chapter 1. why mars matters
1. A. P. Nutman, V. C. Bennett, C.R.L. Friend, M. J. Van Kranendonk, and A. R. Chivas, 2016, Nature; 537, 535.
2. NASA press release, 2017, “NASA Affirms Plan for First Mission of SLS, Orion,” May 12; https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-affirms-plan-for-first-mission-of-sls-orion
3. Christian Davenport, 2017, “An Exclusive Look at Jeff Bezos’s Plan to Set Up Amazon-Like Delivery for ‘Future Human Settlement’ of the Moon,” Washington Post, March 2.
4. https://www.mars-one.com/about-mars-one
5. Adam Taylor, 2017, “The UAE’s Ambitious Plan to Build a New City—on Mars,” Washington Post, February 16.
6. Ishaan Tharoor, 2014, “U.A.E. Plans Arab World’s First Mission to Mars, Washington Post, July 16.
chapter 2. martians?
1. http://www.sacred-texts.com/ufo/mars/wow.htm
2. Richard M. Ketchum, 1989, The Borrowed Years 1938–1941: America on the Way to War (New York: Random House), pp. 89–90.
3. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/welles-scares-nation
4. A. Brad Schwartz, 2015, Broadcast Hysteria: Orson Welles’s “War of the Worlds” and the Art of Fake News (New York: Hill and Wang), p. 8.
5. Schwartz, Broadcast Hysteria, p. 223.
6. D. A. Weintraub, 2014, Religions and Extraterrestrial Life: How Will We Deal With It? (New York: Springer-Praxis Publishing).
7. Epicurus, Letter to Herodotus. Retrieved from http://www.epicurus.net/en/herodutus.html
8. S. J. Dick, 1982, Plurality of Worlds: The Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (New York: Cambridge University Press), p. 19.
9. M. Maimonides, 1986, Guide for the Perplexed, as quoted in Norman Lamm, Faith and Doubt: Studies in Traditional Jewish Thought, 2nd ed. (New York: KTAV Publishing House), p. 98.
10. N. Cusanus, 1954, Of Learned Ignorance, G. Heron, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press), pp. 114–115.
11. G. Bruno, On the Infinite Universe and Worlds, 1584. Retrieved from http://www.faculty.umb.edu/gary_zabel/Courses/ParallelUniverses/Texts/OntheInfiniteUniverseandWorlds.htm
12. Ingrid D. Rowland, 2008, Giordano Bruno: Philosopher/Heretic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
13. David A. Weintraub, 2014, Religions and Extraterrestrial Life (New York: Springer), pp. 23–24.
14. Louis Agassiz, in “Tribune Popular Science,” 1874, ed. James Thomas Fields; John Greenleaf Whittier (Boston: H. L. Shepard & Co.).
15. James Jeans, 1942, “Is There Life on the Other Worlds?” Science, 95, 589.
16. Carl Sagan, 1963, “On the Atmosphere and Clouds of Venus,” La Physique des Planètes: Communications Présentées au Onzieme Colloque International d’Astrophysique tenu a Liège, pp. 328–330.
17. The Pioneer Venus results were later confirmed by the IUE telescope: Jean-Loup Bertaux and John T. Clarke, 1989, “Deuterium Content of the Venus Atmosphere,” Nature, 338, 567.
18. In Michael J. Crowe, 1986, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
19. G. Mitri et al., 2014, “Shape, Topography, Gravity Anomalies and Tidal Deformation of Titan,” Icarus, 236, 169.
20. NASA press release 15-188, 2015 (September 15), “Cassini Finds Global Ocean in Saturn’s Moon Enceladus.”
21. D. A. Weintraub, 2007, Is Pluto a Planet? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).
22. D. Rittenhouse (1775, February 24). An oration delivered February 24, 1775, before the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia: John Dunlap), pp. 19–20.
23. Thomas Paine, 1880, The Age of Reason (London: Freethought Publishing Company), p. 38.
24. Michael J. Crowe, 1986, The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750–1900 (Mineola, NY: Dover).
25. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/whewell/
chapter 3. mars and earth as twins
1. Camille Flammarion, 1892, La Planète Mars, in translation as Camille Flammarion’s The Planet Mars, William Sheehan, ed., Patrick Moore, trans. (London: Springer, 2015), pp. 6–9.
2. Ibid., pp. 11–12.
3. Ibid., p. 14.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., pp. 15–17.
6. Ibid., pp. 30–31.
7. Ibid., pp. 34–38.
8. William Herschel, Herschel’s Second Memoir, 1784, reproduced in Camille Flammarion’s The Planet Mars, pp. 48–53.
9. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, pp. 54–74.
chapter 4. imaginary mars
1. Beer and Mädler, quoted in Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 92.
2. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 124.
3. W. R. Dawes, 1865, “On the Planet Mars,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 25, 225–268.
4. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 160.
5. Ibid., p. 114.
6. W. Noble, 1888, “Richard A. Proctor,” The Observatory, 11, pp. 366–368.
7. Hugh H. Kieffer, Bruce M. Jakosky, and Conway W. Snyder, 1992, “The Planet Mars: From Antiquity to the Present,” in Mars, ed. H. H. Kiefer et al. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), p. 28.
chapter 5. misty mars
1. William Huggins, 1867, “On the Spectrum of Mars, with some Remarks on the Colour of that Planet,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 27, 178.
2. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 158.
3. Jules Janssen, 1867, Comptes rendus, V. LXIV, p. 1304.
4. https://www.ucolick.org/main/
5. W. W. Campbell, 1894, “The Spectrum of Mars,” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 6, 228.
6. William Huggins, 1895, “Notes on the Atmospheric Bands in the Spectrum of Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 1, 193.
7. William Graves Hoyt, 1980, “Vesto Melvin Slipher 1875–1969, A Biographical Memoir” (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences).
8. V. M. Slipher, 1908, “The Spectrum of Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 28, 397.
9. W. W. Campbell, 1901, “Water Vapor in the Atmosphere of the Planet Mars,” Science, 30, 771, 474.
10. W. W. Campbell and Sebastian Albrecht, “On the Spectrum of Mars as Photographed with High Dispersion,” 1910, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 22, 87.
11. C. C. Kiess, C. H. Corliss, Harriet K. Kiess, and Edith L. R. Corliss, 1957, “High-Dispersion Spectra of Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 126, 579.
12. Carl Sagan, 1961, “The Abundance of Water Vapor on Mars,” Astronomical Journal, 66, 52.
13. Lewis D. Kaplan, Guido Münch, and Hyron Spinrad, 1964, “An Analysis of the Spectrum of Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 139, 1.
14. Staff reporter, 1963, “Lower Life Forms May Be Able to Live in Mars Atmosphere, Balloon Findings Show,” Wall Street Journal, March 5, p. 11.
15. R. E. Danielson et al., 1964, “Mars Observations from Stratoscope II,” Astronomical Journal, 69, 344.
16. Ronald A. Schorn, 1971, “The Spectroscopic Search for Water on Mars: A History,” in Planetary Atmospheres, ed. Carl Sagan et al., IAUS, 40, 223–236.
17. Hugh H. Kieffer, Bruce M. Jakosky, and Conway W. Snyder, 1992, “The Planet Mars: From Antiquity to the Present,” in Mars, ed. H. H. Kiefer et al. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), p. 11.
chapter 6. red vegetation and reasoning beings
1. “Life in Mars,” 1871, Cornhill (May), 23, 137, 576–585.
2. Ibid., p. 581.
3. “The Planet Mars—Is It Inhabited?” 1873, London Reader (December 1), pp. 69–70.
4. Ibid., p. 70.
5. “The Planet Mars: An Essay by a Whewellite,” 1873, Cornhill (July), pp. 88–100.
6. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 184.
7. Ibid., p. 186.
8. Camille Flammarion, 1879, “Another World Inhabited Like Our Own,” Scientific American Supplement, 175, p. 2787 (May 10).
chapter 7. water on mars: the real deal
1. Wilson, S. A. et al., 2016, “A Cold-Wet Middle-Latitude Environment on Mars During the Hesperian-Amazonian Transition: Evidence from Northern Arabia Valleys and Paleolakes,” Journal of Geophysical Research Planets, 121, 1667.
2. David E. Smith, Maria T. Zuber, and Gregory A. Neumann, 2001, “Seasonal Variations of Snow Depth on Mars,” Science, 294, 2142.
3. Maria T. Zuber et al., 1998, “Observations of the North Polar Region of Mars from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter,” Science, 282, 2053.
4. Jeffrey J. Plaut et al., 2008, “Subsurface Radar Sounding of the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars,” Science, 316, 92.
5. Jeremie Lasue et al., 2013, “Quantitative Assessments of the Martian Hydrosphere,” Space Science Reviews, 174, 155.
6. G. L. Villanueva et al., 2015, “Strong Water Isotopic Anomalies in the Martin Atmosphere: Probing Current and Ancient Reservoirs,” Science, 348, 6231, 218.
7. Jeremie Lasue et al., 2013, “Quantitative Assessments of the Martian Hydrosphere,” Space Science Reviews, 174, 155.
8. “Glacial Lake Missoula and the Ice Age Floods,” Montana Natural History Center, www.glaciallakemissoula.org
9. C. M. Stuurman et al., 2016, “SHARAD detection and characterization of subsurface water ice deposits in Utopia Planitia, Mars.” Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 9484.
10. NASA press release, 2015, “NASA Mission Reveals Rate of Solar Wind Stripping Martian Atmosphere,” November 5.
11. NASA press release, 2016, “NASA’s MAVEN Mission Observes Ups and Downs of Water Escape from Mars,” October 19, https://mars.nasa.gov/news/2016/nasas-maven-mission-observes-ups-and-downs-of-water-escape-from-mars
12. B. M. Jakosky, 2017, “Mars’ atmospheric history derived from upper-atmosphere measurements of 38Ar/36Ar,” Science, 355, 1408.
13. NASA press release, 2002, “Found It! Ice on Mars,” May 28. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/28may_marsice
14. W. C. Feldman et al., 2004, “Global Distribution of Near-Surface Hydrogen on Mars,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, E09006.
15. Roger J. Phillips et al., 2011, “Massive CO2 Ice Deposits Sequestered in the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars,” Science, 332, 838; C. J. Bierson et al., 2016, “Stratigraphy and Evolution of the Buried CO2 Deposit in the Martian South Polar Cap,” Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 4172.
16. P. R. Christensen et al., 2000, “Detection of Crystalline Hematite Mineralization on Mars by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer: Evidence for Near-Surface Water,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, 9623.
chapter 8. canal builders
1. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 251.
2. Ibid., pp. 300–301.
3. Ibid., p. 310.
4. The Astronomical Register: A Medium of Communication for Amateur Observers, 236, August 1882, “The Late C. E. Burton,” p. 173.
5. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, pp. 333–334.
6. F. Terby, 1892, “Physical Observations of Mars,” Astronomy and Astro-Physics (trans. Roger Sprague), 11, pp. 555–558.
7. E. P. Martz, Jr., 1938, “Professor William Henry Pickering 1858–1938 An Appreciation,” Popular Astronomy, 46, p. 299 (June–July).
8. William H. Pickering, 1890, “Visual Observation of the Surface of Mars,” Sidereal Messenger, 9, pp. 369–370.
9. William H. Pickering, 1892, “Mars,” Astronomy and Astro-Physics,” 11, 849.
10. Giovanni Schiaparelli, “The Planet Mars,” p. 719, quoted in William Sheehan and Stephen James O’Meara, 2001, Mars: The Lure of the Red Planet (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books), p. 122.
11. Flammarion, La Planète Mars, p. 512.
12. William Graves Hoyt, 1976, Lowell and Mars (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), pp. 57–58.
13. Ibid., p. 64.
14. Leo Brenner, 1896, “The Canals of Mars Observed at Manora Observatory,” Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 7, pp. 71–72.
15. Thomas A. Dobbins and William Sheehan, 2007, “Leo Brenner,” in Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, ed. Virginia Trimble et al. (New York: Springer-Verlag), p. 169.
16. C. A. Young, 1896, “Is Mars Inhabited?” Boston Herald, October 18 (reprinted in Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 8, 306, December 1896).
17. Hoyt, Lowell and Mars, p. 109.
18. Ibid., p. 124.
19. Ibid., pp. 129–131.
20. Ibid., p. 155.
21. Ibid., p. 163.
22. “Mars,” 1907, Wall Street Journal (December 28), p. 1.
23. Percival Lowell, 1907, “Mars in 1907,” Nature, 76, 446.
24. Hoyt, Lowell and Mars, p. 141.
25. P. Lowell, 1907, “On a General Method for Evaluating the Surface-Temperature of the Planets; with a Special Reference to the Temperature of Mars,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 14, 79, 161.
26. J. H. Poynting, 1907, “On Professor Lowell’s Method for Evaluating the Surface Temperatures of the Planets; with an Attempt to Represent the Effect of Day and Night on the Temperature of the Earth,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 14, 84, 749.
27. Arvydas Kliore, Dan L. Cain, Gerald S. Levy, Von R. Eshleman, Gunnar Fjeldbo, and Frank Drake, 1965, “Occultation Experiment: Results of the First Direct Measurement of Mars’s Atmosphere and Ionosphere,” Science, 149, 1243.
28. Hoyt, Lowell and Mars, p. 81.
29. David Strauss, 2001, Percival Lowell: The Culture and Science of a Boston Brahmin (Boston: Harvard University Press), p. 230.
30. E. E. Barnard, 1896, “Physical Features of Mars, as Seen with the 36-Inch Refractor of the Lick Observatory, 1894,” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 56, 166.
31. Percival Lowell, 1906, “First Photographs of the Canals of Mars,” in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 77, 132.
32. Percival Lowell, 1906, Mars and Its Canals (New York: MacMillan), p. 277.
33. Hoyt, Lowell and Mars, p. 182.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., p. 198.
36. Strauss, Percival Lowell, pp. 230–232.
37. Simon Newcomb, 1897, “The Problems of Astronomy,” Science, 5, 125, 777.
38. Simon Newcomb, 1907, “The Optical and Psychological Principles Involved in the Interpretation of the So-Called Canals of Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 26, 1, 1–17.
39. E. M. Antoniadi, 1898, “Chart of Mars in 1896–1897, Considerations on the Physical Condition of Mars, Indistinct Vision and Gemination,” Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, 6, pp. 99–102.
40. William Sheehan, 1996, The Planet Mars (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), pp. 135–137.
41. E. M. Antoniadi, 1903, “Report of the Mars Section,” Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, 11, pp. 137–142.
42. E. M. Antoniadi, 1901, “Chart of Mars in 1897–1897, “Chart of Mars in 1898–1899: Conclusion,” Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, 9, pp. 103–106.
43. Sheehan, 1996, Planet Mars, p. 140.
44. E. M. Antoniadi, 1910, “Sixth Interim Report for 1909, Dealing with Some Further Notes on the So-Called ‘Canals,’” Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 20, 189.
45. E. M. Antoniadi, 1910, “Considerations of the Physical Appearance of the Planet Mars,” Popular Astronomy, 21, 416.
46. Robert Trumpler, 1924, “Visual and Photographic Observations of Mars,” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 36, 263.
chapter 9. chlorophyll, lichens, and algae
1. Danielle Briot, 2013, “The Creator of Astrobotany, Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov,” in Astrobiology, History, and Society, ed. Douglas A. Vakoch (Heidelberg: Springer), pp. 175–185.
2. W. W. Coblentz, 1925, “Measurements of the Temperature of Mars,” Scientific Monthly, 21, 4, pp. 400–404.
3. V. M. Slipher, 1924, “II. Spectrum Observations of Mars,” Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 36, 261.
4. Robert J. Trumpler, 1927, “Mars’ Canals Not Man-Made,” Science News-Letter, 12, 99.
5. James Stokely, 1926, “Vegetation on Mars?,” Science News-Letter, 10, 288, 37.
6. Peter M. Millman, 1939, “Is There Vegetation on Mars?” The Sky, 3, 10.
7. Life magazine, 1948 (June 28), “Mars in Color,” p. 65.
8. Time, 1948, “The Far-Away Lichens” (March 1).
9. O. B. Lloyd, 1948, “Astronomers Find Evidence of Life of Primitive Form in Study of Mars,” Toledo Blade (February 18).
10. S. Byrne and A. Ingersoll, 2003, “A Sublimation Model for Martian South Polar Ice Features,” Science, 299, 1051.
11. Gerard P. Kuiper, 1951, “Planetary Atmospheres and Their Origin,” in The Atmospheres of the Earth and Planets (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
12. Gerard P. Kuiper, 1955, “On the Martian Surface Features,” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 67, 271.
13. Gerard P. Kuiper, 1957, “Visual Observations of Mars, 1956,” Astrophysical Journal, 125, 307.
14. William M. Sinton, 1958, “Spectroscopic Evidence of Vegetation on Mars,” Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 70, 50.
15. William M. Sinton, 1957, “Spectroscopic Evidence for Vegetation on Mars,” Astrophysical Journal, 126, 231.
16. William M. Sinton, 1959, “Further Evidence of Vegetation on Mars,” Science, 130, 1234.
17. N. B. Colthup and William M. Sinton, 1961, “Identification of Aldehyde in Mars Vegetation Regions,” Science, 134, 529.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. D. G. Rea, 1962, “Molecular Spectroscopy of Planetary Atmospheres,” Space Science Review, 1, 159.
21. Rea, Belsky, and Calvin, “Interpretation of the 3- to 4-Micron Infrared Spectrum.”
22. James S. Shirk, William A. Haseltine, and George C. Pimentel, 1965, “Sinton Bands: Evidence for Deuterated Water on Mars,” Science, 147, 48.
23. D. G. Rea, B. T. O’Leary, and W. M. Sinton, 1965, “Mars: The Origin of the 3.58- and 3.69-Micron Minima in the Infrared Spectra,” Science, 147, 1286.
24. Ernst J. Öpik, 1966, “The Martian Surface,” Science, 153, 255.
25. James B. Pollack and Carl Sagan, 1967, “Secular Changes and Dark-Area Regeneration on Mars,” Icarus, 6, 434.
26. Carl Sagan and James B. Pollack, 1969, “Windblown Dust on Mars,” Nature, 223, 791.
chapter 10. vikings on the plains of chryse and utopia
1. Tobias Owen et al., 1977, “The Composition of the Atmosphere at the Surface of Mars,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 82, 4635.
2. Paul R. Mahaffey et al., 2013, “Abundance and Isotopic Composition of Gases in the Martian Atmosphere from the Curiosity Rover,” Science, 341, 263.
3. Heather B. Franz et al., 2017, “Initial SAM Calibration Experiments on Mars: Quadrapole Mass Spectrometer Results and Implications,” Planetary and Space Science, 138, 44.
4. Henry S. F. Cooper, Jr., 1980, The Search for Life on Mars: Evolution of an Idea (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston), p. 68.
5. Ibid., pp. 130–132.
6. John Noble Wilford, 1976, “Viking Finds Mars Oxygen is Unexpectedly Abundant,” New York Times (August 1).
7. Victor K. McElheny, 1976, “Tests by Viking Strengthen Hint of Life on Mars,” New York Times (August 8).
8. Victor K. McElheny, 1976, “Mars Life Theory Receives Set Back,” New York Times (August 11).
9. Victor K. McElheny, 1976, “Tests Continuing for Life on Mars,” New York Times (August 21).
10. Harold P. Klein et al., 1992, “The Search for Extant Life on Mars,” in Mars, ed. Hugh H. Kieffer et al. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press), p. 1221.
11. Klein et al., “Search for Extant Life on Mars,” p. 1230.
12. Cooper, Search for Life on Mars, p. 133.
13. Klein et al., “Search for Extant Life on Mars,” p. 1227.
14. Ibid., p. 1230.
15. Gilbert V. Levin, 2015, http://www.gillevin.com/mars.htm
16. G. V. Levin and P. A. Straat, 1979, “Viking Labeled Release Biology Experiment: Interim Results,” Science, 194, 1322.
17. G. V. Levin and P. A. Straat, 1988, “A Reappraisal of Life on Mars,” in The NASA Mars Conference, Science and Technology Series 71 (ed. Duke B. Reiber), pp. 186–210.
18. R. Navarro-Gonzalez et al., 2010, “Reanalysis of the Viking Results Suggests Perchlorate and Organics at Midlatitudes on Mars,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, E12010.
19. M. H. Hecht et al., 2009, “Detection of Perchlorate and the Soluble Chemistry of Martian Soil at the Phoenix Lander Site,” Science, 325, 64.
20. Mike Wall, 2011 (January 6), “Life’s Building Blocks May Have Been Found on Mars, Research Finds,” http://www.space.com/10418-life-building-blocks-mars-research-finds.html
chapter 11. hot potato
1. Kathy Sawyer, 2006, The Rock from Mars: A Detective Story on Two Planets (New York: Random House).
2. I. Weber et al., 2015, Meteoritics & Planetary Science, doi: 10.1111/maps.12586.
3. David W. Mittlefehldt, 1994, “ALH 84001, a Cumulate Orthopyroxenite Member of the Martian Meteorite Clan,” Meteoritics, 29, 214.
4. R. N. Clayton, 1993, “Oxygen Isotope Analysis,” Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter, 16(3), ed. R. Score and M. Lindstrom (Houston, TX: Johnson Space Center), p. 4.
5. T. Owen et al., 1977, “The Composition of the Atmosphere at the Surface of Mars,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 82, 4635.
6. R. O. Pepin, 1985, “Evidence of Martian Origins,” Nature, 317, 473.
7. T. L. Lapen et al., 2010, “A Younger Age for ALH84001 and Its Geochemical Link to Shergotite Sources in Mars,” Science, 328, 346.
8. D. S. McKay et al., 1996, “Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Science, 273, 924.
9. William Clinton, 1996, “President Clinton Statement Regarding Mars Meteorite Discovery,” August 7, http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/clinton.html
10. Louis Pasteur, 1864 (April 7), “On Spontaneous Generation,” speech to Sorbonne.
11. Johan August Strindberg, 1887, The Father, in Strindberg: Five Plays, 1983, trans. Harry G. Carlson (Berkeley: University of California Press).
12. B. Nagy, G. Claus, and D. J. Hennessy, 1962, “Organic Particles Embedded in Minerals in the Orgueil and Ivuna Carbonaceous Chondrites,” Nature, 4821, 1129
13. E. Anders et al., 1964, “Contaminated Meteorite,” Science, 146, 1157.
14. J. Martel et al., 2012, “Biomimetic Properties of Minerals and the Search for Life in the Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 40, 167.
15. Kathy Sawyer, 2006, The Rock from Mars (New York: Random House), p. 158.
16. D. S. McKay et al., 1996, “Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Science, 273, 924.
17. A. Knoll et al., 1999, Size Limits of Very Small Microorganisms: Proceedings of a Small Workshop (Washington, DC: National Academy Press). http://www.nap.edu/read/9638/chapter/1
18. John D. Young and Jan Martel, 2010, “The Rise and Fall of Nanobacteria,” Scientific American, 302, pp. 52–59 (January).
19. J. Martel et al., “Biomimetic Properties of Minerals,” p. 183.
20. Ibid., p. 169.
21. Ralph P. Harvey and Harry Y. McSween, Jr., 1996, “A Possible High-Temperature Origin for the Carbonates in the Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Nature, 382, 49.
22. Laurie A. Leshin et al., 1998, “Oxygen Isotopic Constraints on the Genesis of Carbonates from Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62, 3.
23. Edward R. D. Scott et al., 2005, “Petrological Evidence for Shock Melting of Carbonates in the Martian Meteorite ALH 84001,” Nature, 387, 377.
24. J. Martel et al., “Biomimetic Properties of Minerals,” p. 175.
25. Ibid., p. 171.
26. Ibid., p. 172.
27. Allan H. Treiman, “Traces of Ancient Life in Meteorite ALH 84001: An Outline of Status in 2003,” http://planetaryprotection.nasa.gov/summary/ALH 84001
28. J. Martel et al., “Biomimetic Properties of Minerals,” p. 187.
chapter 12. methane and mars
1. “Pluto’s Methane Snowcaps on the Edge of Darkness,” NASA press release, August 31, 2016, https://www.nasa.gov/feature/pluto-s-methane-snowcaps-on-the-edge-of-darkness
2. R. A. Rasmussen and M.A.K. Khalil, 1983, “Global Methane Production by Termites,” Nature, 301, 700.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016, “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2014,” EPA 430-R-16-002.
4. G. L. Villanueva et al., 2013, “A Sensitive Search For Organics (CH4, CH3OH, H2CO, C2H6, C2H2, C2H4), Hydroperoxyl (HO2), Nitrogen Compounds (N2), NH3, HCN) and Chlorine Species (HCl, CH3Cl) on Mars Using Ground-Based High-Resolution Infrared Spectroscopy,” Icarus, 223, 11.
5. S. K. Atreya, P. R. Mahaffy, and A.-S. Wong, 2007, “Methane and Related Trace Species on Mars: Origin, Loss, Implications for Life, and Habitability,” Planetary and Space Science, 55, 358.
6. Staff reporter, 1966, “Light Wave Study Revives Hope of Martian Life,” New York Times, October 18, p. 17.
7. I. S. Bengelsdorf, 1966, “New Analyses May Indicate Biological Activity on Mars,” Los Angeles Times, October 19, p. 3.
8. W. Sullivan, 1967, “New Readings on Life on Mars,” New York Times, February 12, p. 182.
9. J. Connes, P. Connes, and L. D. Kaplan, 1966, “Mars: New Absorption Bands in the Spectrum,” Science, 153, 739.
10. L. D. Kaplan, J. Connes, and P. Connes, 1969, “Carbon Monoxide in the Martian Atmosphere,” Astrophysical Journal, 157, L187.
11. W. Sullivan, 1969, “2 Gases Associated with Life Found on Mars Near Polar Cap,” New York Times, August 8, p. 1.
12. R. Dighton, 1969, “Mariner Hints Life on Mars,” Atlanta Constitution, August 8, p. 1A.
13. R. Abramson, 1969, “New Findings Dim Possibility of Mars Life,” Los Angeles Times, September 12, p. 3.
14. D. Horn et al., 1972, “The Composition of the Martian Atmosphere: Minor Constituents,” Icarus, 16, 543.
15. Rudy Abramson, 1969, “New Findings Dim Possibility of Mars Life,” Los Angeles Times, September 12, p. 3; Staff Reporter, 1969, “Unlikelihood of Life on Mars Is Confirmed by Further Study of Mariner 6 and 7 Data,” Wall Street Journal, September 12, p. 8.
16. John Noble Wilford, 1972, “Data on Mars Indicate It’s a Dynamic Planet; Mars Data Depict a Dynamic Planet That Water Helped Mold; Life Forms Hinted,” New York Times, June 15, p. 1.
17. William C. Maguire, 1977, “Martian Isotopic Ratios and Upper Limits for Possible Minor Constituents as Derived from Mariner 9 Infrared Spectrometer Data,” Icarus, 32, 85.
chapter 13. digging in the noise
1. V. A. Krasnopolsky, G. L. Bjoraker, M. J. Mumma, and D. E. Jennings, 1997, “High-Resolution Spectroscopy of Mars at 3.7 and 8 µm: A Sensitive Search for H2O2, H2CO, HCl, and CH4, and Detection of HDO,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 102, 6525.
2. E. Lellouch et al., 2000, “The 2.4-45 µm Spectrum of Mars Observed with the Infrared Space Observatory,” Planetary and Space Science, 48, 1393.
3. V. A. Krasnopolsky, J. P. Maillard, and T. C. Owen, 2004, “Detection of Methane in the Martian Atmosphere: Evidence for Life?” Geophysical Research Abstracts, 6, 06169.
4. Vladimir A. Krasnopolsky, Jean Pierre Maillard, and Tobias C. Owen, 2004, “Detection of Methane in the Martian Atmosphere: Evidence for Life?” Icarus, 172, 537.
5. “Mars Express Confirms Methane in the Martian Atmosphere,” ESA press release, March 30, 2004.
6. V. Formisano et al., 2004, “Detection of Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars,” Science, 306, 1758.
7. A. Geminale, V. Formisano, and M. Giuranna, 2008, “Methane in Martian Atmosphere: Average Spatial, Diurnal, and Seasonal Behaviour,” Planetary and Space Science, 56, 1194.
chapter 14. here today, gone tomorrow
1. M. J. Mumma et al., 2003, “A Sensitive Search for Methane on Mars,” Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 35, 937.
2. M. J. Mumma et al., 2004, “Detection and Mapping of Methane and Water on Mars,” Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 36, 1127.
3. CNN.com, 2004, “Mars Methane from Biology or Geology?,” March 30.
4. David A. Weintraub, 2011, How Old Is the Universe? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).
5. M. Peplow, 2004, “Martian Methane Hints at Oases of Life,” September 21, http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040920/full/news040920-5.html
6. M. J. Mumma et al., 2005, “Absolute Abundance of Methane and Water on Mars: Spatial Maps,” Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 37, 669.
7. D. J. Harland, 2005, Water and the Search for Life on Mars (Chichester, UK: Springer), p. 226.
8. M. J. Mumma et al., 2007, “Absolute Measurements of Methane on Mars: The Current Status,” Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 39, 471.
9. M. J. Mumma et al., 2009, “Strong Release of Methane on Mars in Northern Summer 2003,” Science, 323, 1041.
10. K. Chang, 2009, “Paper Details Sites on Mars with Plumes of Methane,” New York Times, January 16.
11. Mumma et al., “Strong Release of Methane on Mars.”
12. A. Geminale, V. Formisano, and G. Sindoni, 2011, “Mapping Methane in Martian Atmosphere with PFS-MEX Data,” Planetary and Space Science, 59, 137.
13. V. A. Krasnopolsky, 2007, “Long-term Spectroscopic Observations of Mars Using IRTF/CSHELL: Mapping of O2 Dayglow, CO, and Search for CH4,” Icarus, 190, 93–102.
14. V. A. Krasnopolsky, 2012, “Search for Methane and Upper Limits to Ethane and SO2 on Mars,” Icarus, 217, 144.
15. S. Fonti and G. A. Marzo, 2010, “Mapping the Methane on Mars,” Astronomy & Astrophysics, 512, A51.
16. S. Fonti et al., 2015, “Revisiting the Identification of Methane on Mars Using TES Data,” Astronomy & Astrophysics, 581, A136.
17. G. L. Villanueva et al. 2013, “A Sensitive Search for Organics.”
18. Ibid.
chapter 15. sniffing martian air with curiosity
1. http://www.robothalloffame.org/inductees/03inductees/mars.html
2. C. R. Webster et al., 2013, “Low Upper Limit to Methane Abundance on Mars,” Science, 342, 355.
3. Ibid.
4. C. R. Webster et al., 2015, “Mars Methane Detection and Variability at Gale Crater,” Science, 347, 415.
5. C. Sagan, 1998, Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium (New York: Ballantine), pp. 60 and 85.
6. K. Zahnle, R. S. Freedman, and D. C. Catlin, 2011, “Is There Methane on Mars?,” Icarus, 212, 493.
7. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/maven-observes-ups-and-downs-of-water-escape-from-mars
8. J. A. Holmes, S. R. Lewis, and M. R. Patel, 2015, “Analysing the Consistency of Martian Methane Observations by Investigation of Global Methane Transport,” Icarus, 257, 32.
9. J. Bontemps, 2015, “Mystery Methane on Mars: The Saga Continues,” Astrobiology Magazine, May 14, http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/mystery-methane-on-mars-the-saga-continues/
10. K. Zahnle, 2015, “Play It Again, SAM,” Science, 347, 370.
11. Ibid., p. 371.
12. C. Oze and M. Sharma, 2005, “Have Olivine, Will Gas: Serpentinization and Abiogenic Production of Methane on Mars,” Geophysical Research Letters, 32, L10203.
13. S. K. Atreya, P. R. Mahaffy, and A.-S. Wong, 2007, “Methane and Related Trace Species on Mars: Origin, Loss, Implications for Life, and Habitability,” Planetary and Space Science, 55, 358.
14. A. Bar-Nun and V. Dimitrov, 2006, “Methane on Mars: A Product of H2O Photolysis in the Presence of CO,” Icarus, 181, 320–322, and 2007, “‘Methane on Mars: A Product of H2O Photolysis in the Presence of CO’ Response to V. A. Krasnopolsky,” Icarus, 188, 543.
15. F. Keppler et al., 2012, “Ultraviolet-Radiation-Induced Methane Emissions from Meteorites and the Martian Atmosphere,” Nature, 486, 93.
16. B. K. Chastain and V. Chevrier, 2007, “Methane Clathrate Hydrates as a Potential Source for Martian Atmospheric Methane,” Planetary and Space Science, 55, 1246.
17. NASA press release, May 11, 2016, “Second Cycle of Martian Seasons Completing for Curiosity Rover,” https://mars.nasa.gov/news/second-cycle-of-martian-seasons-completing-for-curiosity-rover
chapter 16. chasing martians
1. Raymond E. Arvidson, 2016, “Aqueous History of Mars, as Inferred from Landed Mission Measurements of Rocks, Soils and Water Ice,” Journal of Geophysical Research Planets, 121, 1602.
2. www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html
4. Christopher P. McKay, 2007, “Hard Life for Microbes and Humans on the Red Planet,” AdAstra, 31.
5. Carl Sagan, 1980, Cosmos (New York: Random House), ch. 5.