation 210–230 days, with a prolonged period of delayed implantation, in contrast to Eastern species; this difference reproductively divides Western from Eastern. Litter size 2–6, averaging 3–4. MORTALITY Known predators include domestic carnivores, Coyote, Red Fox, Bobcat and large raptors, but they can deter predation effectively; a skunk repeatedly usurped an adult female Puma from her Mule Deer kill and fed on it in California. LIFESPAN >10 years in captivity. Status and Threats Widely distributed but occurs patchily across its range, and its status is poorly known. Often killed during predator-control programmes, by fur trappers and on roads. Island Spotted Skunk subspecies (S. g. amphiala) is considered to be ‘of special concern’ in California, but it has recently undergone significant increases, possibly due to former declines in Island Foxes; now reversed), combined with habitat recovery after the removal of feral livestock. Red List LC, population trend Decreasing.
Plate 71
| PYGMY SPOTTED SKUNK Spilogale pygmaea |
PYGMY SKUNK
HB 19–21cm; T 5–8.7cm; W ♀ 0.13–0.17kg, ♂ 0.15–0.23kg
Smallest skunk. Resembles other spotted skunks, but is considerably smaller, with creamy rather than crisp white stripes. Distinct from other spotted skunks, a continuous cream-white stripe runs across the forehead and down the sides of the body, and stripes extend down the legs to the feet. Distribution and Habitat Endemic to Mexico’s Pacific coast, from Sinaloa to Oaxaca. Inhabits various coastal habitats, including dry forest, desert scrub and vegetated dunes, usually below 350m but occasionally to 1,630m. Occurs in agricultural areas with cover. Feeding Ecology Feeds mainly on invertebrates, especially insect larvae and adult beetles, ants, termites, millipedes, centipedes, spiders and scorpions. Eats vertebrates less often than other spotted skunks, but rodents (especially Spiny Pocket Mice) become important in the dry season, when insect abundance declines. Occasional food includes small lizards, birds, crustaceans, snails and vegetation, including fruits and seeds. Mainly nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Solitary. Occupies defined territories, with male ranges overlapping 1 or more smaller female ranges. Exclusive core areas are maintained and males aggressively exclude other males, especially during the breeding season. Range size (averaged for both sexes) 0.2km2. Reproduction and Demography Seasonal. Mating April–early August; births July–September. Gestation 43–51 days, possibly with a short period of delayed implantation. Litter size 1–6. MORTALITY Poorly known; Barn Owl and snakes are known predators. LIFESPAN Unknown. Status and Threats Locally abundant in some areas, but has a very restricted distribution that is under intense pressure from tourist resorts, towns and roads. Associated with such development, it is sometimes killed and stuffed as tourist souvenirs, and killed by domestic cats and dogs. Red List VU, population trend Decreasing.
| PALAWAN STINK-BADGER Mydaus marchei |
PANTOT, PHILIPPINE STINK-BADGER
HB 32–49cm; T 1.5–4.5cm; W 0.85–2.5kg
Smaller stink-badger species, with dark chocolate-brown fur and a very short, almost absent tail. White dorsal stripe rarely extends beyond the crown and shoulders, and is sometimes very faint or absent altogether. Has well-developed anal scent glands, but secretion is apparently less noxious than that of Sunda Stink-badger, described as pungent but inoffensive, smelling faintly of almonds and ants. Never the less, the secretion is defensive, and stink-badgers are left alone by domestic dogs and cats. Distribution and Habitat Endemic to 3 Philippine islands: Palawan, Busuanga and Calauit. Occurs in a wide range of lowland habitats, including primary and secondary forests, swamp forest, mangroves and shrub grassland. Tolerant of agricultural and settled areas, including rice paddies and cropland, provided cover is available. Feeding Ecology Grubs on the surface with its mobile snout, and uses its robust claws to excavate invertebrates such as worms, insects like mole crickets and beetles, and larvae. Apparently often forages near watercourses, where crabs and freshwater arthropods are eaten. Eats fallen ripened fruits, including mangoes and cheesewood fruits, possibly in part for the insects found feeding on them. Foraging is mainly nocturnal. Social and Spatial Behaviour Poorly known, but most observations are of singletons, suggesting solitary behaviour. Adults deposit regular scent marks on the soil surface while foraging, indicating that the anal glands are important for socio-spatial behaviour as well as for defence. Reproduction and Demography Poorly known. Litters thought to number 2–3, born in underground burrows. The only direct observations of wild young occur in November–March, although it is unclear whether breeding is seasonal. MORTALITY and LIFESPAN Unknown. Status and Threats Extremely restricted distribution, but within it the species is widespread and appears to be common. Tolerant of agricultural areas, although probably requires some undisturbed habitat; disappears from areas of extensive rice cultivation that lack cover. Ethnic Pala’wan hunt it in low numbers and it is vulnerable to being killed on roads; neither is considered to have population impacts. Red List LC, population trend Stable.
| SUNDA STINK-BADGER Mydaus javanensis |
MALAYAN STINK-BADGER, TELEDU, INDONESIAN STINK-BADGER
HB 37.5–51cm; T 3.4–7.5cm; W 1.4–3.6kg
Larger of 2 stink-badger species, with a longer snout and longer tail than Palawan Stink-badger. Fur is dirty black, with a dorsal white stripe that usually extends from a conspicuous crown patch to a white-tipped tail, but is reduced in some individuals. Possesses well-developed anal scent glands for defence, and can spray a pale green secretion up to 15m. Locals believe it can blind or asphyxiate dogs, and there are unconfirmed reports of people having been rendered unconscious by the secretion. Distribution and Habitat Java, Sumatra, Borneo and the Natuna Islands (Indonesia). Inhabits mainly forested habitat from sea-level to 2,100m. Also recorded in secondary forest, as well as fields and pastures adjacent to forested areas, suggesting some flexibility in habitat use. A prodigious digger, which dens in underground burrows it excavates or that are dug by other species such as Sunda Porcupine, with which it sometimes shares a burrow. Feeding Ecology Diet thought to be mainly worms and other invertebrates excavated from the soil surface, for which the large claws and elongated, probing snout are well adapted. Also recorded eating birds’ eggs, some plant matter and carrion. Captive animals eat meat and eggs. Not recorded depredating poultry, but sometimes persecuted for digging up crops and plantation seedlings while foraging. Highly nocturnal; 2,268 camera-trap images from Lower Kinabatagan WS, Sabah, are all between 18:39–06:27 (2010–15). Social and Spatial Behaviour Unknown. Reported to occur in adult pairs or trios, although this remains to be confirmed. Reproduction and Demography Unknown. Litters thought to number 2–3, and are likely reared in underground burrows. Status and Threats Status poorly known. Likely to occur in many protected areas, and found sufficiently often in human-modified habitat to suggest it is not dependent on undisturbed forest. Does not appear to be widely hunted, although some ethnic groups consume the flesh and believe its parts have medicinal value; its patchy distribution on Borneo may be due to overhunting. Red List LC, population trend Stable.
Plate 72
