abdomens: abdominal fat and health, 52; breastfeeding’s effect on size, 39; and clothing, 173–4; differences between the sexes, 17, 36; societal ideal through the ages, 147, 148–9
abdominoplasty, 186
Abercrombie and Fitch, 187
Adam, 164
African ideal female body shape, 153–4, 155
African-American ideal female body shape, 151–2
age: and body-dissatisfaction, 95–8; and eating disorders, 127; and sexual selection, 69–70, 79
Agta people, 25
amphetamine-regulated transcript, 110
Andaman Islanders, 155
anger: and body image, 101; and weight gain, 113
anorexia nervosa, 123–41; non-fat-phobic, 153; see also eating disorders
antidepressants, and eating disorders, 133
anxiety: and appetite, 113; and eating disorders, 129
areolae, 79
arms, 12, 14, 16–17, 35, 40, 174
aroma see smell
art, and sexual selection, 67
Artemis statue, Ephesus, 147
arthritis, 54
Asian ideal female body shape, 153
atherosclerosis, 54
attractiveness: children’s attitude to, 85, 95; and goodness, 102–3, 121–2, 196; and health, 65–6, 197–8; and social status, 195–200; see also sexual attraction and selection
autism, and eating disorders, 129
Baghavad-Gita, 61
Bailey, David, 167
ballet dancers, 120
Bantu people, 155
Bardot, Brigitte, 82
beer, 34
bellies see abdomens
Bible, 104
black ideal female body shape, 151–2
blood pressure, 53
body-dissatisfaction, 95–8, 120
Body Dysmorphic Disorder, 124
body image, 84–103; avoiding, 100; checking, 99; coping with, 99; and eating disorders, 130–2; ethnosocial variations, 151–6; fixing, 99; and the media, 153, 156–63; and social status, 199–200
body mass index: calculating, 8, 46–7; and health, 52; and sexual selection, 73–4, 80
body shape, female: ability to be changed, 201–2; body-model concept, 92; changes throughout life, 27–41; differences from male, 13–28, 31–44; and eating disorders, 134–6; escaping the obsession, 205–7; and evolution, 9–26, 42–4; female disregard for male preferences, 3, 82–3; female obsession with, 2–3, 85–6, 189–205; female perception of, 84–103; female preferences, 80–1; and health, 201; and inheritance, 42; male preferences, 61–83, 152, 156, 175–6, 183, 202–3; and social status, 199–201; societal ideal and the media, 153, 156–63; societal ideal and its pressures, 146, 156–63; societal ideal in different ethnosocial groups, 155–6; societal ideal in flux, 203–5; societal ideal through the ages, 146–51; symmetry, 71; teasing about, 134; uniqueness of human, 2, 5; variations in female, 41–4, 65, 81–2; ways of altering and enhancing, 164–88
body-tending activities, 99–100
boredom, and appetite, 113
bottoms see buttocks
brain: brain regions which identify bodies, 88–93; brain size and body shape, 15, 18–21; brain size’s relation to mother’s size, 14; cardiovascular disease, 53–4, 175; development pre- and post-birth, 18–19; dieting and mood, 119; eating and mood, 108–15; and eating disorders, 129–33, 141; energy consumption, 37; evolution, 18; exercise and mood, 120; and female fat stores, 23; and fertility, 49–50; relationship to the body, 86–93, 99–103; and sexual selection, 68–9; size dimorphism, 16; and walking upright, 12; and wearing high-heeled shoes, 177
breastfeeding see lactation and breastfeeding
breasts: breast size and health, 54–7; cancer, 54, 55–7; and clothing, 170–2; cosmetic surgery, 185–6; development, 33; and fat deposition, 21, 22; female dissatisfaction with own, 97; lactation’s effect on, 39; large breasts and promiscuity, 158; post-menopause, 40; reason for size of human breasts, 77–80; and sexual selection, 76–81; societal ideal through the ages, 147, 149, 150; waist–bust ratio, 76–7, 80–1
bulimia, 123–41; see also eating disorders
Burkina Faso, 154
Burma, 173
buttocks: and breastfeeding, 23, 39; and clothing, 170–3; cosmetic surgery, 186; development, 33; and fat deposition, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35; and pregnancy, 39; prominence, 12–13; and sexual selection, 63–4; societal ideal through the ages, 147, 148–9; steatopygia, 155
cardiovascular disease, 53–4, 175
carrying angle see elbow angulation
cellulite, 36
chests, 17
childbirth: and being overweight, 48; and female size, 14; and pelvis size, 18–21; and the seasons, 22; see also pregnancy
childcare: feeding babies, 23, 37–9; and female athletic abilities, 25–6; and female fat deposition, 22; and the hips, 20–1
children: and body image, 95–6; and clothes, 169; differences between the sexes, 31–4; eating habits, 112–13; and embodiment, 85–6; overweight children and eating disorders, 134; reactions to fatness, 85, 95–7
chimpanzees: birth, 19; faces, 16; female competition among, 191; sexual selection, 69; skeleton shape, 13; weight dimorphism, 14
China, 187
chins, 72
cinema, and ideal female body shape, 157–8
class see social status
cleavage, 171
clitorises, 37
clothing, 164–82; to alter appearance, 168–82; colour, 178–81; as concealment, 166–7; and gender-specificity, 168, 178–9; and menstrual cycle, 180, 198; origins, 166; as protection, 167–8; and sexual arousal, 167, 168; stripes, 181–2
cocaine, and dieting, 118
cocaine-regulated transcript, 110
colour: of clothing, 178–81; mammals’ discernment of, 179
colour blindness, 86
competition, 190–8, 203–6; historical form, 206
contraception, and body image, 101
cortisol, 113
cosmetics see makeup
Cotard’s syndrome, 93
Croft, Lara, 161
Cycladic civilisation and figures, 148, 148
Darwin, Charles, 63
dementia, 54
depersonalisation disorder, 93
depilation, 184
depression: and chocolate, 115; and dieting, 116, 118, 119
Descartes, René, 84
diet see food and eating
disruptive selection, 43
dogs, 120
dolls, and ideal female body shape, 145–6, 160–1
dominance: historical form, 206; importance to women, 190–8; uncertain nature of criteria for women, 203–5
dopamine, 133
eating see food and eating
eating disorders, 123–41; among African-Americans, 151; and brain function, 129–33, 141; definition, 123–6; and evolution, 136–40; and exercise, 120; among Hispanics, 152–3; historical incidences, 136; male, 126–7, 136; the media’s influence, 160; partial, 126; resistance to treatment, 140–1; and social status, 199; sociocultural explanations, 133–6; websites, 161
emotions: and eating disorders, 132–3; see also mood
endocannabinoids, 110, 115, 120
endogenous opioids, 110
energy availability, and fertility, 49–50
enteroception, 91
evolution: and body shape, 9–26, 42–4; disruptive selection, 43; and eating disorders, 136–40; by natural selection, 63; by sexual selection, 63–83
exercise: differences between the sexes, 36; effects on women, 119–21; exercise dependence, 126; and fertility, 46, 48; among Sudanese women, 153; see also athletic abilities
eyebrows, 72
faces: decrease in variation, 201; development of facial recognition abilities, 85; differences between the sexes, 15–16; and sexual selection, 69, 70–3
families see children; parents; siblings
fashion, 169
fat: abdominal, 52–3; changes in body stores throughout life, 31–41; different types in female body, 30–1; and fertility, 45–51; function, 21–2; and health, 52–7; and division of labour, 24–6; liposuction, 186; measuring gluteofemoral, 48–9; and reproduction, 22–4; science behind function, 29–30; and sexual selection, 73–6; and variations in female body shape, 44
fat-talk, 96
femininity, and sexual selection, 65–6, 67, 72–3
Feral Cheryl, 145
fertility: and body shape, 45–51; clothing as guide to, 180–1; and competition, 191; and eating disorders, 139–40; and leg length, 175; and menstrual cycle, 180; and sexual selection, 65–6
figure skating, 120
Florence, Brancacci Chapel, 164
food and eating: comfort foods, 110–11; cravings, 113, 114–15; diet and fertility, 49; dieting, 105, 116–19, 134; food availability and ideal female body shape, 155; food’s relationship with mood, 108–15; guilt about, 111–12; instinctive urge to eat, 105; male and female eating habits, 108; see also eating disorders
fractures, 17
gall bladder, 54
genetics see inheritance and genetics
gorillas, faces, 16
gossip, 194
hair: blonde, 183; depilation, 184; pubic and armpit, 36–7, 166, 184; and sexual selection, 70
happiness, and appetite, 113
Harry, Debbie, 82
health: and attractiveness, 65–6, 197–8; and body shape, 201; and body symmetry, 71; and dieting, 118; and intelligence, 67; and leg length, 175; and skin tone, 73; and weight, 51–7
height, 36
Helmholz illusion, 182
heroin chic, 150
hips, 12, 15, 20–1; waist–hip ratio, 49, 51, 74–6, 80–1, 154
Hispanic ideal female body shape, 152–3
Hitchcock, Alfred, 150
homosexuality: role of female body in same-sex relationships, 4; and sexual selection, 69–70
hormone replacement therapy, 35
hormones: and appetite, 109–10, 113, 115; and eating disorders, 125; and fat deposition, 30, 31, 34–6; and fertility, 49–50; and other pubertal changes, 36–7; and sex differentiation, 29; and sexual selection, 68–9, 72–3
hosiery, 174
humour, and sexual selection, 67
hunger, 109
hyperphagia, 118
hypothalamus, 49–50, 68–9, 131
inheritance and genetics: and appetite, 109; and body image, 94–5; and body shape, 43; and breast cancer, 56; and competition, 191; and eating disorders, 128; and sexual selection, 66, 68
intelligence: and body symmetry, 71, 80; body’s role in, 86–7; and breastfeeding, 23, 39; and dieting, 119; and sexual selection, 62, 66–7, 62, 66–7
internet: and body image, 90; and ideal body shape, 158, 160, 161
Irving, John, 9
Jeffries, Mike, 187
Jung, Carl, 123
Kayan people, 173
Kennedy, Jacqueline, 150
Khoisan people, 155
kidneys, 54
lactation and breastfeeding: and breast size, 77–8; calories needed for, 38–9; and cancer, 56; and fat deposition, 22; and female athletic abilities, 25–6; and infant intelligence, 23, 39; strategies for meeting the demands, 44
Lagerfeld, Karl, 90
Lemburg Castle, 171
Lewis, Matthew Gregory, 27
life expectancy, 20
liposuction, 186
lungs, 24
magazines, and ideal body shape, 158, 159, 160, 161–2, 162–3
makeover programmes, 162
Manet, Edouard, 149
marriage, and weight, 114
Mary, Virgin, 149
Masaccio, 164
Mauritania, 152
media, and ideal female body shape, 153, 156–63
men: attitude to makeup, 182; clothing, 168, 172–3, 178–9; and female body concealment, 167; and oestrogens, 35; preferences for female body shape and appearance, 61–83, 152, 156, 175–6, 183, 202–3; societal ideal for body shape, 146; see also sex differences
menopause, and after, 40
menstrual cycle: and appetite, 114–15; and clothing, 180, 198; and fertility, 180
mental health, 71, 77; see also anxiety; depression
Middle Eastern ideal female body shape, 153
mind, relationship to the body, 86–93, 99–103
mirrors, and body image, 89–90, 100
Monroe, Marilyn, 82, 150, 176, 183
mood: and dieting, 119; and eating, 108–15; and exercise, 120, 121; see also emotions
Moore, Demi, 174
music, and sexual selection, 67
muzzles, 15
Navratilova, Martina, 32
necks, and clothing, 173
nerves, sympathetic, 30, 35, 36
noradrenaline, 30
noses, 72
nudity see nakedness
obesity see weight
oesophagus, 125
oestrogens: and appetite, 115; and body shape, 35–6, 37; and breast symmetry, 80; and facial features, 183; and the menopause, 40; science of, 33–4
osteoporosis, 54
Pacific islanders, 155
Paltrow, Gwyneth, 82
parents: and competition, 191, 192; and eating disorders, 134; other-sex parents as models of desirability, 66, 72; and their children’s body image, 96–7
peacocks, 64
personality: and body image, 94; depersonalisation disorder, 93; and eating disorders, 128–9; and reaction to carbohydrate, 111; and sexual selection, 67
Philippines, 25
photography: female tricks for appearing smaller, 107; and self-perception, 89–90
piercings, 185
plastic surgery see cosmetic surgery
Playboy magazine, 82, 150–1, 155–6, 159
prefrontal cortex, 130–1, 132–3
pregnancy: and being overweight, 48; clothing, 174; and eating disorders, 127; and fat deposition, 22; and female abdomens, 17; and female athletic abilities, 25–6; fetal sex development, 28–9; preferred intercourse positions during, 76; shape of bulge, 76; stance in late pregnancy, 20; weight gain during, 37–8; see also childbirth
pregorexia, 127
primates, and female competition, 191; see also chimpanzees
proprioception, 91
puberty: and body image, 96; and differences between the sexes, 31–7; and eating disorders, 127, 135, 139; onset triggers, 45–8, 50
pubic hair see hair, pubic and armpit
pubic mounds, 35
rats, 138
reproduction see childbirth; fertility; lactation and breastfeeding; pregnancy
ribcages, 17
right- and left-handedness, 17, 92, 131
Rihanna, 153
Rirgendanwa, Carine, 154
romantic relationships: and appetite, 113–14; and body image, 100–1; and social status, 192; and victims of aggression, 194
sadness, and appetite, 113
schizophrenia, 177
self-awareness, and the body, 84–103
self-esteem, and body image, 101–2
serotonin, 111, 113, 115, 128, 133
sex differences: aggression, 193; athletic abilities, 24; body-dissatisfaction, 2, 97; body shape, 13–28, 31–44; colour blindness, 86; competition and social status, 190–3, 203–5; diabetes, 52–3; eating disorders, 126–7, 136; eating habits and preferences, 108, 110, 118; exercise, 36; fat metabolism, 22–3, 52; maturation age, 32–3; perceiving body shape change, 88–9; sense of smell, 86; size, 13–15; talking, 193; vertical growth, 36
sexual abuse, and eating disorders, 134
sexual attraction and selection: acceptability of criteria, 202, 207; and body image, 100–1; and body shape, 61–83, 175–6; and clothing, 179–80; and competition, 190–1; and exercise, 120; and skin, 182–3
sexual intercourse: preferred positions in pregnancy, 76; sex-life and body image, 100
sexual jealousy, 184
Shakespeare, William, 189
shrews, 21
siblings: identifying by smell, 68; and origins of eating disorders, 139–40
Simpson, Wallis, vii
smell: and self-perception, 91; sexual differentiation in sense of, 86; and sexual selection, 68–9
smiles, 67
smoking, and dieting, 118
social roles see labour division
social status: and attractiveness, 195–201; and body shape, 154, 199–201; and clothing, 168–9; hierarchy formation, 191–2; importance to women, 190–8, 203–6; male, 204–5; and stress, 191
Some Like It Hot (film), 176
spines see backs and spines
sporting abilities see athletic abilities
steatopygia, 155
steroids, 34, 36–7; see also oestrogens; testosterone
stomach, 125
strength, 17
stress: and eating, 111, 113; and social status, 191
Sudanese ideal female body shape, 153
surgery see cosmetic surgery
swimming, 120
symmetry, and sexual selection, 70–1, 80
tanning see suntans
television, and ideal female body shape, 153, 157–8, 160, 162
testicles, 29
thighs: brain’s perception of, 88; and breastfeeding, 23, 39; and fat deposition, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35; liposuction, 186; male–female differences, 15; and pregnancy, 39; societal ideal through the ages, 147, 148–9; steatopygia, 155
thoraxes, 17
tickling, 90
Tolstoy, Leo, 84
Tomb Raider, 156
torsos, 17
tummy tucks, 186
Twiggy, 150
uniforms, 168
uteruses, 39
vision, and body image, 87–8, 98
vital statistics, average, 150, 151
Voltaire, 45
waists, 13, 14–15, 40, 181; waist–bust ratio, 76–7, 80–1; waist–hip ratio, 49, 51, 74–6, 80–1, 154
waitresses, 103
walking and gait, 176, 177; bipedalism, 11–12
Webb, Wilfred Mark, 164
weddings: wedding dresses as symbols, 168; and weight, 114
weight: and body image, 102; children’s reactions to fatness, 85, 95–7; cult of thinness, 104–22, 134–6, 141, 187; and health, 51–7; and hormones, 30; and leg length, 175; methods of losing, 105, 116–21; and sexual relationships, 100–1; and social status, 199–200; weight gain in pregnancy, 37–8; weight loss before and after forty, 40–1; see also body mass index
youth see age